Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

CHAPTER I

STEAM: BASIC CONCEPTS

1.1 PHASE TRANSITION

Water steam is a thermal fluid that is widely used across the industry because of
these notable properties:

» High energetic content

» Easy to transport

The combination of these two properties allows for the distribution of large
amounts of energy from locations that are distant from the facilities, thus taking
advantage of the steam's internal pressure to pump the fluid.

Water can exist in three different states: solid, liquid, and gas or steam. The pro-
cess of moving from one state to another is called a phase transition, which is pro-
duced through the exchange of energy in the form of heat. When the change of
state occurs from a solid to a gas, the process requires energy, and when the
change occurs in the opposite direction, it releases energy.

Figure 1.1 shows the process of vaporizing water by adding heat where you can
see the three different stages.

1 atm 100 Kcal/Kg 1 atm 540 Kcal/Kg 1 atm

0 ºC 100 ºC 100 ºC

Boiling Water Saturated Steam

Water Sensible Heat Latent Heat

PROCESS OF VAPORIZING WATER

Figure 1.1

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

Stage 1: Consists of water in the form of a liquid at atmospheric pressure and zero
degrees Celsius; as heat is added the water will rise in temperature until it reaches
its boiling point, 100 degree Celsius. The amount of energy given in this process
is called the sensible heat (head added to the liquid without a change in state); this
amount depends on the pressure.

Stage 2: Heat added after the boiling point results in the vaporization of water, but
the temperature remains constant while vaporization is occurring, meaning that
water and steam are both present simultaneously. Energy absorbed in the forma-
tion of steam is known as latent heat; this amount depends on pressure.

Stage 3: UOnce all of the water has become vapor, any additional heat causes the
temperature to rise and the result is superheated steam.

Figure 1-2 shows the three stages of the vaporization process.

Temperature

Ts = Saturation Temperature
Ts

Evaporation Zone Superheated

Water Water + Steam Steam

Heat

Sensible Heat Latent Heat Overheating

Phase diagram water-steam

Figure 1.2
Note that the diagram of the water-steam phases is different for each pressure, the-
refore, representing this diagram for different pressure values on three-dimensional
coordinates would provide us an area that varies on three magnitudes (pressure,
temperature, and heat), where the latent heat and the saturation temperature change
according to the pressure.

As shown, the total energetic content of the steam is:

Total Heat = Sensible Heat + Latent Heat + Overheating

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STEAM: BASIC CONCEPTS

Figure 1-3 shows the steam saturation curve, which connects the boiling point of
water with pressure. This variation can also be seen in the saturated steam chart
included at the end of this chapter.

Temperature
ºC

170

120
100

Pressure (bar)
0 1 2 5 10
Steam saturation curve

Figure 1.3

1.2 TERMINOLOGY
The following are some frequently used terms related to steam:

Saturated steam or live steam: Water steam at the boiling or saturation tempera-
ture.

Dry saturated steam: Water steam at the boiling temperature without any particles
of water in the steam.

Superheated steam: Steam whose temperature is higher than the saturation point
that corresponds to a given pressure.

Condensation: The inverse process of vaporization, which is the change of steam

to water (condensate), releasing its latent heat during this process.

Manometric pressure: The pressure measurement that uses atmospheric pressure

as a reference level, as indicated by a pressure gauge.

Absolute pressure: Pressure measured from zero, thus absolute pressure is the
manometric pressure, plus one bar.

Working pressure or operating pressure: The manometric pressure of steam at

the inlet to the steam trap.

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STEAM: BASIC CONCEPTS

Backpressure: Pressure at the outlet of the steam trap, which is pressure in the
water return lines.

Differential pressure: The difference between operating pressure and backpres-

sure, meaning, the pressure before the steam trap minus the pressure after.

Calorie (Cal): The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of
water from 14.5 degrees Celsius to 15.5 degrees Celsius.

Kilocalorie (Kcal): The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one
Kilogram of water from 14.5 degrees Celsius to 15.5 degrees Celsius; equivalent to
1000 Cal.

Specific Heat: The amount of heat that is required to raise the temperature of one
mass unit of a substance one degree Celsius. It is expressed as Kcal/Kg°C.
The specific heat of water = 1 Kcal/Kg°C.

Specific Volume: The volume occupied by one mass unit of a substance. It is

expressed as m3/Kg. The specific volume of steam is very large in comparison
with that of water; for this reason, steam trap discharge is usually accompanied by
a cloud of flash steam even when the steam trap is properly functioning.

Revaporization: The processing of forming vapor as a result of a drop in pressure

or the expansion of condensate. The revaporized steam is also called expansion
steam or flash steam. Even though it is not generated by added heat, its energetic
content and all the rest of its properties correspond to the saturated steam at the
same pressure. Regarding steam traps, it is essential to differentiate between live
steam and flash steam.

1.3 FLASH STEAM

Temperature and pressure of saturated steam are related in that all pressures have
different saturation temperatures. This connection, as well as its energetic content
(enthalpy), specific volume, and other steam properties, can be checked by looking
at the saturated steam chart or the saturation curve of steam.

The saturated steam table shows sensible heat (heat of the boiling water) rising as
pressure rises, while latent heat (evaporation heat or heat lost during condensation)
becomes less as the pressure increases.

Graphically representing the total heat of steam broken down into sensible heat
and latent heat, (Figure 1-4) shows an easy explanation of the formation of expan-
sion steam:

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STEAM: BASIC CONCEPTS

Enthalpy
0
Superheated Steam Zone
5 1

Latent
Heat
Saturated steam zone
HL2 HL1

3 2

4 Condensate zone
HS1
Sensible
HS2 Heat

Pc Pv Pressure

Differential Pressure = Pv - Pc

H2 H1 H1 = H2

Steam Trap

ENTHAPY-PRESSURE DIAGRAM FOR WATER-STEAM

Figure 1.4

As a result, point 1 shows the energetic content of the steam at the entrance of the
equipment that consumes steam. The release of latent head is produced all along
the path from 1 to 2. Upon reaching point 2, all of the steam has condensed
without any theoretical variation of its temperature, reaching the steam trap in
order to be removed.

The steam trap causes an abrupt change in pressure from Pv to Pc, path 2 to 3,
while maintaining the steam's energetic content. Point 3 shows the state of the
steam when exiting the steam trap. Now, the saturation point of the condensate at
Pc pressure corresponds to point 4, whose energetic level is lower than the same at
point 3. Therefore, point 3 has a mixture of condensate and steam, so the path
from 3 to 4 represents the excess energy content in the condensate that is removed
by the steam trap which partially revaporizes in order to reach an energy balance.
Note that this excess energy originates from the expansion of condensate through
the steam trap since there is no external heat provided.

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STEAM: BASIC CONCEPTS

In summary, there is always a discharge of condensate and expansion steam when

a steam trap is working at the saturation temperature, in a way in that the energetic
content of the liquid phase (condensate) is precisely the sensible heat of the con-
densate at the pressure of the collector, while the rest of energy from point 4 to 3
in the diagram's evaporation zone corresponds to the presence of a certain amount
of expansion steam that is formed during this process.

The quantity of revaporized content that is formed by a unit of mass of the conden-
sate that is removed, is the quotient between the enthalpy of path 3-4 and the
enthalpy of path 5-4, which is the quotient of the steam's different enthalpies
before and after the purgadorsteam trap (h2-h4) divided by the latent heat of eva-
poration at the outlet pressure of the steam trap (h5-h4):

Revaporization per unit of mass = (h2-h4) / (h5-h4)

It is fundamental to understand the physical process of the formation of expansion

steam in order to assess the proper functioning of a steam trap, since it is not easy
to distinguish between live steam and expansion steam, which can lead to serious
diagnostic errors in steam traps, worsened by the increase in volume produced
during the formation of expansion steam.

Inlet Pressure 10 bar

Steam flow 1000Kg/h

Heat exchanger

Condensate flow 1000 Kg/h

Steam trap

Condensate flow 0.84 m3/h

Flash steam flow 276 m3/h

Atmospheric pressure

Flash steam 16 % (mass)

Figure 1.5

Figure 1-5 shows this aspect, demonstrating the condensate's large increase in
volume when revaporizing at the exit of the steam trap.

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STEAM: BASIC CONCEPTS

Note that even though the mass of condensate is much higher than that of flash
steam, the opposite observation can be made when comparing their volumes (276
m3/h of flash steam over 0.840 m3/h of condensate).

1.4 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LIVE STEAM AND FLASH STEAM

The only difference between live steam and expansion steam lies in the process
that created it, but once they become steam, both have the same chemical and
physical properties. This makes visual detection of live steam leaks difficult when
observing discharge from the steam traps. Diagnosis get more complicated in ins-
tallation with hundreds or thousands of steam traps, where the discharge from
some may locally alter the backpressure in the shared condensate collector; this
makes it very difficult to distinguish live steam from expansion steam.

Ambient temperature and relative humidity of the air greatly affect the aspect of
steam traps discharge; expansion steam is much more visible on cold and humid
days than on warm and sunny days.

With experience, it is sometimes possible to differentiate live steam and expansion

steam discharge with the naked eye,when there is a small amount of live steam.
When observing steam trap discharge, the revaporized steam is always accompa-
nied by some condensate, make for a more humid aspect than live steam. Revapo-
rized steam is a little opaque and humid, while live steam is transparent and it
discharges at a higher velocity and with more noise right at the exit of the steam
trap (see figure 1-6). A precise assessment can only be made with the help of
reliable detection equipment.

Water + Flash Steam Life Steam

DISCHARGE OF A STEAM TRAP INTO THE ATMOSPHERE

Figure 1.6

It is always important to reduce the amount of revaporized steam in draining sta-

tions, especially in large facilities where very large facilities or future expansions
may cause high local backpressure which keeps the system from functioning pro-
perly and affects its energetic output.

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STEAM: BASIC CONCEPTS

Current techniques for saving energy and reducing atmospheric emissions have
made it necessary in many processes to take partial advantage of the condensate's
sensible heat in order to lessen the formation of revaporized steam.

Figure 1-4 shows that in order to reduce the formation of expansion steam, it is
necessary to reduce the difference from point 3 to 4. This means lowering point 2,
whose position depends on the operating pressure of steam, which is not easily
modified since it is imposed by its own process, or by adjusting the temperature of
the trap, which is only possible in thermostatic steam traps. Note that in practice,
adjusting the steam trap´s discharge temperature requires that there is a functional
external adjustment mechanism; without this feature, adjusting the discharge tem-
perature would be a laborious, difficult, and generally impractical process.

The graph in figure 1-7 allows us to graphically calculate the amount of revapori-
zed steam by mass unit in the expansion of condensate through a steam trap.

