Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 147

LESSON 24
WORD ORDER ITEMS

All of the answer choices for a Structure item involving word order contain more or less the same
words, but they are arranged in four different orders. The word order is "scrambled" in three choices;
one is correct. Most items consist of three or four words.
(A) XY Z
(B) YX Z
(C) ZYX
(D) X ZY

Word order problems are easy to identify because the answer choices are exactly-or almost
exactly-the same length, so the answer choices form a rectangle.
(A) so far away from
(B) away so far from
(C) from so far away
(D) away from so far
Many different types of structures are used in word order problems. One of the most common is a
phrase with a superlative adjective or adverb.
c":.) Word order items are the only Structure items in which the dis tractors can be ungrammatical. In
other Structure problems, distractors are always correct in some context. However, at least two of
the choices may be grammatical. The correct choice depends on the context of the sentence.
It sometimes is easy to eliminate distractors in word order items by making sure they "fit" the rest
of the sentence. If you are not sure which remaining answer is correct, use your "ear." Say the
sentence to yourself (silently) to see which sounds best. Sometimes in word order problems, the
answer that looks best doesn't always sound best. Don't, however, go just by the sound of the
answer choices; you must consider them as part of the whole sentence.
A special type of word order problem involves in"ersions~ This type of sentence uses question
word order even though the sentence is not a question. When are inversio~s used?
• When the negative words listed below are placed at the beginning of a clause for
emphasis
not only never
not until seldom
not once rarely
at no time scarcely
by no means no sooner
nowhere
Not once was he on time.
Seldom have I heard such beautiful music.
Not only did the company lose profits, but it also had to layoff workers.
• When the following expressions beginning with only occur at the beginning of a
sentence (with these expressions, the subject and verb in that clause are inverted)
only in (on, at, by, etc.) only recently
only once
Only in an emergency should you use this exit.
Only recently did she return from abroad.
Only by asking questions can you learn.
148 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

• When the following expressions beginning with only occur at the beginning of a
sentence (with these expressions the subject and verb of the second clause are
inverted)
only if only when
only because only after
only until
Only if you have a serious problem should you call Mr. Franklin at home.
Only when you are satisfied is the sale considered final.
• When clauses beginning with the word so + an adjective or participle occur at the
beginning of a sentence
So rare is this coin that it belongs in a museum.
So confusing was the map that we had to ask a police officer for directions.
• When clauses beginning with expressions of place or order occur at the start of a
sentence (in these cases, the subject and main verb are inverted since auxiliary
verbs are not used as they would be in most questions)
In front of the museum is a statue.
Off the coast of California lie the Channel Islands.
First came a police car; then came an ambulance.

... Sample Items

Andromeda is a galaxy containing millions of individual stars, but it is
_ _ _ _ _ _ Earth that it looks like a blurry patch of light.
(A) so far away from
(B) away so far from
CC) from so far away
CD) away from so far

Only choice CA) involves the correct word order for this sentence. Choices CB) and
CD) are incorrect word orders in any sentence. Choice (C) could be correct in certain
sentences, but is not correct in the context of this sentence.
Not only _ _ _ _ _ _ shade and beauty, but they also reduce carbon
dioxide.
(A) do trees provide
(B) trees provide
CC) provide trees
CD) trees do provide

Only choice (A) correctly uses question word order after not only. Choices (B) and
(C) do not use an auxiliary verb. which is required after not on~y. Choice CD) does
not follow the correct word order: auxiliary + adjective + main verb. ..
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 149

Exercise 24

Focus: Completing structure problems involving word order. (Note: All the items in this exercise
focus on word order problems.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentence,
and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1. Hills known as land islands, or salt domes, are _ _ _ _ _ _ Louisiana's marshlands.
~ (A) extremely interesting features of
_ _ _ (B) of extremely interesting features
___ (C) interesting extremely features of
___ (D) extremely interesting of features
2. of chamber music is the string quartet.
___ (A) The famous most form
___ (B) The most famous form
___ (C) The form most famous
___ (D) Most the form famous
3. Not until the seventeenth century _ _ _ _ _ _ to measure the speed of light.
___ (A) did anyone even attempt
___ (B) anyone did even attempt
___ (C) did anyone attempt even
___ (D) did even attempt anyone
4. Alfalfa is for livestock.
___ (A) a primarily grown crop
___ (B) grown primarily a crop
___ (C) a crop grown primarily
___ (D) a grown crop primarily
5. The Franklin stove, which became common in the 1790's, burned wood _ _ _ _ _ _ an open
fireplace.
___ (A) efficiently more than much
___ (B) much more efficiently than
_ _ _ (C) much more than efficiently
___ (D) more efficiently much than
6. Reinforced concrete is concrete that is strengthened by metal bars _ _ _ _ __
___ (A) in it that are embedded
___ (B) embedded that are in it
_ _ _ (C) are that it embedded in
___ (D) that are embedded in it
7. The type of clothing people wear tells others a lot about _ _ _ _ __
_ _ (A) who they are
_ _ (B) are they who
_ _ (C) they are who
_ _ (D) who are they

8. Most Southern states had set up primary school systems by the late eighteenth century, but only
in New England and open to all students.
___ (A) primary schools were free
___ (B) were primary schools free
_ _ _ (C) free were primary schools
___ (D) were free primary schools
150 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