35

32.5

30

27.5

25
Atmospheric discharge
Flash Steam (% mass)

22.5

20

17.5

15

12.5

10
ra
1b

7.5
50 b ar
ar
ar
bar

ar
r
bar
ba

5
ar

10 r

40 b
30 b

65 b
a
5b

8b

20
15

2.5

0
1 1.5 3 4 5 10 15 20 30 40 60 100
Condensate pressure before the trap (bar)

FLASH STEAM

Figure 1.7

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STEAM: BASIC CONCEPTS

Ambient temperature and relative humidity of the atmosphere greatly affect the
aspect of steam traps discharge. In very cold and humid winter days, expansion
steam in steam trap discharge is easily visible, giving the impression that there is a
large steam leak; on the other hand, hot and dry summer days greatly lessen the
appearance of expansion steam.

1.5 PROBLEMS CAUSED BY EXPANSION STEAM

The partial revaporization of the condensate in the discharge of the steam trap is
one of the sources for diverse types of serious problems, namely:

Operational Problems:

» Line cooling and a reduction in the efficiency of heating processes

» Appearance of thermal water hammering

» Difficulty in regulating processes of heat exchange

» Solidification of viscous products in process equipment and lines

Energetic and Environmental Problems:

» Increase in steam leaks

» Increase in CO2 emissions into the atmosphere

» Difficulty in recovering condensate and residual energy

» Increase in noise and humidity in the processing units

Inspection and Mainaintance Problems:

» Difficulty in inspecting steam traps

» Increase in erosion of the condensate return network

» Increase in internal wear and tear of the steam traps

» Breakage of elements and gaskets produced by water hammering

» Increase in corrosion due to a more humid environment

All of these problems are generally caused by the elevation of backpressure in the
water return collector, originated as a product of the enormous increase in specific
volume experienced by the condensate upon becoming partially revaporized in the
steam trap discharge (see figure 1-5).

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STEAM: BASIC CONCEPTS

Figure 1-8 shows a group of steam traps draining into a shared collector. If the dis-
charge temperature of one of these steam traps is not properly controlled, it will
create expansion steam in its discharge zone, which will put local pressure on the
condensate manifold. This effect will be transmitted to nearby steam traps that,
depending on the type of steam trap, will experience a large or small degree of
change in their performance.

Generation zone of flash steam Steam trap

Steam

Local increase of backpressure

Figure 1.8

Once the problem appears, it will most likely expand rapidly throughout the entire
condensate network unless it is effectively controlled. This problem occurs often
with mechanical and thermodynamic steam traps as they do not allow for the con-
trol of discharge temperature.

Thermodynamic steam traps functioning at low pressures require that the back-
pressure does not exceed 60% of the inlet pressure; this is why a rise in backpres-
sure immediately affects nearby steam traps that cannot work in these conditions
and therefore remain in an open position, allowing live steam to escape into the
collector. In other words, thermodynamic steam traps act as detonators of this pro-
blem, since they cause the issue and suffer the consequences which creates a
vicious circle that is difficult to correct and has serious consequences.

In order to eliminate this problem, bimetal bi-thermostatic steam traps are used,
with a balanced pressure valve and an external adjustment mechanism, which are
capable of supporting very high backpressure and allow for the individual adjus-
tment of the discharge temperature, without the need to interrupt normal operation.

The current commitment to efficiently utilize energy and reduce CO2 emissions
into the atmosphere has made it possible to apply technological solutions that have
allowed for the development of the current concept of a smart steam trap,
BiThermSmartWatchWeb, whose description and characteristics will be covered in
a later chapter.

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STEAM: BASIC CONCEPTS

1.5 SATURATED STEAM TABLE

The following page shows the saturated steam table with useful information for
calculations, such as specific volume, sensible enthalpy, total enthalpy, and latent
heat of vaporization. Note that the last column of the table, latent heat of vapori-
zation, is the difference between the steam's total enthalpy and water's total
enthalpy at the boiling temperature of that pressure, as shown in figure 1-4.

It is interesting to point out that while the enthalpy of boiling water continuously
grows as the pressure rises (see column 4 of the table), the same does not occur
with the total enthalpy of steam (column 5) which reaches it maximum value at a
pressure of 30 bars, then decreases when it passes the aforementioned pressure.

Latent heat of vaporization, which is primarily used in heat exchange processes,

continuously decreases as the pressure increases, which is why steam consumption
will be reduced if the operating pressure is kept low.

However, there is a minimum pressure as there is a need for the condensate to

reach a certain heating temperature in the process, which depends on steam pres-
sure (columns 1 and 2).

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STEAM: BASIC CONCEPTS

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

CHAPTER 2

CONDENSATE AND STEAM NETWORKS

2.1 BASIC CONCEPTS

In simple terms, a steam network is a semi-closed circuit that consists of four basic
components (figure 2.1):

» Steam Generators

» Steam Distribution Network

» Steam-Using Equipment

» Condensate Return Line

Línea de distribución

Consumidores de vapor

Purgadores

Tanque de
condensado

Colector de retorno
Bomba

ESQUEMA SIMPLIFICADO DE INSTALACIÓN DE VAPOR

Figura 2.1

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

In a steam system, there are two distinctly different energetic levels that are always
present; their boundary is established by the control elements known as steam
traps and steam energy traps.

The saturated steam table shows that the energy per unit of mass (total heat of the
steam) in the high energy zone is four or five time higher than that corresponding
to the low energy zone (sensible heat of the condensate). In steam-using equip-
ment, latent heat is released, producing the phase transition (steam condensation).

The transformation of energy in the system is produced in a continuous cycle

which is why the overall energy efficiency is much higher the less energy that is
recycled through it, taking maximum advantage of the steam's energy before sen-
ding it to the condensate zone.

From a functional point of view, it is also necessary to minimize the injection of

steam energy in the condensate zone in order to prevent serious problems from
appearing in the system (water hammer, high backpressure, cavitation in the boiler
supply pumps, etc.).

In addition, raising the energy efficiency of the steam system reduces the amount
of fuel needed to generate steam, which reduces CO2 emissions and therefore the
amount of air pollution.

As a result, it is essential to establish a physical barrier between the two energetic

levels in the steam system, keeping energy from passing from the high-energy
zone to the low energy zone.

Now, steam condenses when releasing energy and the condensate that is formed in
the area from the heat exchange must be removed in order to keep the heat
exchange area exposed to steam, thus, maintaining a high heat exchange rate since
the rate of the condensate's heat exchange is 100 times less than that of steam.

All of this leads to the need to remove the condensate that is produced in the steam
zone, or the high energy level zone, simultaneously preventing steam from moving
to the condensate zone, or the low energy level zone. This essential mission is
carried out by means of a wide variety of old mechanical devices known as steam
traps and more efficient elements as steam energy traps.

Note that even though these terms are often confused, this manual distinguishes
between steam traps and steam energy traps, since their application not only
affects the performance and functionality of the system but it also affects other
relevant aspects, including the system's energy efficiency, the emission of green-
house gases, and the maintenance of the steam system. Finally, the perfection of
the concept of the steam energy traps has lead to the development of modern inte-
lligent energy traps.

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

2.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STEAM TRAPS AND STEAM ENERGY

TRAPS
When referring to draining elements in steam systems, it is normal to use steam
traps. However, when referring to energy efficiency in steam networks it is more
appropriate to use steam energy traps.

There is a great difference between these two concepts.

The steam trap, or simply trap, is adrain component that is activated by changes
in the state of the fluid (water or steam), but it lacks the capacity to control the
residual energy of the condensate.

The steam energy trap is an automatic valve that is driven by the energetic level of
the fluid, and therefore has the ability to control the steam energy and residual
energy of the condensate.

The essential difference between a trap and an energy trap is precisely this energe-
tic control characteristic that is only found with the energy trap. This is why the
energy efficiency of the energy controller is higher than that of the trap.

Observe figure 2-1 in order to put this into context. The boiler (steam generator) is
connected to the steam-user equipment by two lines: the steam distribution line
(high energy level), and the condensate return line. Both zones are separated by a
barrier that comes in two different forms:

» Physical barrier of phase transition created by steam traps, which releases

condensate at the saturation temperature (highest residual energy), producing
the most amount of flash steam possible in its discharge. This raises backpres-
sure and it may cause strong thermal water hammer in the condensate return
line.

» Energy barrier generated by steam energy traps that efficiently regulates the
residual energy of the condensate, reducing the amount of flash steam in the
discharge; this also reduces backpressure and prevents thermal water hammer
in the condensate return line.

Now, it is interesting to see the saturation temperature column and the sensible
heat of the liquid column in the saturated steam table (section 1.5) as they are
almost identical for each pressure. This means that the steam energy traps must be
able to regulate the condensate's evacuation temperature in order to create the
energetic barrier.

Therefore, the concept of steam energy trap is always accompanied by the concept
of a thermostat.

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

In order to assess the differences that exist between the concepts of a trap and an
energy trap, we must analyze the processes that occur in each of them (Figure 2.2).

Entalpía

5 1

Calor
Latente
Zona de
Vapor saturado
HL2 HL1

3 2
Zona de
4 2A Condensado
HS1
Calor
HS2 Sensible

Pc Pv Presión

Pres. Dif. = Pv - Pc

H2 H1 H1 = H2

Purgador

REGULACIÓN TERMOSTÁTICA DEL PUNTO DE DESCARGA

Figura 2.2
» Discharge process in steam traps: Once the live steam has released its latent
heat (HL1), it condenses and reaches point 2 (physical barrier of the change
from steam to water). At this point, the trap opens and sends all of the residual
energy of the condensate to the return line, (point 3). At the Pc pressure in the
return line, a part of this residual energy (section 3 to 4) revaporizes a certain
amount of the evacuated condensate, producing destructive consequences.

» Discharge process in steam energy traps: The temperature control in the

opening of the steam energy trap allows us to adjust point 2 to position 2A,
which is more favorable for each process as it takes advantage of the residual
energy of the condensate, increasing energy efficiency and preventing the
previously mentioned unfavorable consequences.

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

Note that when there is an excess of residual energy discharged into the return line,
this excess energy is usually spread out along the same line or it is removed
through an atmospheric vent in the condensate tank. On the other hand, circulating
flash steam and condensate at high speeds produces erosion and damages piping,
elbows, and valves.

A simple calculation in a low pressure system demonstrates that using residual

energy (section 3 to 4) accounts for 8 % of the steam energy (section 1 to 2), mea-
ning that there is an 8 % savings in the consumption of steam, which also saves the
same amount of treated water consumed.

As a result, using energy controllers instead of steam traps in large steam networks
that have thousands of drain points (eg. refineries, petrochemical industry, …)
generates the following advantages:

» Increase in energy efficiency (8 %)

» 8 % reduction in the consumption of treated water

» Reduction in CO2 emissions (2.3% using fuel oil)

» Reduction of backpressure in the condensate return line

» Prevention of thermal water hammer

» Reduction in maintenance costs (less erosion on valves, energy controllers,

accessories, …)

2.3 CONDENSATE AND STEAM NETWORK COUPLING

A condensate network is coupled with the steam network when the pressure in the
condensate return line follows the steam system's variations; this phenomenon is
common in large facilities that have thousands of working steam traps.

Section 2.1 showed the need to establish a barrier between the high and low energy
zones (steam and condensate), which is created by steam traps and steam energy
traps.

This aspect offers a different definition of the term steam trap and steam energy
trap, as elements that are able to produce the largest load loss possible without
affecting the proper functioning of the steam and condensate systems.

To clarify this concept, understand that during start-up of the facility, the conden-
sate is very cold and the steam energy trap barely holds any fluid back, and as the
condensate gets hotter the steam energy trap begins to shut off (increasing the load
loss) until the live steam arrives and it closes entirely (100% load loss).

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

As for thermodynamic and inverted bucket steam traps, this process is not conti-
nuous but rather intermittent. Each time the steam trap opens the load loss is small
and it unfavorably increases the pressure in the condensate return line. The incre-
ase in backpressure and the trap's deterioration over time will increase the rate of
discharges, which will also reduce the load loss generated by the trap.

Network coupling is produced by an error or inefficiency of the elements (steam

traps and steam energy traps) that are meant to create the energy barrier between
the system's condensate and steam zones. In this circumstance, pressure in the
condensate return line increases as it tries to balances with that of the steam. This
reduces the differential pressure in steam traps and steam energy traps which cause
serious problems in the system's operations (lack of condensate evacuation capaci-
ties, strong thermal water hammer, high steam consumption, impossibility of reco-
vering condensate, etc.).

Obviously, the solution to this problem is to raise the load loss in steam traps and
steam energy traps until they reach the highest amount compatible with each appli-
cation. This is a conceptually simple solution; however it is practically impossible
when using steam traps. In the case of steam energy traps, on the other hand, this is
possible by simply changing the position of point 2 (Figure 2-2). This reduces the
condensate's discharge temperature, which reduces the formation of flash steam
and backpressure in the condensate return line, lowering network coupling.

Two important conclusions are gathered from this:

» Steam Traps contribute to network coupling

» Steam Energy Traps reduce network coupling

In practice, adjusting the discharge temperature is only functional if the steam

energy trap has an external adjustment mechanism. This way, we can dynamically
act on the energy trap as we directly and immediately verify the results in the pro-
cess and its effects over the condition of the network.

Note that this external adjustment mechanism is able to function while the steam
energy trap is in operation, as the contrary would not allow for dynamic action and
it would lose its purpose.

The external adjustment mechanism working in BiTherm traps (Bi-Thermostatic

steam energy traps) allows for other notable advantages such as the ability to make
repairs without needing replacement parts or having to stop the energy trap from
functioning.

All of this significantly reduces maintenance costs.

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

2.4 STEAM TRAPS OR STEAM ENERGY TRAPS?

Now that we see the differences of the concepts of steam traps and steam energy
traps, it is worth understanding the situations in which one concept should be used
over the other.

The diversity of the processes and applications that require steam, translates into
demands that are very flexible, and sometimes contradictory, which require diffe-
rent types of steam traps and steam energy traps in order to perform the best for
the needs of the specific service (in some cases, using both concepts can yield
acceptable results).

For example, for the proper functioning of a rotating cylinder dryer in a paper or
textile industry, it may be necessary to leak a small continuous amount of steam
while non-critical tracer applications require condensate discharge temperature to
be 40 degree below the steam's saturation temperature. Between both examples,
there is a large variety of applications where it is necessary to analyze the process
in order to decide which is the most appropriate element to use.

To clarify, the average temperature of the condensate that reaches the steam trap or
steam energy trap in all heat exchange processes is around 10 degrees Celsius less
than the steam's saturation temperature. This fact allows ussing thermostatic steam
traps without the risk of retaining condensate in the heat exchange equipment.
However, certain applications require lower condensate evacuation temperatures in
order to compensate for oversized heat exchangers, which greatly reduces the con-
sumption of steam.

However, the steam trap or the steam energy trap should not be thought of as an
isolated component, but rather as a piece that it integrated in the system which is
used to prevent negative effects caused by the various parts that are connected to
the system.

In effect, a steam facility can have applications that use superheated steam (turbi-
nes, cylinder dryers, etc.) and others that use saturated steam (heat exchangers,
tanks, tracing lines, etc.). Additionally, the steam used goes through a wide range
of pressure and temperature. Sometimes the condensate from various applications
is driven by the same return line. All of this produces strong interactions which
can create serious operational problems.

Using certain steam traps (thermodynamic, labyrinth, and inverted bucket) produ-
ces continuous or intermittent discharges of certain amounts of live steam with an
elevated energetic level (point 1, figure 2-2) in the condensate return line (the
energetic content of the live steam is situated above point 1 in superheated steam
applications); these discharges are accompanied by high temperature condensate
that produces additional flash steam in the condensate return line.

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

Therefore, indiscriminate use of steam traps leads to the existence of a mix of con-
densate, flash steam, and live steam in the condensate return line, whose varying
energetic levels cause serious operational and economic consequences.

On the contrary, the use of steam energy traps prevents the possibility of dischar-
ging live steam and it controls the condensate's evacuation temperature, limiting
the formation of flash steam in the return line.

In conclusion, all of the characteristics of each process should be analyzed in

detail, there must be energetic balance in all applications, the energetic level and
the required energy must be evaluated and compare to the supplied energy, and
finally, the optimum residual energy of the condensate must be determined.

All of this information is necessary for determining the position of point 2 (figure
2-2). The operational temperature of the steam energy trap will not only determine
the performance of the entire facility, but it will also determine its energy effi-
ciency and future maintenance costs.

Analyzing all of this information will provide the suitability for use of steam traps
or steam energy traps.

The condensate return line in large facilities (refineries, petrochemical plants, etc.)
is very sensitive to persistent problems caused by backpressure and thermal water
hammer. In order to avoid this without increasing the diameter of the return line,
steam energy traps must be used in place of steam traps so that the energy of the
condensate may be controlled.

As a general rule, steam energy traps should be used in all applications that require
precise energy control or a continuous control of residual energy from the conden-
sate, limiting the use of steam traps to applications where it is essential to guaran-
tee the total absence of condensate before the steam trap.

Finally, the steam energy trap may also be utilized, in unique ocasions, as a steam
trap when it is important to make sure that there is a small controlled live steam
leak, which would require the discharge temperature to be raise to the steam's satu-
ration point.

2.5 THE IDEAL STEAM ENERGY TRAP

From a practical point of view the steam energy trap has to be able to carry out the
following functions:

» Evacuate condensate without loss of steam

» Evacuate incondensable air and gas

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Now, from an operational stand point, the energy controller should posses additio-
nal services, such as:

» High reliability

» High energy efficiency

» Energetic control of condensate

» Easy maintenance, preferably without interrupting service

» Strength and versatility

» Auto detection of changes in its work condition

» High quality

Obviously in practice it is difficult to fulfill all of these conditions, thus, the real
steam energy trap has to get as close as possible to the ideal in order to fulfill those
previously listed characteristics that are essential for the particular service provi-
ded, sacrificing the less influential ones.

Over the decades, traps and energy traps have been slowly developing their mecha-
nics. On 1996, the addition of micro-electronics in the bithermostatic energy trap
has given birth to the patented BiTherm SmartWatchWeb or Smart Energy Trap, a
strong energy regulator that completely resolves all of the problems that come
from the size and complexity of facilities and the continuous rising of the price of
the energy. The Smart Energy Trap (chapter 5) can reduce between 8 % and 15 %
of steam consumption in facilities (chapter 9).

Historical outline:

Bitherm has pioneered the design and manufacture of smart energy traps. The first
smart traps (see www.bitherm.com SmartWatch steamwatch and International
Patent No. PCT / ES97 / 00181, US 6,338,283 B1, ES9601878, ES9700044, ...)
combines a bi-thermostatic trap with an electronic device with microprocessor
capable of monitor up to four independent parameters. Thus, the genuine smart
energy trap is able to evaluate the energy efficiency of the trap, identify any trou-
ble either in the trap or in the electronic system. The smart energy trap incorpora-
tes an external adjustment device which allows to solve any problem without
interruption of work, resulting in the most suitable to prevent and solve critical
problems in the facilities (backpressure, water hammer, energy savings, simplified
maintenance, reduction of CO2 emissions, prevention of pollution, etc.).

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

CHAPTER 3

STEAM TRAPS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
As mentioned in chapter 2, the steam trap is an automatic mechanical draining
element that does not have the ability to regulate the temperature of the condensate
discharge.

Its operation does not depend on the energycontent of condensate, but rather the
physical state of the fluid (liquid or steam). This mean, in the best case, the trap
opens in the presence of condensate, whatever its energy content may be, and it
closes when there is steam. In other situations, the trap closes only after having
lost a quantity of live steam (control steam).

Since the appearance of the orifice plate, the first steam trap in history, other trap
designs have been appearing with the purpose of improving performance.

3.2 CLASIFICACIÓN DE TRAMPAS DE VAPOR

A commonality in all steam traps is their sensitivity to phase transitions. However,
they are different in the way in which the phase transitions are detected. Taking
into account their work, steam traps can be classified in the following way:

STEAM TRAP TYPE

Phase transition sensitive

Sensitive to density Sensitive to velocity changes

Float Orifice plate
Open bucket Thermodynamic disc
Inverted bucket Variable orifice (Piston)

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Density sensitive steam traps are based on the buoyancy of a float, open or closed,
which moves a valve depending on the level of condensate on the inside of the
trap.

The group of stream traps that are sensitive to changes in the velocity of fluid is
based on the large difference between the specific volume of condensate and that
of steam. Steam passes through a hole at a much higher velocity than that of con-
densate; this fact means that there are differences in pressure which are used to
control the trap's opening and closing.

Taking into account the design of the steam trap valves, they can be classified in
the following way:

» Differential pressure valve

» Balanced pressure valve

» Pilot valve

The valve cone of the balanced pressure valve is submerged in a uniform pressure
field where the sum of the forces on the valve cone is null. Because of this, the
balanced pressure valve can work independently of the backpressure present in the
trap's discharge. This type of valve is ussually applicable with certain float traps.

The differential pressure valve uses the difference of the inlet and outlet pressure
to regulate the cone. This fact must be highly considered when sizing the steam
trap.