9. Fungi. _ _ _ _ _ _ , do not produce chlorophyll.

___ (A) as such mushrooms
_ _ _ (B) mushrooms as such
_____ (C) such as mushrooms
___ (D) mushrooms such as

10. Seldom more than twenty minutes a night.

___ (A) sleep giraffes
_ _ _ (B) do giraffes sleep
_ _ _ (C) giraffes do sleep
___ (D) giraffes sleep

11. of the early years of space exploration was the discovery of the Van Allen radiation
belt in 19':;8.
___ (A) Perhaps the greatest triumph
___ (B) The triumph perhaps greatest
___ (C) The greatest perhaps triumph
___ (D) The triumph greatest perhaps
12. Today major new products \yithout conducting elaborate market research.
___ (A) corporations hardly introduce ever
___ (8) hardly tTer corporations introduce
___ (C) hardly ever introduce corporations
____ (D) corporations hardly ever introduce
1:). Across the Chesapeake Bay from the rest of the state _ _ _ _ _ _ , whose farms produce
beans, tomatoes. and other garden vegetables.
___ (A) there lies Maryland's Eastern Shore
___ (B) lies Maryland's Eastern Shore
___ (C) Maryland's Eastern Shore lies there
_ __ (D) Maryland's Eastern Shore lies
14. Acidophilus bacteria are _ _ _ _ _ _ in an acid medium.
___ (A) those that grow best
___ (8) those grow best that
___ (C) that those grow best
___ (D) grow best those that
I .:;. of great apes, the gibbon is the smallest.
___ (A) Four of the types
_ _ _ (B) The four of types
_ _ _ (C) Four types of the
_ _ _ (D) Of the f()Ur types

16. It is difficult through swamps because of tangled roots and shallow waterways.
___ (A) to navigate even for small boats
_ (B) for even small boats to navigate
___ (C) even small boats for to navigate
___ (D) even to navigate for small boats
P. A lodestone is ____
___ (A) an occurring naturally magnet
___ (B) a magnet naturally occurring
___ (C) naturally a magnet occurring
___ (D) a naturally occurring magnet
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 151

18. So complicated that consumers who use a product are seldom aware of where all
its components come from.
___ (A) today trade is international
___ (B) today international trade is
___ (C) is international trade today
___ (D) international trade is today
19. The snow bunting is winter birds in Canada.
___ (A) one most of the common
___ (B) the most common one of
___ (C) one of the most common
___ (D) the one of most common
20. Nashville has the capital of country music.
___ (A) as long been known
_ _ _ (B) been known long as
___ (C) long been known as
___ (D) long as been known
152 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

LESSON 25
ITEMS INVOLVING VERB PROBLEMS

The answer choices for this type of problem are all or almost all different forms of the same verb.
From the context of the sentence stem, you'll have to decide which form works best in the sentence.
Distractors are generally incorrect for one of these reasons:
• The "verb" is not really a verb.
Used alone, an infmitive, gerund, or participle cannot be a main verb.
• The verb is active but should be passive, or it is passive but should be active.
If the subject of the sentence performs the action, the verb must be in the active voice. If the
subject of the sentence receives the action, the verb must be in the passive.
The architect designed the building.
(active verb)
The building was designed by the architect.
(passive verb)
• The verb does not agree with its subject.
Singular subjects require singular verbs; plural subjects require plural verbs.
• The verb is not in the right tense.
According to the time words or ideas in the sentence, the appropriate tense must be used.
• An unnecessary element comes before the verb.
Personal pronouns (he, she, it), relative pronouns (who, which, that, and so on), or
conjunctions (and, but, and so on) may be used unnecessarily before verbs in some
sentences.

.... Sample Item

Before the late eighteenth century, most textiles _ _ _ _ _ _ at home.
(A) produced
(B) was produced
(C) producing
(D) were produced

Choice (D) is the best answer. (A) can be considered either an active verb in the past
tense or a past participle; both are incorrect. An active verb is incorrect because a
passive verb is needed; a past participle is incorrect because a past participle cannot
serve as a main verb. (B) is incorrect because the plural subject textiles requires a
plural verb, were. (C) is incorrect because, by itself, an -ing form can never be a
main verb. ...
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 153

Exercise 25

Focus: Completing structure problems involving verb forms. (Note: One or two items in this
exercises do not focus on finite verb forms. These items are marked in the answer key with asterisks.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentence,
and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1. R. M. Bartlett of Philadelphia _ _ _ _ _ _ the first private business college in the United
States in 1843.
_ _ (A) founding
~ (B) founded
_ _ (C) was founded
_ _ (D) founds
2. In 1989 the space probe Voyager 2 ______ by the planet Neptune.
_ _ (A) fly
_ _ (B) having flown
_ _ (C) flying
_ _ (D) flew
3. A cupful of stagnant water may _ _ _ _ _ _ millions of microorganisms.
___ (A) contains
___ (B) to contain
___ (C) contain
___ (D) containing
4. Computers and new methods of communication _ _ _ _ _ _ revolutionized the modern
office.
_ _ (A) have
___ (B) to have
_ _ (C) that have
_ _ (D) has
5. Sarah Knight _ _ _ _ _ _ a fascinating account of a journey she made from Boston to New
York in 1704.
___ (A) written
___ (B) write
___ (C) wrote
___ (D) writing
6. All animals _ _ _ _ _ _ on other animals or plants.
_ _ (A) feed
_ _ (B) feeds
_ _ (C) fed
_ _ (D) feeding
7. Chromium _ _ _ _ _ _ in the manufacture of stainless steel.
_ _ (A) using
___ (B) is used
_ _ (C) uses
___ (D) is using
154 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

8. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ______ the first air conditioning system for trains in
1931.
_ _ (A) has installed
_ _ (B) installed
___ (C) to have installed
_ _ (D) installing
9. Porous rocks such as chalk and sandstone allow water _ _ _ __ through them.
_ _ (A) soaks
_ _ (B) is soaked
_ _ (C) to soak
_ _ (D) can soak
10. By 1790, rice an important crop in the South.
_ _ (A) being
_ _ (B) has been
_ _ (C) was
_ _ (D) was being
11. Weavers are social birds that complex nests housing hundreds of families.
_ _ (A) build
_ _ (B) are built
_ _ (C) are building
_ _ (D) built
12. The American dancer Maria Tallchief first ______ prominent in Europe.
_ _ (A) to become
_ _ (B) become
_ _ (C) has become
_ _ (D) became
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 155

LESSON 26
)
INCOMPLETE OR MISSING INFINITIVE AND GERUND PHRASES i

An infinitive is a verbal form that consists of the word to and the simple form of the verb: to be, to
go, to give, to bUild. Infinitives are often followed by an object: to give directions, to build a
house. Together, an infinitive and its object form an infinitive phrase.
Infinitives can be used in a variety of ways. They may be the subjects or objects of verbs or used
after to be + adjective.
To read the directions is important. (infinitive as subject of a verb)
He forgot to read the directions. (infinitive as object of a verb)
It's important to read the directions. (infinitive after to be + adjective)
Infinitives can be used as adjective phrases after noun phrases. You will often see this in Structure
problems after noun phrases containing the word first.
John Glenn was the first American to orbit the Earth.
Infinitives can also be used to show purpose. In other words, they explain why an action takes place.
(The phrase in order + infinitive also shows purpose.) These infinitive phrases often come at the
beginning of a sentence, and are set off by commas.
To learn how to dance, he took lessons.
In order to learn how to dance, he took lessons.
You may see Structure items that focus on passive infInitives. A passive infinitive consists of the
word to + be + past participle.
Roberta was the first person to be asked to speak at the meeting.
A gerund is a verbal form that ends in -ing: being, going, giving, building. Like infinitives, gerunds
are often followed by objects: giving directions, building a house. Together, a gerund and its object
form a gerund phrase.
Gerunds are verbal nouns, and are used as other nouns are used. You will generally see gerunds
as subjects or objects of verbs or as objects of prepositions. (Note: Infmitives can also be subjects
and objects but never objects of prepositions.)
Playing cards is enjoyable. (gerund as subject of a verb)
He enjoys playing cards. (gerund as object of a verb)
He passes the time by playing cards. (gerund as object of a preposition)

... Sample Items

_ _ _ _ _ _ the eggs of most birds must be kept warm.
(A) Proper development
(B) By properly developing,
(C) They develop properly
(D) To develop properly,

The only one of these for phrases listed here that can show purpose is choice (D), an
infinitive. This expression means in order to develop properly.
156 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

In 1959 the political philosopher Hannah Arendt became the ftrst woman
______ a full professor at Princeton University.
(A) to appoint
(B) was appointed
(C) to be appointed
(D) an appointment as

After a noun phrase such as the first woman an inftnitive is used as an adjective
phrase. Because a passive form is needed (Hannah Arendt receives the action; she
doesn't perform the action), choice (A) is not the correct inftnitive form. Choice (C),
a passive inftnitive, is best.
The ear is the organ of hearing, but it also plays a role in _ _ _ _ __
balance.
(A) maintaining
(B) it maintains
(C) to maintain
(D) maintained

A gerund is used correctly after a preposition. Choices (B), (C), and (D) would not
be appropriate after a preposition. ...

Exercise 26

Focus: Completing structure problems involving inftnitive and gerund phrases. (Note: One or two of
the items in this exercise do not focus on inftnitives or gerunds. These items are marked in the
answer key with asterisks.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentence,
and then mark the appropriate blank. The ftrst one is done as an example.
1. for a career in dance generally begins at an early age.
_ _ (A) People train
_ _ (B) That people train
_ _ (C) Iftraining
~ (D) Training
2. A baby's ftrst teeth ______ are generally the lower incisors.
___ (A) appearance
_ _ (B) appear
~ (C) to appear
_ _ (D) in appearing
3. A climbing helmet ______ protection for a rock-climber's head from falling rocks and
other hazards.
___ (A) to provide
----'bL- (B) provides
_ _ (C) providing
_ _ (D) that provides
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 157

4. Power tools require careful handling _ _ _ _ _ _ injuries.

_ _ (A) by avoiding
_ _ (B) they avoid
_ _ _ (C) to avoid
___ (D) that avoid
5. An electromagnet is created _ _ _ _ _ _ electrical current through a coil of wire.
_ _ (A) by passing
_ _ (B) passes by
___ (C) to be passed
_ _ (D) passed
6. at home requires only three types of chemicals, several pieces of simple
equipment, and running water.
___ (A) For the development of film
_ _ (B) To develop film
___ (C) When film is developed
___ (D) In developing film
7. The purpose of cost accounting is _ _ _ _ _ _ involved in producing and selling a good
or service.
___ (A) as a determination of its costs
_ _ _ (B) the costs determined
_ _ _ (C) that determines the costs
___ (D) to determine the costs
8. was one of the most difficult tasks pioneers faced on their journeys west.
___ (A) Crossing rivers
___ (B) While crossing rivers
___ (C) Rivers being crossed
___ (D) By crossing rivers
9. Energy can be defined as the ability _ _ _ _ __
_ _ (A) do working
_ _ _ (B) to do work
_ _ (C) doing work
___ (D) work to be done
10. The process of by hand has changed little since the fifteenth century.
_ _ (A) to bind books
_ _ (B) binding books
___ (C) books are bound
_ _ (D) bound books
11. A crescent wrench has adjustable jaws for _ _ _ _ _ _ a nut, bolt, or pipe.
_ _ (A) to grip
_ _ (B) they grip
_ _ (C) gripping
_ _ (D) gripped
12. Compressed air is air brakes, pneumatic tools, and other machinery.
___ (A) used to powering
___ (B) to use powering
_ _ _ (C) used to power
_ _ _ (D) in use by powering
158 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