Pilot valve uses a small valve which acts on a larger or main valve. Pilot valve
traps are usually used to evacuate large volumes of water or under extreme diffe-
rential pressure situations.

3.3 CYCLICAL AND CONTINUOUS TRAPS

According to the way in which they function, traps can be classifieds as shown:

TYPE OF DISCHARGE

CYCLICA CONTINUOUS

Orifice plate
Thermodynamic disc Open bucket
Inverted bucket Buoy or Float
Variable orifice (Piston)

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Note that the production of condensation in industrial processes occurs conti-

nuously, without abrupt fluctuations, which means that there are more advantages
to continuous discharge systems than cyclical ones.

The evacuation capacity of continuous discharge traps automatically adjusts as

long as condensate is being produced. This creates a dynamic balance that prevents
sudden pressure oscillations in the condensate return line.

On the other hand, cyclical discharge traps must be oversized in order to compen-
sate in the active part of the cycle for the capacity lost in the passive part of the
cycle. Discharging intermittently provokes pressure and backpressure oscillations
that can affect other traps and produce strong water hammering.

In a cyclical system, it is normal to lose live steam before the trap closes. When it
opens, a cyclical system should quickly eliminate the condensate that has accumu-
lated; this causes a drop in the pressure before the element and a slight drop in
temperature. At the same time, the discharge produces a rise in backpressure,
reducing the pressure difference that acts on the trap.

In summary, the obvious advantages of the continuous discharge system over the
cyclical one are:

» Balance between production and condensate evacuation

» Smoother working installation

» Higher energy efficiency

» Improved control of the system's operation

» Improved control of steam leaks

» Lower network coupling

» Higher differential pressure in the system

3.4 ORIFICE PLATE

This may be considered the first steam
trap in history. It is very simple (figure
3-1), being just a metal plate with a
hole that is calibrated depending on the
volume of condensate to be evacuated.

Figure 3.1

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In reality, the orifice plate cannot be considered a true steam trap, since it does not
include a valve but rather a fixed orifice that results in a load loss, which increases
with the flow volume or the phase transition of the fluid (liquid - steam).

Live steam that passes through the orifice at a high speed produces a load loss that
partially stops the flow, and to a certain extent, reduces the large steam losses that
are possible if the equipment is not properly measured.

The advantages of this element are:

» Maximum simplicity

» Large pressure range

» Limited maintenance

Its disadvantages are clear:

» Very critical sizing

» Limited flexibility

» Large loss of live steam

» Increase in backpressure in the condensate return line

3.4 FLOAT TRAP

This was the first automatic drain element used in the industry; it uses a valve is
regulated by the water level (Figure 3-2).

Figure 3.2

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Its mechanics is made up of a long lever (L), joined at one of the ends, and a clo-
sed buoy or float on the other side, which provides the buoyancy (E). Somewhere
in the middle is the valve (V) with an area (S). The level of the liquid causes the
valve to open and close.

On one side, the cone valve is subject to the bouyancy force (E), transmitted by the
buoy, and on the other side, the differential service pressure. So therefore, in order
for the valve to work, there must always be enough bouyancy force reserved to
open the valve when it experiences the highest differential pressure for closing.
This can be explained as:

ExL>PxS

That is why it is always important to consider the area of the discharge orifice and
the maximum working differential pressure. In order to evacuate large amounts of
water, we would need an orifice with a large diameter with requires an increase in
the size of the float or the arm of the lever, thus, the size of the trap itself.

For evacuating incondensable gases it is common to use a thermostatic air vent in

the form of a capsule, bellows or bimetallic, or even a small manual air extractor
valve. The thermostat has to be bimetallic if it works with superheated steam.
Some substitute the automatic vent for a small internal by-pass hole that, inconve-
niently, releases live steam continuously.

It is necessary to consider the following aspects when sizing a float trap:

» Maximum differential pressure. This should not exceed the amount as indica-
ted by the manufacturer.

» Minimum differential pressure. It should evacuate the maximum working

load upon start-up and in a continuous cycle.

» Maximum working pressure. The maximum amount as indicated by the

manufacturer

» Type of air vent required.

These traps usually come equipped with an external lever that lifts the float and
opens the internal valve when necessary; however, it is important to note that this
lever is in no way an external adjustment mechanism of the water flow, but rather
an element that voids the float, making it an open by-pass.

A specific type of these traps is known as a free float. In this model, the float is not
rigidly connected to any element; but instead, it freely floats on the inside of the
trap. The valve seat is located in the lower part of the body and it is closed when
the float descends to its lowest point, closing the discharge orifice.

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The range of differential pressure of the free float trap is less than the conventional
float trap because the force of the float is not amplified by the lever's effect.

The advantages characteristic of floats traps are:

» They withstand variations in condensate load and differential pressure

» Continuous evacuation at the condensate's saturation temperature

» Easily discharge dirty and oily condensate

Its main disadvantages are:

» Traps are robust, heavy, and costly. High indirect steam loss

» Mounting position is fixed

» Lacks a filter and a check valve

» Sensitive to freezing and water hammers

» Does not allow for variations in its discharge temperature

3.5 INVERTED BUCKET TRAP

This trap uses the same physical principle of the float trap, but different from it,
the valve (V) is driven by a float that is in the shape of an inverted cylinder (C)
with a small orifice (D) at the top (figure 3-3).

V V

D
D C
C

Figure 3.3

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Figure 3-4 explains how the trap works:

V V V V

D D
D D

C C
C

1 2 3 4

Figura 3.4

1. The inverted bucket rests at the bottom and the valve (V) and remains open,
allowing condensate and incondensable gas to escape.

2. As steam reaches the trap, it starts displacing the condensate from the inside
of the inverted bucket, pushing it down; with this, the bucket's (C) hydro-
dynamic push progressively increases until it starts to float and closes the
valve.

3. The inverted bucket (C) has a small orifice (D) nearatits top that has an
important role in the trap's operation. When the trap releases heat into the
atmosphere, the steam held between the bucket (C) and the body of the trap
starts condensing as it is replaced by steam or incondensible gas retained in
the interior of the bucket; this allows for more condensate to enter the trap,
raising its level in the interior of the inverted bucket (C). The gradual filling
reduces buoyancy while the process continues.

4. The weight of the inverted bucket (C) overpowers its buoyancy and it drops,
returning to step one.

Therefore, the discharge of this type of trap is intermittent and it always requires a
hydraulic seal in the lower part so that the bucket acts as a floating device. If the
steam is superheated, or if the trap experiences a large decompression, the water
seal may be lost, resulting in a large leak of live steam. However, with low levels
of superheat, these circumstances can be avoided by installing a check valve at the
inlet of the trap.

The automatic deaeration in this kind of trap is slow due to the fact that the deaera-
ting orifice (D) is small in order to avoid more loss of live steam. As well as in
float traps, inverted bucket traps also rely heavily on the size of the valve's orifice

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(V) and determine the maximum working differential pressure for the trap. Conse-
quently, the indications listed in float traps should be taken into consideration
when sizing these types of elements.

The advantages characteristic of the inverted bucket trap are:

» Simplicity, with few cases of mechanical failure

» Highly resistant to water hammers

» Easily discharges dirty and oily condensate

» Low maintenance

Its main disadvantages are:

» Robust, heavy, and expensive. High indirect steam loss

» Mounting position is fixed

» Slow air venting

» Sensitive to freezing

» Does not allow for variations in its discharge temperature

» Expensive to repair, generally cannot be done while in use.

» Only allows the steam to get slightly superheated

3.6 THERMODYNAMIC DISK TRAP

This trap is notably mentionable since it has been the most used trap in the past,
and it is currently considered a true "trap" from the economic stand point due to its
low energy efficiency.

From an operational point of view, it is very bad to use thermo-dynamic disk traps
since their steam losses create high local backpressure in the return line, negatively
affecting the entire facility's operation.

Its design is very simple; it included a body (A), a cap (B), and a disk (C). (Figure
3-5)

The body has two concentric annular seats, an interior one (D) around the inlet ori-
fice (E) and the other on the exterior (F).

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Between the two anular seats, there is a semicircular canal that links the orifice (S)
with the trap's outlet. The cap has a protusion(H) in the middle that helps form a
control chamber between the disk and the cap when the disk is in the highest posi-
tion (open trap).

H F D
D F
C
B
A E
E S
S

Figure 3.5

Its operation is based on the Bernoulli principle. When the trap is closed, the disk
is in the lowest position, closing the two concentric seats, leaving the control
chamber closed. When the system is cold started, the trap discharges the conden-
sate formed in the pipes. Once the condensate is discharged, stream reaches the
trap; at this moment, when the steam goes from inlet (E) to the outlet (S), under
the disk, the high speed movement generates an increase in dynamic pressure of
the fluid current, which leads to the reduction in static pressure under the disk
(Figure 3-6A) since the sum of both, the total pressure, sure remain constant accor-
ding to the Bernouilli principle.

D C

(A) (B)

Figure 3.6

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At the same time, a small amount of steam fills the small control chamber that is
formed between the disk and the cap. The steam in the control chamber decelera-
tes, and according to the Bernouilli principle, this creates an increase in static pres-
sure. As a consequence of this, the disk violently descends against the trap seat,
closing it. In this position, the control chamber and the inlet and outlet holes are
closed off to one another by the disk (Figure 3.6B)

In this situation, the disk is being pushed by imbalanced pressure forces since its
sides are subject to the following:

a) The entire upper side of the disk faces the pressure of the control chamber
trying to close the trap.

b) On the bottom side of the disk, the pressure of steam and the condensate's
backpressure push against the parts that coincide with the orifices (E) and
(S), trying to open trap.

In this imbalanced pressure situation, the closing force prevails until the control
chamber pressure lowers enough do to the condensation of the steam retained
inside, caused by heat transmission in the air around the trap's cover. Therefore,
the disk will open again and repeat the cycle.

Is it important to note that the trap acts as a timer in that its discharge is cyclically
produced in the time that it take the retained steam to condense in the control
chamber, independently of the condensate's influx. This means than in cold areas
or on rainy days, the speed at which it opens increases dramatically and causes
large energy losses. This fact is easily proven by letting a few drops of water fall
on top of the trap's cover. Protective caps are installed in order to reduce energy
loss in humid climates.

Be advised that operation of this trap is sometimes mistakenly explained, affirming

that the closing is produce by flash steam inside the trap. This is incorrect since it
is live steam escape, not flash steam that generates this closing action when pas-
sing through the trap (see test published in Petrogas, September 1979, page 43.)