13. Some people believe that the crystals of certain minerals curative powers.
_ _ (A) have
_ _ (B) having
_ _ (C) that have
_ _ (D) to have
14. The narrow blades of speed skates allow speeds of up to 30 miles per hour.
___ (A) for skaters maintaining
___ (B) skaters to maintain
___ (C) skaters maintain
___ (D) maintenance by skaters
15. The first library in the Nebraska Territory was built in Fort Atkinson in 1870.
_ _ (A) to be established
_ _ (B) was established
_ _ (C) could establish
_ _ (D) to establish
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 159

LESSON 27
ITEMS INVOLVING PARALLEL STRUCTURES

In certain Structure items, the correct use of parallel structures is tested. Parallel structures have
the same grammatical form and function. Look at the following sentences:
She spends her leisure time hiking, camping, and fishing.
He changed the oil, checked the tire pressure, andfilled the tank with gas.
Nancy plans to either study medicine or major in biology.
Nancy plans to study either medicine or biology.
All of the structures in italics are parallel. In the first, three gerunds are parallel; in the second, three
main verbs; in the third, two simple forms; in the fourth, two nouns. Many other structures must be
parallel in certain sentences: adjectives, adverbs, infinitives, prepositional phrases, noun clauses,
and others.
The most common situation in which parallel structures are required is in a sequence (A, B,
and C) as in the first two sentences above. Parallel structures are also required with correlative
conjunctions such as either . .. or or not on(y ... but also. (Correlative conjunctions are presented
in Lesson 30.)

T Sample Item

San Francisco has a pleasant climate, _ _ _ _ _ _ and many fascinating

neighborhoods.
(A) exciting scenery,
(B) has exciting scenery
(C) that the scenery is exciting
(D) the scenery is exciting,

This sentence contains a series of three objects after the verb has: the first and third
are noun phrases (a pleasant climate and many fascinating neighborhoods). To be
parallel, the second object must also be a noun phrase. Therefore, choice (A) is the
correct answer; (B), (C), and (D) are not parallel. ...

Exercise 27

Focus: Completing structure problems involving parallelism. (Note: One or two items in the
exercise do not focus on items involving parallel structures. These items are marked in the answer
key with asterisks.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentence,
and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1. Insects provide many beneficial services, such as _ _ _ _ _ _ , breaking down deadwood, and
pollinating plants.
___ (A) they condition soils
_ _ _ (B) to condition soil
~ (C) conditioning the soil
___ (D) soil conditioned
160 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

2. Frozen orange juice must be packed, _ _ _ _ _ _ , and stored when the fruit is ripe.
_ _ (A) be frozen
_ _ _ (B) must be frozen
_ _ (C) frozen
___ (D) it must be frozen
3. Sioux is a North American Indian language that is spoken not only _ _ _ _ _ _ Sioux but also
by the Crow and Osage tribes.
_ _ (A) by the
_ _ (B) the
_ _ (C) do the
_ _ (D) and the
4. In 1900 electrically powered cars were more popular than gasoline powered cars because they
were quiet, operated smoothly, and _ _ _ _ __
_ _ (A) handled easily
_ _ (B) ease of handling
_ _ (C) handling easily
_ _ (D) easy to handle
5. Roger Williams was a clergyman, _ _ _ _ _ _ the colony of Rhode Island, and an outspoken
advocate of religious and political freedom.
_ _ (A) founded
_ _ (B) the founder of
___ (C) was the founder of
_ _ (D) he founded
6. Paint can be applied to a surface with rollers, _ _ _ _ _ _ , or spray guns.
_ _ (A) brushes
___ (B) brushes can be used
___ (C) with brushes
. _ _ (D) by brush
7. The use of labor-saving devices in homes, _ _ _ _ _ _ , and factories added to the amount of
leisure time people had.
___ (A) at an office
___ (B) used in offices
___ (C) offices
___ (D) in offices
8. A dulcimer can be played by either striking its strings with a hammer or _ _ _ _ __
___ (A) to pluck them with the fingers
___ (B) fingers are used to pluck them
___ (C) they are plucked with the fingers
_ _ (D) plucking them with the fingers
9. Throughout history, trade routes have increased contact between people, _ _ _ _ _ _ , and
greatly affected the growth of civilization.
___ (A) have resulted in an exchange of ideas
_ _ _ (B) an exchange of ideas has resulted
___ (C) resulted in an exchange of ideas
___ (D) reSUlting in an exchange of ideas
10. Walt Disney made many technical advances in the use of sound, color, and _ _ _ _ _ _ in
animated films.
_ _ (A) photographing
_ _ (B) using photography
~ (C) photography
_ _ (D) use of photographs
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 161

11. Artist Paul Kane traveled throughout Northwest Canada on foot, by canoe, and _ _ _ _ _ _ to
sketch Native Canadians going about their ordinary lives.
_ _ (A) on horseback
___ (B) riding a horse
_ _ (C) horseback
_ _ (D) by a horse
12. Barbara Jordan was the first woman in the South to win an election to the House of
Representatives, as Congresswoman from Texas from 1973 to 1979.
___ (A) to serve
_ _ (B) served
_ _ (C) serving
_ _ (D) has served
13. Photographers' choice of a camera depends on what kind of pictures they want to take, how
much control they want over exposure, and they want to spend.
___ (A) the amount of money
___ (B) what money
___ (C) how much money
___ (D) so much money that
14. Atlanta is the commercial, financial, and _ _ _ _ _ _ of Georgia.
___ (A) center of administration
___ (B) administrative center
___ (C) center for administering
___ (D) administering center
15. Even after the Revolutionary War, American importers obtained merchandise from Britain
because British merchants understood American tastes, offered attractive prices, and

___ (A) easy credit was provided

___ (B) because of easy credit
___ (C) easy credit
___ (D) provided easy credit
162 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

LESSON 28
ITEMS INVOLVING MISPLACED MODIFIERS

A misplaced modifier is a participial phrase or other modifier that comes before the subject, but
does not refer to the subject.
Look at this sentence:
*Driving down the road, a herd of sheep suddenly crossed the road in front of Liza's car.
(INCORRECn
This sentence is incorrect because it seems to say that a herd of sheep-rather than Liza-was
driving down the road. The participial phrase is misplaced. The sentence could be corrected as
shown:
As Liza was driving down the road, a herd of sheep suddenly crossed the ro~d in front of
her. (CORRECn
This sentence now correctly has Liza in the driver's seat instead of the sheep.
The following sentence structures are often misplaced:

present participle Walking along the beach, the Walking along the beach, the
ship was spotted by the men. men spotted the ship.
past participle Based on this study, the Based on this study, several
scientist could make several conclusions could be made by
conclusions. the scientist.
appositive A resort city in Arkansas, the A resort city in Arkansas, Hot
population of Hot Springs is Springs has a population of
about 35,000. about 35,000.
reduced adjective clause While peeling onions, his eyes While he was peeling onions,
began to water. his eyes began to water.
adjective phrases Warm and mild, everyone Everyone enjoys the warm,
enjoys the climate of the mild climate of the Virgin
Virgin Islands. Islands.
expressions with like Like most cities, parking is a Like most cities, San Francisco
or unlike problem in San Francisco. has a parking problem.

Structure items with misplaced modifiers are usually easy to spot. They generally consist of a
modifying element at the beginning of the sentence followed by a comma, with the rest or most of
the rest of the sentence missing. The answer choices tend to be long. To find the answer, you must
decide what subject the modifier correctly refers to.

T Sample Item
Using a device called a cloud chamber, _ _ _ _ __
(A) experimental proof for the atomic theory was found by Robert Millikin
(B) Robert Millikin's experimental proof for the atomic theory was found
(C) Robert Millikin found experimental proof for the atomic theory
(D) there was experimental proof found for the atomic theory by Robert
Millikin
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 163

Choice (A) and (B) are incorrect because the modifier (Using a device called a cloud
chamber . .. ) could not logically refer to the subjects (experimental proof and
Robert Millikin's experimental proof). (D) is incorrect because a modifier can never
properly refer to the introductory word there or it. ...

Exercise 28

Focus: Completing structure problems involving misplaced modifiers. (Note: all the items in this
exercise focus on misplaced modifiers.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentences,
and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1. Fearing economic hardship,
~ (A) many New Englanders emigrated to the Midwest in the 1820's
___ (B) emigration from New England to the Midwest took place in the 1820's
_ _ _ (C) it was in the 1820's that many New Englanders emigrated to the Midwest
___ (D) an emigration took place in the 1820's from New England to the Midwest
2. Rich and distinctive in flavor, _ _ _ _ __
___ (A) there is in the United States a very important nut crop, the pecan
___ (B) the most important nut crop in the United States, the pecan
___ (C) farmers in the United States raise pecans, a very important nut crop
_~ (D) pecans are the most important nut crop in the United States

3. Orbiting from 2.7 to 3.6 billion miles from the sun,

___ (A) the astronomer Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto in 1930
___ (B) Pluto was discovered by the astronomer Clyde Tombaugh in 1930
___ (C) it was in 1930 that the astronomer Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto
___ (D) the discovery of Pluto was made by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930
4. A popular instrument,
___ (A) only a limited role has been available to the accordion in classical music
___ (B) there is only a limited role for the accordion in classical music
___ (C) classical music provides only a limited role for the accordion
___ (D) the accordion has played only a limited role in classical music
5. Unlike most birds, _ _ _ _ __
___ (A) the heads and necks of vultures lack feathers
___ (B) feathers are not found on the heads and necks of vultures
___ (C) vultures do not have feathers on their heads and necks
___ (D) there are no feathers on vultures' heads and necks
6. Widely reproduced in magazines and books, _ _ __
___ (A) AnselAdams depicted the Western wilderness in his photographs
___ (B) the Western wilderness was depicted in the photographs of Ansel Adams
___ (C) Ansel Adams's photographs depicted the Western wilderness
___ (D) it was through his photographs that Ansel Adams depicted the Western wilderness
7. Smaller and flatter than an orange,
___ (A) a tangerine is easy to peel and its sections separate readily
___ (B) the peel of a tangerine is easily removed and its sections are readily separated
___ (C) it's easy to peel a tangerine and to separate its sections
___ (D) to peel a tangerine is easy, and its sections can be readily separated
164 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

8. Like the federal government,

___ (A) taxation provides most of the funds for state and local governments as well
_ _ _ (B) state and local governments obtain most of their funds through taxation
___ (C) through taxation is how state and local governments obtain most of their funds
___ (D) funds are provided from taxation for state and local governments
9. Originally settled by Polynesians around 700 A.D., _ _ _ _ __
___ (A) Hawaii received its first European visitor in 1778, when Captain James Cook landed
there
_ _ _ (B) Hawaii's first European visitor, Captain James Cook, landed there in 1778
___ (C) in 1778 the first European, Captain James Cook, visited Hawaii
_ _ _ CD) the first European to visit Hawaii was Captain James Cook, landing there in 1778

10. Unlike most modernist poets, based on ordinary speech.

___ (A) Robert Frost's poems were
___ (B) the works of Robert Frost were
___ (C) Robert Frost wrote poems that were
___ (D) the poetry written by Robert Frost was
11. Named for its founder, in Ithaca, New York.
___ (A) in 1865 Ezra Cornell established Cornell University
_ _ _ (B) Cornell University was established in 1865 by Ezra Cornell
___ (C) it was in 1865 that Cornell University was established by Ezra Cornell
___ (D) Ezra Cornell established Cornell University in 1865
12. While living in New Orleans, the Creole people of Louisiana.
___ (A) a book of folklore, Bayou Folk, was written by Kate Chopin about
_ _ _ (B) Bayou Folk, a book of folklore, was written by Kate Chopin about
_ _ _ (C) the subject of Kate Chopin's book Bayou Folk was the folklore of
___ (D) Kate Chopin wrote Bayou Folk, a book about the folklore of
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 165