The advantages characteristic of the thermodynamic disk trap are:

» Large pressure range

» Robust design

» Not sensitive to freezing or water hammers

» Works with superheated steam

» Low price

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Its main disadvantages are:

» Low energy efficiency and a cyclical loss of steam, above all, in applications
with small volumes of condensate (line and tracing drains)

» Increased backpressure in condensate return lines

» Does not allow backpressure to be higher than 60% in low pressures (80% in
medium to high pressures)

» Very sensitive to adverse climate conditions (rain and wind increase the
steam loss)

» The disk and the seat deteriorate quickly from the violent closing of the trap
which increases the steam loss

» Low air venting capacity

» Subject to failures from buildup.

As it is shown, the disadvantages of the thermodynamic disk trap continuously

have an effect on its excessive energy consumption, since it has one of lowest
energy efficiencies.

3.7 THERMODYNAMIC PISTON TRAPS

The mechanism behind the thermodynamic impulse trap is made up of a cylindri-
cal piston (P), that has a center orifice (O) along its symmetry axis, connecting the
inlet to the outlet of the trap (Figure 3-7).

P
C
V

Figure 3.7

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The piston has a horizontal circular wing close to its upper part and it can move up
and down within the cylinder, which has a conic interior (C). The lower part of the
piston closes the outlet orifice of the main valve.

The condensate that reaches the trap then borders the upper circular wing of the
piston, and it passes through the center orifice. When the condensate passes
through the narrow area produced by the horizontal wing of the piston, it causes a
load loss and consequently reduces the pressure in the upper control chamber, on
top of the piston. This way, the pressure beneath the piston's circular wing beco-
mes higher than the pressure above the same wing, making the piston lift up, ope-
ning the main valve.

When steam reaches the trap, the piston's center orifice generates some resistance
due to the increase in steam flow speed with respect to the flow of condensate; this
causes the pressure in the upper control chamber to increase and the piston lowers,
blocking the passage around the main valve (V).

The section that is open between the piston and the guide cylinder varies with the
movement of the former as a result of the piston's conic shape, which acts as a
variable size nozzle. This gives the trap some flexibility when reacting to flow
volume variations, thus making it a regulating body since the open section of the
main valves depends on the piston's vertical position at every moment, and this
will depend on the condensate flow volume in the trap.

It is important to note that the trap must always be mounted vertically in order to
not interfere with the upward and downward motion of the piston.

In order to have more operational flexibility, the trap usually has an adjustment
screw on top which changes the position of the conic guide cylinder in order to
vary the volume, and with it, the pressure of the upper control chamber.

Evidently, the trap never blocks steam as a result of the piston's center orifice and
this steam leak (control steam) is precisely what makes the trap work. This fact
must be taken into consideration when inspecting this type of trap with ultrasound
equipment, since logically, the results will always detect an internal steam leak.

The advantages of this type of trap are:

» Small and robust construction

» Discharges air and incondensable gases

» Operates in a wide range of pressures and flow volumes

» Can be used with superheated steam

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The disadvantages of this type of trap are:

» Live steam losses and low energy efficiency

» Increased backpressure and water hammers in return lines

» Fast internal wear and tear from erosion

» Sensitive to backpressure. Does not allow backpressure to exceed 40% of the

working pressure.

» Prone to drain blockage from dirt buildup

3.8 THE CURRENT USE OF STEAM TRAPS

The use of steam traps has been declining over time due to the appearance of
steam energy traps with higher energy efficiency.

The need to reduce CO2 emission, a topic closely linked to increasing energy effi-
ciency, has permanently tipped the scale in favor of steam energy traps, setting
aside steam traps for use in minor applications where the requirements of the pro-
cess prefer this type of equipment.

In conclusion, the appearance of the modern smart energy traps has made an uns-
toppable path towards logical and intelligent energy use.

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

CHAPTER 4

ENERGY TRAPS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
As mentioned in chapter 2, an energy trapis a mechanic element that drains auto-
matically and has the ability to control the temperature of the condensate dis-
charge.

Its operation exclusively depends on the energy content of the condensate, and its
regulating elements do not use control steam in order to function with high energy
efficiency.

Contrary to what occurs with steam traps, the internal elements of the energy traps
do not usually come in direct contact with steam and the condensate's flow velo-
city through the valve is very low compared to that of a regular steam trap;
because of this, there is much less erosion, and as a consequence, energy traps last
much longer in comparison with steam traps.

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY TRAPS

The direct relationship between the energy content of saturated steam and the satu-
ration temperature leads to the use of thermostatic elements for controlling the
operation of the energy trap.

The most common types of thermostatic energy traps are:

TYPES OF THERMOSTATIC ENERGY TRAPS

Solid Expansion Liquid Expansion Bimetallic

Resin Capsule Classic Thermostat

Bellows Bithermostatic

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According to the valve design, energy traps can be placed into two categories:

» Differential Pressure Valve

» Balanced Pressure valve

Regarding the way they function, energy controllers can be classified as:

» Cyclical discharge

» Continuous discharge

4.3 AUTOMATIC AIR VENTING

An interesting characteristic that is common in all thermostatic energy traps is the
ability to automatically vent. As a result, the mixture of steam and air or inconden-
sable gas, like all mixtures of gas, follows Dalton's law. Because of this, the total
pressure of the mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of its components.

So, the steam's saturation temperature in the mixture corresponds to only the par-
tial pressure of the steam in it.

Therefore, a thermostatic energy trap that is subject to the action of the mixture of
steam and incondensable gases will sense a temperature that is lower than if all of
the fluid was steam.As a result, the energy trap will open itself and create an auto-
matic vent for incondensable gases.

As the proportion of steam in the mixture increases, its temperature rises and the
thermostat progressively moves the energy trap valve until it is shut, once all of
the incondensable gases have been completely evacuated.

In steam traps, automatic air venting is

achieved by adding an internal thermostat.
Figure 4.1 shows a float trap whose air
vent valve (V) is driven by the thermostat
(T). Occasionally, the thermostat is disre-
garded and an internal bypass is used as an
automaticair venting element; although, in
this case it should be called constant air
venting since it has continuous leak of live
steam in the absence of incondensable
gases.
Figure 4.1

In energy traps, the use of a thermostat to control the evacuation of condensate

simultaneously implies its automatic air venting characteristic.

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4.4 LIQUID EXPANSION THERMOSTATIC ENERGY TRAP

This energy trap includes a thermostat (T) constructed with a capsule or bellows
made of stainless steel, hastelloy, or another corrosion resistant material (Figure 4-
2), which drives the cone (C) of the valve (V).

C
T V

C
V

Figure 4.2

Generally, the interior of the capsule or bellows contains an azeotrope of water and
alcohol; this way, the saturation curve of the mix follows one that is parallel to that
of water but just a few degrees below, as a result of the proportion of alcohol in the
mix.

Its operation is very simple: when there is steam or condensate that has a tempera-
ture close to steam, the liquid inside of the thermostat (T) evaporates, causing it to
expand, pushing the cone (C) which closes the energy trap's valve (V).

In the presence of subcooled condensate (below the saturation temperature of the

fluid inside the thermostat), the liquid inside the thermostat condenses and as a
result shrinks /contracts the thermostat and opens the valve.

The advantages characteristic of liquid thermostatic energy traps are:

» Large evacuation capacity

» Quick and accurate response

» Works in any position

» Automatic air venting

» Not sensitive to dirt

» Resistant to freezing

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» Allows high backpressure

» Follows the saturation curve of steam

Its main disadvantages are:

» Fragility of the thermostatic element

» Low resistance to water hammers and superheated steam

» Costly maintenance (expensive and short-lasting spare parts)

4.5 CLASSIC BIMETALLIC THERMOSTATIC ENERGY TRAP

This type uses a thermostat with bimetallic plates (T) that react according to the
differences in the condensate's temperature, transmitting its movement to the cone
(O) of the energy trap's valve (V) (Figure 4-3).

V O

Figure 4.3
It is a very robust and versatile energy trap as it allows for the discharge tempera-
ture to be adjusted to the ideal amount for the service provided or in order to opti-
mize the steam network's energy efficiency.

Its operation is the following: when cold condensate reaches the energy trap, the
bimetallic plates move towards a flat position, allowing for the cone to move open,
which is pushed by the fluid's own pressure.

As the condensate rises in temperature, each pair bimetallic plates start to curve
and expand against one another expanding like a bellows, pushing the valve cone
close against the opposing force of the pressure. The position of the valve cone,
thus the opening of the valve, continually depends on the balance of opening (pres-
sure) and closing (thermal) forces.

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When the temperature reaches up to a few degrees below the corresponding satura-
tion point of the steam, the cone hermetically seals. The closing point depends on
the adjustment set on the thermostat, which can be modified by the user.

Note that the closing is produced on the outlet side of the energy trap, where flash
steam is formed and the velocity of the fluid flow is higher. Because of this, the
cone valve is subject to intense erosion which reduces the life of the energy trap.
Some manufacturers have designed a stepped nozzle, in attempt to distribute the
pressure jump that occurs between the inlet and outlet in stages, thus, reducing the
level of erosion.

In reality, the bimetallic plates are not a spring, although they act as one. Their
deformation is an intrinsic property of bimetal which takes a curved shape depen-
ding on the temperature. Bimetal's operation range is maintained at all times in the
elastic part of the material, far from the plastic part, in order to avoid permanent
deformations.

Each bimetallic plate is made of two alloy layers that have different thermal
expansion coefficients and high levels of Cr and Ni to prevent corrosion. There-
fore, bimetallic plates always last much longer than the rest of the parts of the
energy trap.

This type of energy trap uses a differential pressure valve and an annular chamber
on the outlet side where the condensate expands. This creates and additional ope-
ning pressure force which increases the pressure difference that initially pushed
against the cone valve. This reduces the bimetal's thermal hysteresis at the expense
of increasing the erosive actions of the mixture of condensate and flash steam on
the cone valve.

The advantages characteristic of the classic bimetallic energy trap are:

» High reliability, versatility, and energy efficiency

» Continuous discharge and high range of pressure

» Very robust and resistant to water hammers

» Not sensitive to corrosive condensate or freezing

» Automatic air venting and large cold-start capacity

» Works with superheated steam

» Operates in any position

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Its main disadvantages are:

» Sensitive to dirt

» Slow response to abrupt system or pressure changes

4.6 BIMETALLIC BI-THERMOSTATIC ENERGY TRAP

This is the most modern bimetallic energy trap and it is characterized by the incor-
poration of two opposing bimetallic thermostats and a balanced pressure valve.

A
C
Tc
O
Ta
V

Figure 4.4

As shown in figure 4.4, the internal energy trap regulator is composed of the follo-
wing parts: an upper thermostat made of various pairs of bimetallic plates (closing
thermostat Tc), a lower small single-plated thermostat (opening thermostat Ta), a
cylindrical cone valve (O), valve seat (V), and an external adjustment mechanism
(A).