LESSON 29
INCOMPLETE OR MISSING COMPARISONS

You may see sentences in the Structure section that contain comparisons. Many of these involve the
comparative forms of adjectives.
On the average, the Pacific Ocean is deeper than the Atlantic.
Rhonda is a more experienced performer than Theresa.
This show is less interesting than the one we watched last night.
Be sure that the sentence compares similar things or concepts.
·The ears ofAfrican elephants are bigger than Indian elephants. (INCORRECn
The ears ofAfrican elephants are bigger than those of of Indian elephants. (CORRECn
The first sentence above is incorrect because it compares two dissimilar things: an African elephant's
ears and an Indian elephant. In the second, the word those refers to ears, so the comparison is
between similar things.
Another type of comparison involves the phrase as . .. as.
The lab lasted as long as the class did.
There weren't as many people at the meeting as I had thought there would be.
The words like/alike and unlike/not alike can also be used to express comparison:
Like A, B .. . Unlike X, Y .. .
A, like B, .. . X,unlikeY, .. .
A is like B. X is unlikeY
A and B are alike. X and Yare not alike.
In these sentences, similar-looking words such as likely, likewise, dislike, and unlikely may appear
as distractors.
Other phrases can be used in making comparisons:
A is the same as B X is different from Y
A and B are the same X and Yare different
A is sin1ilar to B X differs from Y
A special kind of comparison is called a proportional statement. A proportional statement follows
this pattern: The more A ... the more B.
The higher the humidity, the more uncomfortable people feel.

.... Sample Items

Subtropical zones _ _ _ _ _ _ temperate zones, but they still have distinct
summer and winter seasons.
(A) that are warmer
(B) warmer
(C) are warmer as
(D) are warmer than
166 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

Choice (A) creates a relative clause, which is not appropriate in this sentence; also,
the choice lacks the word than. Choice (B) lacks both a verb and the word than.
(C) incorrectly uses as in place of than.
_ _ _ _ _ _ other mammals, whales do not have a sense of smell.
(A) Not alike
(B) Unlike
(C) Unlikely
(D) Dislike

Choice (A) is used only in the pattern "A and B are not alike." (C) and (D) are not used
in comparisons; unlikely is an adjective meaning "not probable"; dislike is a verb
meaning "not enjoy, not admire."
_ _ _ _ _ _ the diameter of a circle, the larger its circumference is.
(A) Greater than
(B) The greater
(C) Great as
(D) As great as

The correct pattern for a proportional statement is the more A ... the more B. Only
choice (B) follows this pattern. ...

Exercise 29

Focus: Completing structure problems involving comparisons. (Note: All the items in this exercise
focus on comparisons.)
Directions: Choose the option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentence, and
then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1. Sea bass freshwater bass.
~ (A) are larger than
_ _ _ (B) the larger the
___ (C) are as large
___ (D) are larger
2. Wild strawberries are _ _ _ _ _ _ as cultivated strawberries.
___ (A) not so sweet
_ _ _ (B) not as sweet
___ (C) less sweeter
___ (D) not as sweeter
3. Automobiles, airplanes, and buses use more energy per passenger _ _ _ _ __
___ (A) as do trains
___ (B) than trains do
___ (C) trains do
___ (D) like trains
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 167

4. The larger a drop of water, _ _ _ _ _ _. freezing temperature.

_ _ (A) the higher its
_ _ (B) its higher
_ _ (C) higher than its
___ (D) higher of its
5. San Diego and San Francisco, Los Angeles has no natural harbor.
_ _ _ (A) Dissimilar
_ _ (B) Unlike
_ _ (C) Dislike
___ (D) Different
6. The water of the Great Salt Lake is _ _ _ _ _ _ seawater.
_ _ (A) saltier than that of
___ (B) as salty as that of
_ _ (C) saltier than
_ _ (D) so salty as
7. A psychosis is a severe mental disorder, _ _ _ _ _ _ than a neurosis.
_ _ _ (A) the most serious
_ _ _ (B) as serious
_ _ _ (C) more serious than
___ (D) as though serious
8. The social system of bumblebees is not as complex _ _ _ _ __
_ _ (A) than honeybees
___ (B) as honeybees
_ _ _ (C) that honeybees are
___ (D) as that of honeybees
9. The administration of private colleges is nearly _ _ _ _ _ _ that of public colleges.
_ _ (A) same
_ _ (B) just as
_ _ _ (C) the same as
_ _ (D) similar
10. a river on land, an ocean current does not flow in a straight line.
__ (A) Alike
__ (B) Like
___ (C) Likewise
__ (D) Likely
11. The skin temperature of humans is _ _ _ _ _ _ their internal temperature.
_ _ (A) not high as
_ _ (B) not so high
_ _ (C) as low
_ _ (D) lower than
12. A butterfly a moth in a number of ways.
___ (A) is different from
_ _ (B) is different
___ (C) the difference is
_ _ (D) differing from
168 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

LESSON 30
MISSING CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are connecting words; they join parts of a sentence. In this lesson, we'll look at two
types of conjunctions.
Coordinate conjunctions are used to join equal sentence parts: single words, phrases, and
independent clauses. When two full clauses are joined, they are usually separated by a comma. The
coordinate conjunctions you will most often see in Structure problems are listed in the chart below:

and addition Hereford cows are brown and white.

He washed his car and cleaned out the
garage.
or choice, possibility This plant can be grown in a house or in
a garden.
Her action was very brave or very foolish.
but contrast, opposition He brought his wallet but forgot his
checkbook.
The book discussed some interesting ideas,
but it wasn't very well written.
nor negation He's never taken a class in sociology, nor
does he intend to.
so effect It was a bright day, so she put on her
sunglasses.
(The conjunction so is used to join only clauses-not single words or phrases.)

Conjunctive adverbs (moreover, therefore, however, nevertheless, and so on) are also used to join
clauses, but in Structure problems, these words are most often used as distractors-they seldom
appear as correct answers.
Correlative conjunctions are two-part conjunctions. Like coordinate conjunctions, they are
used to join clauses, phrases, and words.

both ... and addition Both wolves and coyotes are members of the
dog family.
not only ... addition Dominic studied not only mathematics but also
but also computer science.
either ... or choice, possibility We need either a nail or a screw to hang up this
picture.
neither ... negation Neither the television nor the stereo had been
nor (not A and not B) turned off.
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 169

..... Sample Items

The automobile began as a toy _ _ _ _ _ _ developed into a powerful

force for social change.
(A) it
(B) but
(C) when
(D) or

There is a contrast in this sentence; the role of the automobile as a toy in its early
days is contrasted with its later role as a force for social change. The only word
among the four choices that indicates contrast is choice (B), but.
Singer Marian Anderson trained _ _ _ _ _ _ in the United States and
abroad.
(A) not just
(B) and
. (C) both
(D) not only

The correct structure for this sentence is both . .. and. Choices (A), (B), and (D) do
not follow this pattern. (In choice (D), not only must be paired with but also to be
correct.) ...

Exercise 30

Focus: Completing structure problems involving conjunctions. (Note: One or two of the items in
this exercise do not focus on conjunctions. These items are marked in the answer key with asterisks.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentence,
and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1. Blindfish, which spend their whole lives in caves, have _ _ _ _ _ _ eyes nor body pigments.
_ _ (A) not any
~ (B) neither
_ _ (C) nor
_ _ _ (D) without

2. Specialty stores, unlike department stores, handle only one line of merchandise _ _ _ _ _ _ a
limited number of closely related lines.
_ _ (A) either
_ _ (B) but
_ _ (C) instead
_ _ (D) or

3. Thomas Eakins studied not only painting _ _ _ _ _ _ anatomy when he was training to
become an artist.
_ _ _ (A) moreover
_ _ (B) but also
_ _ (C) as well
_ _ (D) and
170 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

4. Although topology is the youngest branch of geometry, is considered the most

sophisticated.
_ _ (A) but it
___ (B) so it
_ _ (C) it
___ (D) however it
5. In 1923 Jean Toomer wrote a book titled Cane which combined fiction poetry to
describe the experience of being black in the United States.
_ _ (A) and
_ _ (B) to
_ _ (C) also
_ _ (D) or

6. Endive can be used _ _ _ _ _ _ as a salad green or as a cooking vegetable.

_ _ (A) such
_ _ (B) both
_ _ _ (C) either
___ (D) neither
7. Glucose does not have to be digested, _ _ _ _ _ _ it can be put directly into the bloodstream.
_ _ (A) so
_ _ (B) while
_ _ _ (C) and since
_ _ (D) nor
8. Natural
fiber comes from either animal _ _ _ _ _ _ plant sources.
__ (A) or
___ (B) otherwise
__ (C) and
_ _ (D) nor
9. Paint is used to protect wood.
_ _ _ (A) not only the substance
_ _ _ (B) the substance which is not only
_ _ _ (C) not only a substance which is
_ . _ (D) not the only substance
10. An acoustic engineer's purpose in designing a factory is to suppress sound, _ _ _ _ _ _ his or
her purpose in designing a concert hall is to transmit sound faithfully.
_ _ (A) or
_ _ (B) so
_ _ (C) but
.___ (D) which
11. Demographers believe most metropolitan areas will continue to grow in _ _ _ _ __
population and area in the future.
_ _ _ (A) moreover
_ _ (B) both
_ _ (C) together
___ (D) besides
12. Most crustaceans live in the sea, _ _ _ _ _ _ some live in fresh water and a few have ventured
onto land.
_ _ (A) both
_ _ (B) also
_ _ (C) but
_ _ (D)and
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 171

LESSON 31
MISSING NEGATIVE WORDS

The answer choices for this type of item are four negative expressions, such as the ones listed below:

no adjective not any There was no milk in the refrigerator.

none pronoun not one They took a lot of pictures, but almost
none of them turned out.
nothing pronoun not anything There was nothing in his briefcase.
no one pronoun not anyone No one arrived at the meeting on time.
nor conjunction and ... not He's never been fishing, nor does he
plan to go.
without preposition not having She likes her coffee without milk
or sugar.
never adverb at no time I've never been to Alaska.

The negative word not is used to make almost any kind of word or phrase negative: verbs,
prepositional phrases, infinitives, adjectives, and so on.
Both no and not can be used before nouns, depending on meaning.
There is no coffee in the pot. (It's empty.)
This is not coffee. (It's tea.)
The adjective no is also used before the word longer to mean "not anymore."
I no longer read the afternoon paper.

.... Sample Item

There is almost ______ vegetation in the Badlands, a barren region of

South Dakota.
(A) not
(B) nor
(C) none
(D) no

Choices (A), (B), and (C) cannot be used before nouns as adjectives. ...