This energy trap uses a connection (C) for the SmartWatch monitoring system,"Y"
filter (F), which has the option of being equipped with a drain and test valve, and a
removable top cover that allows for external adjustments while the energy trap is
in operation.

Note that the ascending vertical movement of the upper thermostat (Tc) is restric-
ted by the adjustment mechanism (A), therefore, when it expands it moves the
cone valve (O) downward vertically. The lower thermostatic plate (Ta), rectangular
with two opposing sides circularly shaped, is simply supported by the edge of the

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

circular sides in a way that, as shown in the figure, does not block fluid from
moving towards the upper thermostat, always keeping the thermostats submerged
in condensate to be discharged. When the lower thermostatic plate (Ta) expands, it
curves downward allowing the cone (O) to move down as well.

The following explains its operation:

With the arrival of cold condensate, the upper thermostat (Tc) contracts and the
lower thermostatic plate (Ta) is flat, keeping the valve (V) completely open, allo-
wing condensate to be freely evacuated.

As long as the condensate increases in temperature, the lower thermostat (Ta) cur-
ves itself downward allowing the cone (O) to lower, and the upper thermostat con-
tinues to expand, and therefore pushes the cone (O) downward. As a result, the
cone (O) moves closer to the orifice of the valve (V), constricting the condensate's
pathway.

When the temperature of the condensate reaches the amount as adjusted on the
energy trap, the cone (O) closes the valve (V) completely.

When the condensate's temperature lowers a little, the upper thermostat (Tc)
slightly contracts and partially releases the closing force; at the same time, the
lower thermostat (Ta) slightly reduces its curvature, lifting up the cone (O) and
opening the valve (V).

Taking into account that the influx of condensate is a continuous process, the small
temperature variations maintain a dynamic balance between both thermostats,
which adjust the energy trap's discharge,to thecondensate production capacity in
the line. So, the energy trap perfectly adapts to the conditions of the process of for-
ming condensate, preventing abrupt or intermittent discharges that would typically
cause water hammers in the condensate networks. Also when controlling the
energy trap's discharge temperature, the amount of flash steam produced is reduced
so, as thus the level of backpressure that is present in the return line, avoiding the
most serious and common cause of malfunctioning in condensate networks.

The dynamic balance point or point of operation mentioned is easily adjusted by

an external adjustment mechanism (A), without the need to stop the flow of steam
nor interrupt the operation of the energy trap.

Note that the cone valve as well as the thermostats are completely submerged in
the fluid, which means that the resulting pressure forces acting on themare null.
That is to say, the valve is a balanced pressure valve, therefore, the energy trap's
capacity to operate and regulate is not affected by variations in the differential
pressure nor backpressure. In addition, its internal elements are subject to much
weaker mechanical stress than in the classic bimetallic energy trap.

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The lower thermostat plays a very important role during the cold-start of the
energy trap; in fact, the cone valve can shut against excessive increases in the tem-
perature of condensate in the transitory systembecause of the thermal inertia of the
thermostats. Once the valve (V) shuts, pressure forces act upon the cone which
keep it from opening, but when the temperature of the energy trap drops slightly
due to the transmission of heat with the exterior, the lower thermostat (Ta) enters
into action and lifts the cone (O) from the valve (V), reestablishing the balance of
forces in the cone valve as well as the operation of the energy trap. This quick
situation only occurs in cold starts during the transitional system.

The bi-thermostatic energy trap includes four elements that make them not sensi-
tive to dirt:

» "Y" Filter, with the option of including a cleaning and test valve

» Full bore valve that prevents any obstruction

» 1 mm spacers between the pairs of bimetallic plates in order to eliminate the

tightening of the bimetallic packet from particle buildup between plates

» External adjustment mechanism that allows for an occasional internal blow

with the energy trap's steam, without interrupting its service

All aspects considered, the bi-thermostatic energy trap brings enough characteris-
tics together in order to be currently considered one of the most robust, versatile,
efficient, reliable, and low maintenance cost energy traps.

The advantages characteristic of the bimetallic bi-thermostatic energy trap are:

» Highly reliable, versatile, and energy efficient

» External adjustment mechanism, very low maintenance costs

» Continuous discharge and a wide range of pressure

» Very robust, durable, and resistant to water hammers

» Not sensitive to dirty or corrosive condensates

» Not sensitive to freezing

» Automatic air-venting and a large cold-start capacity

» Supports extremely superheated steam and very high backpressure

» Operates in any position (cone valve is guided by two separate points)

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Its main disadvantages are:

» Produces a slight delay when there are abrupt system or pressure changes
(this is not an important issue since the working conditions do not experience
sudden variations in the grand majority of applications)

4.7 CLASSIC BIMETALLIC vs. BIMETALLIC BI-THERMOSTATIC

Although both types of energy traps have already been described in sections 4.5
and 4.6, given that the differences between the two have serious repercussions on
operational, energy, and maintenance areas, the most relevant differences are
analyzed below:

The first significant difference is found in the type of valve:

The classic bimetallic energy trap uses a differential pressure valve while the
bimetallic bi-thermostatic incorporates a balanced pressure valve (Figure 4-5).

P1 P1

E
P2

P3 P3
Differential pressure valve Pressure−balanced valve

Figure 4.5

In the figure on the left, it shows that the cone closes the valve on its lower sur-
face, or the outlet side; as well, the cone valve is subjected to different pressure
forces (P1, P2, and P3), depending on the zone considered; the variable pressure
forces (P2) are generated by the condensate in the annular expansion chamber (E)
over the cone valve and its magnitude depends on the degree of expansion. The
resulting opening forces or differential pressure on the cone valve is P1 + P2 - P3;
this differential pressure limits the energy trap´s range of operation.

Due to the increase in the volume of flash steam, the mixture of condensate and
flash steam in the annular chamber (E) flows at a high velocity, subjecting the cone
valve to intense erosion.

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On the other hand, in the balanced pressure valve (figure on the right), the cone
closes the valve on its upper surface, the inlet side. In addition, it is completely
subject to a uniform pressure (P1), in an area where there is no flash steam, and
thus, where the fluid's velocity is low and the erosive action of the condensate on
the cone is minimal. Consequently, the lifespan of the bi-thermostatic energy trap
is around three times longer than that of the classic bimetallic energy trap.

Because the resulting forces of pressure on the cone are null, the bi-thermostatic
energy trap allows for super elevated backpressure.

Different from the cone of the classic bimetallic energy trap, the cone of the bi-
thermostatic energy trap does not include a threaded area, keeping the cone from
being fragile or even breaking.

External adjusting mechanism

Cone valve guided at both ends

Cone valve guided at one end
C Threaded zone
V

Classical bimetallic energy trap Bi−thermostatic energy trap

Figure 4.6

In the classic bimetallic energy trap, the thermostat exerts a closing force against
the cone which is being pushed at all times by the opposing pressure forces that
open the valve.

In the bi-thermostatic energy trap, none of its thermostats are found subject to
pressure forces. This gives this energy trap a much larger working pressure range
and a much longer lifespan.

There are balanced pressure energy traps where the lower thermostat (Ta) is substi-
tuted for a spring. However, different from this one, which provides a force that is
proportional to the deformation, the advantage of the bimetallic thermostat is that
it provides a force that is proportional to temperature for the entire range of opera-
tion.

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Figure 4-6 shows differences in guiding. The cone is guided by only one side in
the classic bimetallic energy trap, while the bi-thermostatic one is guided by both.
This means that although both energy traps can work in any position, the classic
design of the cone remains subject to asymmetrical wear and tear when it is insta-
lled horizontally.

Repair of the bi-thermostatic energy trap typically consists of a simple external

adjustment in order to compensate for possible erosion on the valve cone. Howe-
ver, unlike the classic bimetallic energy trap whose repair requires the replacement
of the entire bimetallic regulator, if necessary, the bi-thermostatic energy trap
allows for the replacement of any of its internal pieces since they are all indepen-
dent (Figure 4-6) and they can be replaced separately, greatly reducing mainte-
nance costs.

The mere inspection of the state of wear and tear in the valve is impossible in a
classic bimetallic energy trap without disassembling the regulator itself. On the
other hand, the bi-thermostatic energy trap has easy access to all of its parts once
the cover is removed, without the need to use tools or remove the regulator adjus-
tment as it remains in the adjustment screw that is secured to the cover.

Finally, as it is logical, the direction of the flow in an energy trap is indicated on its
own body and it should not be inverted as the energy trap would become blocked.
But if this occurs unintentionally, the bi-thermostatic energy trap is so reliable that
it will continue to function in this situation, though the closing action of the valve
would be produced in the outlet side like in the classic bimetallic energy trap
except that the thermostat would now be located on the outlet side.

4.8 TRAP VALVE STATION

The trap valve station is an element that is widely used in new projects for its redu-
ced size, low cost, and easy mounting.

Generally, a TVS (Figure 4-7) is made up of a combination of all of the elements

that form a classic drain station, including:

» Inlet and outlet isolation valves

» Drain Valve

» Test Valve

» Universal connection

» Energy trap (or steam trap) with universal connector

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Bitherm trap valve stations incorporate additional elements that introduce signifi-
cant improvements to their performance, such as:

» SmartWatch monitoring device connection

» "T" filter

» Inlet pressure connection

» Outlet pressure connection

» External adjustment mechanism

Energy trap BiTherm T25

Adjustment device Conection for

Test valve pressure sensor
Drain valve Outlet

Inlet Filter and connection

for pressure sensor
Conection for
SmartWatch
Shutoff valves

Trap Valve Station (TVS) BiTherm Trap Valve Station (TVS−T25)

Figure 4.7

The isolation valves in the BiTherm Trap Valve Stations use piston valves, giving
them two clear advantages over needle valves:

» Minimizes sensitivity to solid particles

» Piston slipping, without rotating, keeping the dirt from depositing between
the packing rings and damaging the seal's surface, guaranteeing a long life
without leaks

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

CHAPTER 5

INTELLIGENT ENERGY TRAPS AND VALVES

5.1 INTELLIGENT ENERGY TRAP
The genuine Intelligent Energy Trap, known as SmartWatchWeb TM (in short
SWW), was internationally patented by BiTherm on 1996. SWW basically con-
sists of three main elements (figure 5.1):

a) Bi-Thermostatic Energy Trap with external adjustment mechanism

b) Non-invasive Electronic Monitor Device (SWW)controlled by microprocessor

c) Graphical User Interface (GUI)

SmartWatch device
External adjustment mechanism

Upper
bimetallic
thermostat

Balanced
pressure
valve External mounting
( Noninvasive )
Independents
cone and seat

Lower
bimetallic
thermostat

“Y” Strainer

Filter cleaning valve

Figure 5.1

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

Experience shows that correct setting of a Bi-thermostatic Energy Trap (point 2 in

Figure 2-2) is essential for reducing steam consumption and eliminates operational
problems in steam networks. Well, the monitoring system includes two sensors
(ultrasoundand temperature) that noninvasively maintain continuous surveillance
of the working point of the Energy Trap, identifying the emergence of internal or
externalsteam leakage, obstruction or blockage, inappropriate temperature or low
energy efficiency.

Additionally the monitoring system has two auxiliary channels for pressure probes,
which properly positioned in some Energy Traps (conveniently distributed throug-
hout the facility), allows knowing a map of pressure and/or backpressure, in order
to prevent the occurrence of problems operating along the steam/condensate net-
work. This is essential to prevent operative problems as well as to increase reco-
very of residual energy and condensate recovery rate.

Although the monitoring system can be applied on any type of steam trap its maxi-
mum potential is obtained when applied on bi-thermostatic energy trap because
any incident detected by the system can be corrected immediately by mean of its
external adjustment mechanism, neither interrupting its service nor costly repair.

5.2 INTELIGENT TRAP VALVE STATION (ITVS)

Just as the trap, Trap Valve Station (TVS) can become intelligent by simply adding
the SmartWatchWebTM monitoring system

Ultrasound and Temperature Sensors

SmartWatch Device
Backpressure Sensor

External Adjustment
Mechanism Isolation Valve

Inlet Connection
Pressure Sensor

BiTherm Intelligente Trap Valve Station (ITVS)

Figure 5.2

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

As shown in Figure 5.2, Intelligent Trap Valve Station (BiTherm ITVS) has all
necessary connections to monitor the four parameters controlled by the Smart-
WatchWebTM system (ultrasound, temperature, pressure and backpressure); thus it
is possible to monitor the steam/condensate network without the need for subse-
quent connections into pipes.

It is interesting to note that it is not necessary install a pressure sensor per steam
trap to get reliable map of back pressure along the whole condensate network, but
installing only a few pressure sensors conveniently distributed along the network is
enough to get that goal.

Although the possibility of monitoring is not addressed in new projects, the use of
monitorable BITHERM Trap Valve Stations brings great value to the project since
it allows this future option, reducing installation costs.

5.3 DESCRIPTION AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE SWW SYSTEM

SmartWatchWebTM is a digital monitoring system based on microprocessor. Their
devices are organized in a hierarchical structure, which exchange information bidi-
rectionally via a field data bus. These electronic devices are divided into three
basic levels:

» At the lowest level of the system there are the field devices that incorporate
or are connected to the corresponding sensors.

» The second level consists of control units or concentrators that collect infor-
mation from the field devices and transmit it to the next level.

» The third level is the control center where all information is managed.

Depending on the physical media used the system supports two possible options:

» Wired data bus RS-485 (Figure 5.3)

» Wireless network (Figure 5.4)

The wired data bus can cover a distance of 1200 meters (limitation imposed by the
RS-485 specification, which can be expanded conveniently by placing control
units or installing signal amplifiers) and supports up to 125 field devices, four
channels per device , i.e.up to 500 sensors. The range of the wireless network
depends on factors such as location of antennas, power emitted by antennas,
absorption of radiated power by nearest elements to antennas (ground, concrete
pillars, etc.) so it is advisable to conduct a radiofrequency survey on site before
deploying a wireless network in order to detect potential problems and to locate
radio transmitters conveniently.

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

Control Unit

SWW Device

Up to 125 SWW devices per loop

Control Center

Up to 250 loops

Windows PC platform with wired data bus RS−485

Figure 5.3

SWW RF
Wireless
Device

Gateway

Control Center

SmartWatch wireless network)

Figure 5.4

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

Bidirectional communication between system elements is half duplex type and is

performed by mean of standard open protocols (MODBUS RTU, TCP / IP, ZigBee,
ISA100, etc). System management is done through an intuitive graphical interface.

Considering the structure and implementation of the control center, the system can
be installed on two different platforms:

» Local System SmartWatchTM (SW) on Windows platform (Figure 5.3)

» Remote system SmartWatchWeb TM (SWW) on a Web platform, based on

LAMP technology (Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP) (Figure 5.5)

Loop of SWW devices Control Data Base Web

Unit Server Server

Valves and stem traps

Internet

Intranet User Remote gas & steam Intranet Administrator

leak detection system

SmartWatchWeb Platform

Figure 5.5
Mention that SmartWatchWebTM technology won two Gold Medals at the Interna-
tional Exhibition of Inventions of Geneva (Switzerland) in 2004 and 2005, Special
Mention of the International Jury, and GarcíaCabrerizo Foundation's Award for the
Spanish Invention in 2004. In addition, SmartWatchWebTM system has intrinsic
safety certificate, ATEX marking II 1 G, [Ex ia] IIC T4 and IECEX [Ex ia] IIC T4,
therefore it can be used in potentially explosive atmospheres (Zone 0, Div 1).

System management, either locally or remotely, is performed through an intuitive

graphical interface (Figure 5.6), which allows knowing all the information genera-
ted by field devices, interact bidirectionally with them, and get a wide variety of
reports about operating, energy efficiency, emissions, etc.

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

Loop 1 High backpressure

Low pressure
Steam leak

Low temperature

Loop 8 Good

Legend

Temperature
Ultrasound

Pressure Backpressure

Figure 5.6

5.4 ADVANTAGES OF INTELLIGENT ENERGY TRAPS

Given that conventional steam trap is an automatic valve, operated without auxi-
liary power, ie, an automatic valve that indirectly controls steam energy, it is
understood that the great contribution of intelligent energy trap is exactly to put in
hand of the user all the information needed, not only for to make rational use of
energy and eliminate their loss but also to improve the operating conditions,

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

reduce costs (operating, inspection and maintenance ), and increase safety and
reliability of the network of steam / condensate.

The main advantages of intelligent energy traps are:

» Self-diagnostic capability

» Continuous detection of steam leaks (internal and/or external)

» Continuous monitoring of energy efficiency

» External adjustment mechanism and repair without service interruption

» Continuous monitoring of pressure/backpressure of the steam/condensate net-

work

» Adjustment mechanism to reduce flash steam

» Prevention of thermal water hammers

» Reduction of costs (operation, inspection and maintenance)

» Very long lasting life (about three times longer than conventional steam traps)

» Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

5.5 INTELLIGENT VALVES

The concept of intelligent energy traps can
be applied in monitoring valves as well as
gas leak detection on safety valves and
automatic on-off valves.

The SmartWatch TM device is externally

attached to these valves with non-intrusive
clamps or collars, but without dismantling SmartWatch
the valves or interrupting their operation
(Figure 5.7).

The SmartWatchWebTM system can confi-

gure a powerful monitoring and survei-
llance network of steam leaks, process gas Clamp
leaks, and hazardous gas leaks on valves in
order to improve safety, reliability, and Figure 5.7
reduce operation costs.

5-7 / Intelligent Energy Traps and Valves

Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

The system monitors continuously, detecting any leakage of gas as soon as it

occurs; once the leak has been detected, the control center automatically transmits
the alarm to the appropriate departments, which can then act immediately and take
the corrective action in order to eliminate hazardous situations and reduce the risk
of accidents (Figure 5-8).

Dangerous
gas leak Continuous surveillance 24/365

SmartWatch device

Alarm Maintenance
Department

Control center
Remote alarm Alarm Safety
Department

Figure 5.8
Therefore, the following objectives are achieved:

» Detection of internal and external leakage of process gases in order to reduce

production costs

» Fast detection of hazardous gas leaks in order to significantly improve safety

conditions on facilities

» Reduction of inspection costs

» Reduction of deterioration from gas and steam leaks in valves on account of

fast leak detection (reduction of maintenance costs)

Figure 5-9 shows the application of SmartWatchWebTM in monitoring automatic

on-off valves for instant detection of process gas leaks that otherwise could be bur-
ned on flare without identification. Thus, process losses are reduced and therefore,
so are production costs as well as inspection costs and maintenance costs.

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

Gas leak
Monitored On-Off valves
on process plants

Continuous surveillance 24/365

Alarm Maintenance
Department

Control center
Remote alarm
Alarm Safety
Department

Figura 5.9
A remarkable feature of the SmartWatchWebTM system is its ability to integrate
multiple types of sensors in a common architecture that can grow as new needs
arise. Therefore, steam traps, valves and other equipment can share a common
architecture, simplifying operations and reducing costs.

5.6 STEAM SAVING WITH ENERGY TRAPS

Experience shows that the correct setting of the operating point of the energy trap
(point 2 of the curve in Figure 2-2) leads to significant energy savings.

In petrochemical plants and refineries, the vast majority of traps are installed in
low flow applications (tracers, drip legs, ...) where an optimal adjustment of the
working point of the energy trap reduces up to 8% steam consumption.

5-9 / Intelligent Energy Traps and Valves

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

CHAPTER 6

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The high energy content of steam and its easy transformation into other forms of
energy makes steam an element that is widely used in a large amount of industrial
applications.

Steam is most widely used as a thermal carrier in industrial processes that require
heat input as in heat exchangers, heating radiators, piping for product lines, etc.

Another application that is very economically important consists in converting its

internal energy into mechanical energy for moving turbines, which is then conver-
ted into electric energy by alternators. In other applications, this mechanical
energy is used to directly drive pumps or compressors.

Steam's internal energy can be converted into kinetic energy which is used, among
other applications, in steam ejector based on the Venturi effect.

Other applications use steam as a chemical compound in chemical reactors, which

is involved in the reaction or is used as a means of agitating tanks and mixers.

Logically, different points of use of steam are usually placed far from others and at
a distance from where steam is produced, which is why it is absolutely essential to
have a distribution pipe network that carries it to each equipment that requires
steam. Figure 2-1 is a visual representation of a typical steam facility.

First, there is a boiler that converts chemical energy from the fuel into heat energy.
By means of an interchanging pipe system, the heat is transferred to the water that
is contained inside the boiler until it causes the water to evaporate.

The steam generated is sent to the various points of use through a pipe system that
makes up the distribution network.

6-1 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

The energy content of the steam is extracted by adequate equipment using methods
that are the most appropriate for each process, thus, causing the steam to condense
as a result of this release of energy.

The water formed is evacuated to a tank through another pipe network that makes
up the condensate return line system. At this point, it is pumped back into the boi-
ler where it will restart the same cycle.

The diagram described corresponds to a closed system where water changes to

steam then back to water again, repeating this cycle without losing mass. Different
from this, if condensate produced in the steam using equipmentis not sent back to
the boiler, but instead it is evacuated to the outside of the facility, this corresponds
to an open circuit system.