By the way, probably the most common correct answer for this type of problem is the adjective no.
172 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

Exercise 31
Focus: Completing structure problems involving negative words. (Note: All the items in this
exercise focus on negative words.)
Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes the sentence,
and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1. Old Faithful is the most famous but _ _ _ _ _ _ the most powerful geyser in Yellowstone
National Park.
_ _ _ (A) none of
- - ( B ) no
_ _ (C) nothing
~(D)not

2. Early carpenters, having _ _ _ _ _ _ nails, had to use wooden pegs to secure their
constructions.
_ _ (A) no
_ _ (B) not
___ (C) without
_ _ (D) neither
3. Joseph Priestly, the discoverer of oxygen, had little _ _ _ _ _ _ interest in science until he
met Benjamin Franklin in Paris.
_ _ (A) and not
_ _ _ (B) or no
_ _ (C) but not
___ (D) nor any
4. Mobile homes were _ _ _ _ _ _ counted as permanent houses until the 1960 census.
_ _ (A) not
_ _ (B) nor
_ _ (C) no
_ _ (D) none
5. Most solo musicians play _ _ _ _ _ _ sheet music in front of them.
_ _ _ (A) without
_ _ _ (B) not having
_ _ (C) lacking
_ _ (D) and no
6. Desertification is the creation of deserts where _ _ _ _ _ _ had existed before.
_ _ _ (A) never
_ _ _ (B) no one
_ _ (C) none
___ (D) not one
7. Glass snakes are actually legless lizards, _ _ _ _ _ _ snakes.
_ _ (A) no
_ _ (B) not
_ _ (C) nor
___ (D) none
8. There is _ _ _ _ _ _ truth to the old expression "Lightning never strikes the same place
twice:'
_ _ (A) without
_ _ _ (B) none
_ _ (C) no
_ _ (D) not
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 173

9. single person can be said to have invented the automobile.

_ _ (A) There was not a
_ _ (B) Nora
___ (C) Not one of
_ _ (D) No

10. A serious study of physics is impossible _ _ _ _ _ _ some knowledge of mathematics.

_ _ _ (A) not with
_ _ (B) no
_ _ (C) not having
___ (D) without
11. two fingerprints have ever been found to be exactly the same.
_ _ _ (A) No
_ _ _ (B) Never
_ _ (C) Not
___ (D) None
12. One of the few stands of forest on the East Coast of the United States that has _ _ _ _ __
been harvested is Hutcheson Forest in New Jersey.
_ _ (A) no
_ _ (B) never
_ _ (C) none
_ _ (D) nothing
13. Customers could, until the 1960's, open small savings accounts at U.S. Post Offices, but that
service is offered.
_ _ (A) no longer
_ _ _ (B) not longer
_ _ (C) no long
_ _ _ (D) not along

14. the reptiles alive today is capable of flight.

_ _ (A) No
_ _ (B) None of
_ _ (C) Not one
_ _ (D)Not
174 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

MINI-TEST 5: STRUCTURE
Directions: The following sentences are incomplete. Beneath each of these sentences, there are
four words or phrases, marked (A), (B), (C), and (D). Choose the one word or phrase that best
completes the sentence.
1. , an organism must be able to adapt to changing factors in its environment.
_ _ (A) If survival
_ _ _ (B) For surviving
___ (C) To survive
___ (D) It survives
2. The art of landscape architecture is ______ that of architecture itself.
_ _ _ (A) almost as old as
_ _ (B) as almost old
___ (C) almost as old than
___ (D) old as almost
3. The Mummers' Parade has ______ every year in Philadelphia on New Year's Day since
1901.
_ _ (A) holding
_ _ (B) been holding
_ _ (C) held
_ _ (D) been held
4. Rarely more than ftfty miles from the coast.
___ (A) redwood trees grow
___ (B) redwood trees do grow
___ (C) grow redwood trees
___ (D) do redwood trees grow

5. Microorganisms live in extreme conditions of heat and cold where ______ other
organisms can survive.
_ _ (A) not
_ _ _ (B) never
_ _ (C) no
_ _ (D) none
6. The higher one rises in the atmosphere, ______ the temperature generally becomes.
_ _ (A) colder than
_ _ (B) the colder
___ (C) the colder as
___ (D) is colder
 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression 175

7. Medical researchers are constantly looking for ways to control, _ _ _ _ _ _ , and cure
diseases.
___ (A) prevention
_ _ (B) preventing
_ _ (C) prevent
_ _ _ (D) to prevent

8. Nerve cells, or neurons, in the human body.

___ (A) the most complex cells are
_ _ _ (B) are the most complex cells
___ (C) most complex the cells are
___ (D) most are the complex cells
9. Released in 1915,
___ (A) D. W Griffith made an epic fUm about the Civil War, Birth of a Nation
_ _ _ (B) the Civil War was the subject of D. W Griffith's epic ftlm, Birth of a Nation
___ (C) D. W Griffith's epic film Birth of a Nation was about the Civil War
___ (D) the subject of D. W Griffith's epic ftlm Birth of a Nation was the Civil War
10. on barren slopes can help prevent erosion.
___ (A) Planting trees
___ (B) For trees to be planted
___ (C) In order to plant trees
___ (D) Trees are planted
11. Vermont is the only state in New England an Atlantic coastline.
___ (A) without
_ _ (B) not with
_ _ (C) which not having
___ (D) doesn't have
12. In 1867, Hiram R. Revels the first black to be elected to the u.s. Senate.
___ (A) becoming
_ _ _ (B) became
___ (C) to have become
_ _ (D) has become
13. Jupiter's moons can be easily seen through _ _ _ _ _ _ binoculars or a small telescope .
........,--- (A) either
_ _ (B) if
_ _ (C) whether
_ _ (D)or
14. The Colorado beetle is a beautiful insect, _ _ _ _ _ _ it causes a great deal of damage to food
crops.
_ _ (A) but
_ _ (B) what
- - ( C ) or
_ _ (D) that
15. Judge Francis Hopkins is probably best known as a signer of the Declaration of Independence,
but he also excelled as a poet, , and an orator.
___ (A) as a musician
_ _ (B) by playing music
___ (C) a musician
_ _ _ (D) he played music