It is evident that the closed system is more efficient than the open one, since the
residual energy of the condensate (sensible heat) is returned and reused in the boi-
ler. However, the presence of steam loss through leaks and vents or the existence
of equipment in the facility that uses steam mass (ejectors, bubble agitators, soot
blowers, mixers, deaerators, etc.) make the facilities, in practice, not closed enti-
rely but rather almost closed.

The loss of water mass in an open system can be more problematic than the energy
cost of steam in areas that are difficult to supply.

During the start of a facility, the equipment and pipes may contain air. The air or
other non-condensable gases produced in the steam generation process reduce the
steam's temperature, and they are poor heat transmitters, making it necessary to be
evacuated through adequate air vents.

The steam distribution and condensate return network, subject to environmental

conditions, release heat to the outside through transmission and radiation, resulting
in energy loss or auto-consumption, which can be reduced by thermally isolating
pipes, equipment, and accessories.

The circulation of steam and condensate through the inside of the piping is slowed
down by the friction of the walls of the pipes, causing a loss of pressure. In the
steam, this pressure loss translates into a decrease in temperature as shown in the
steam saturation curve (Figure 1-3). This pressure loss by friction is known as a
pressure drop.

The temperature differences on the piping create expansions and contractions,

generating considerable mechanical stress on the structure. This stress is strong
enough to cause breakage and therefore must be avoided. In order to do this,
expansion joints and dilatation lira are used in those sections where the installation
itself is unable to absorb the expansions.

6-2 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

The differences in circulation velocity between steam and condensate are capable
of producing obstructions in the pipes known as water hammers (mechanical); the
mix of condensate and flash steam originating from different pressures of steam
can also cause water hammers (thermal), which significantly damage all of the
facility's elements, causing breakage and leaks. Water hammers are heard as loud
metallic cracks or hammer blows in the pipes.

6.2 GENERAL STEAM DISTRIBUTION LINES

The design of steam distribution lines must take the following factors into conside-
ration:

» Auto consumption of steam. Energy loss

» Sizing and flow velocity

» Structural calculations: mechanical stress, expansions, etc

The sizing of a steam distribution network always begins with the understanding of
steam consumption for each piece of equipment that makes up the facility. The cal-
culations must always include an adequate safety factor that gives certain flexibi-
lity to the operation of all of the equipment and the facility as a whole. It is
recommended to size the network with at least 20% of the capacity reserved for
future expansions or modifications.

Additionally, identifying the network layout allows us to first estimate the approxi-
mate diameter required, which will be explained in a later section. Now, the net-
work itself consumes its own steam because of releasing energy to the outside.
These losses depend on thermal insulation and the surface of the pipes. Auto-con-
sumption must be taking into account, increasing the total steam flow transported
by the pipes, thus resulting in a recalculation of the distribution network's final
diameter.

It is very common to use different steam pressures in different equipment at the

same facility. Because of this, steam is often generated at pressures that surpass the
working amount, only to be lowered at the points of use. This is usually beneficial
since there is a pressure margin for future needs, which also means a reduction in
the diameters of pipes, valves, or network accessories (reduction in installation and
maintenance costs), although their thickness increases (rise in costs), which is why
it is necessary to determine the most favorable solution.

It is also important to recall that the correct choice of working pressure in heat
exchanging equipment influences its thermal efficiency; this can be seen in the
enthalpy-pressure curve shown in figure 1-4. Note that as long as the pressure
increases, so does the sensible heat of the liquid; at the cost of lowering the latent

6-3 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

heat of vaporization used in the heat exchange processes, therefore requiring more
steam in order to produce the same amount of energy. However, the pressure of
steam must not drop below a certain limit in order to guarantee the process of heat
transmission.

This minimum limit is theoretically fixed by the process's temperature that deter-
mines the saturation temperature of steam, and with it, the theoretic pressure thres-
hold. Twenty percent above this amount is usually enough to achieve favorable
conditions for transmitting heat with high thermal efficiency.

For calculations of steam facilities, this manual uses simple and quick graphics,
based on empirical laws that are widely confirmed by experience, which offer real
solutions that are very close to those gathered through more elaborate methods.

6.3 NETWORK AUTO-CONSUMPTION

The least favorable situation or the case that has the most auto-consumption is pro-
duced during the start-up of the facility, since the pipes are cold and must warm-up
until they reach the system's temperature.

After this temperature, the pipes continue releasing energy through conduction,
convection and radiation to the outside, but the condensation generated by these
energy losses is generally much less than during the facility's start-up.

The amount of steam needed to put a facility into operation comes from the follo-
wing equation:

Qs = P * (Ts - Ta) * Cp / CL

Where:
Qs = Amount of steam in Kg
P = Total weight of the pipes and accessories in Kg
Ts = Steam temperature in Celsius
Ta = Outside air temperature in Celsius
Cp = Specific heat of steel = 0.114 Kcal / ºC Kg
CL = Latent heat of the steam in Kcal / Kg

This amount of steam Qs will correspond to an hourly flow rate, increasing as the
heating time or start-up time gets shorter.

6-4 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

It is not advisable to heat the facility quickly as this may cause water hammers and
reduce the thermal and mechanical stress that is experienced during start-up. The
heating velocity is controlled by how fast the steam valves are opened.

If "tr" (minutes) is the time it takes for the facility to be ready to work or for the
system to be in operation, the required hourly flow rate Q (Kg/h) of steam is given
by the following expression:

Q = Qs * 60 / tr

6.4 DIAMETER OF STEAM PIPES

The diameter of the pipes is relative to the steam flow rate, the flow velocity, and
the specific volume of steam, therefore, everything depends on the pressure and
temperature of steam since specific volume is a function of these variables.

The average flow velocity of a fluid through a tube is expressed by the mass con-
servation equation or the continuity equation:

Q=d*V*S

Where:
V = Velocity of steam in m / s
Q = Steam flow rate in Kg / h
d = Density of steam in Kg / m3
Ve= Specific Volume in m3 / Kg
S = Section of the pipe in m2

If S = 3.14 D2/ 4 the result is:

V = 353,7 * Q * Ve / D2

And D represents the diameter of the pipe in mm.

This expression shows the relationship that exists between the diameter of the pipe
and the flow velocity through it. In situations of fixed pressure, temperature, and
steam flow rate, the flow velocity increases at a quadratic proportion as the diame-
ter of the pipe decreases.

Excessive flow velocity can cause serious problems such as pressure drops, water
hammers, erosion, … . Experiments confirm that the optimal flow velocities for
the size of saturated steam distribution lines are as follows:

6-5 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

Steam Pressure Optimal Steam Velocity

(bar) (m/sg)
1,1 - 1,5 25
1,5 - 3 30
3 - 6 35
6 - 13 40
13 - 26 50
26 - 100 55

In short piping sections, the velocities can be slightly higher than those shown.
When the pipes transport superheated steam, higher velocities are used (in this
case it is common to use velocities that are 10% higher).

With the help of Figure 6-1 and by using the flow velocity appropriate for each
pressure, one can easily find the adequate diameter to move a determined steam
flow rate. The chart is valid, including calculations of superheated steam pipes by
simply identifying the steam's temperature and pressure in the upper part of the
chart.

Using the concept of velocity refers to the average velocity in a section of a pipe,
without taking into account the velocity characteristics that correspond to its distri-
bution through each section of the pipe.

The following example clarifies the use of this chart.

In an attempt to find the pipe section that is necessary for a distribution line with
the following information:

Superheated steam flow rate: 30 Tm/h

Steam temperature: 300 ºC
Absolute pressure of steam: 16 bar.

Enter horizontally with steam temperature at the top of the chart until it crosses
with the pressure curve. Continue vertically downward until it crosses with the line
of the required steam flow rate, reaching one specific point. From here, continue
horizontally until the rising vertical line from the lower part of the graph by using
the steam velocity selected in the previous table. The intersection point shows the
diameter needed for the pipe. If the point is in between two lines, the larger diame-
ter of the two is used.

In this example, the diameter required is 200 mm (8"), for a steam flow velocity of
44 m/s.

6-6 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

T
(º C)

1 00
bar
450

90
80
70
60
ur e

40
35
50
s

30
25
res

400

18
16
14
te p

20

12

9
8
10
ol u

7
6

3 ,5
350

2,5

1,8
Ab s

1,6
5

1,4
1,2

0,9
0,7
0,8

0,6
2

0,5
1
300
S at
ura
te d st
e am 250

200

150

Kg/m3
100
70 60 50 40 30 20 15 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1,5 1 0,8 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,15
Specific weight

T/h
ate
wr
f lo Pip
m
ea e
St d ia
me
t er
0 70
15 0
0 6 mm
10 5 00
80 0 50 50
6 0 45 0
5 40 0
40 35 0
30 30 0
0
20 25
15 0
20
10 0
8
6
5
4
3 10
0
2
75
1
50 0, 8
0,6 ,5
40 0 ,4
0
32
25 0,2

0,1

300 200 150 100 80 60 50 40 30 20 15 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1,5 1 0,5

Flow velocity m/s

Figure 6.1

6-7 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

Once the pipe diameter is determined, other important aspects of the design of the
facility must be taken into consideration, whether they are mechanical, thermal,
operational, structural, or other aspects, such as:

» Pressure Drops

» Pipe dilatation

» Slopes

» Thermal loss and insulation

» Draining and Venting Points

» Structural strength calculations

6.5 CONDENSATE RETURN LINES

The condensate return lines have a few similarities and differences with regards to
the steam's distribution lines.

The first difference that can be observed is that one drives steam while the other,
condensate; this gives them different flow velocities to take into account when
sizing the corresponding sections of pipes.

However, the condensate return line does not only move water but also flash
steam. This is a consequence of the differential pressure in the diverse draining
systems, causing the formation of a certain amount of flash steam (see section 1.3).

Note that the flash steam has the same properties as live steam; the only difference
between them is how they originate, so, in order to size the condensate return line,
it can be considered a transversal double-sectioned pipe. Water will circulate
through the bottom section and low pressure steam will circulate through the upper
section.

Now, experience shows that fairly good results come from sizing return lines as if
they were steam distribution lines (first, disregarding water flow as an approxima-
tion of the actual solution) only by taking into account the following observations:

» Use the maximum amount of flash steam formed for the flow design

» Use a flow velocity of 15 m/s for this flash steam

» Prove the validity of this simplification

6-8 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

Actually, in order to find the exact size of the section needed for the condensate
return line, the water flow section must be calculated first, and then the steam
phase section.

Due to the differences in viscosity between both phases, the flow velocity of each
must be different; when significant, this difference can cause little waves along the
surface of the separation of the phases (Figure 6-2), and eventually cause momen-
tary blockage of the entire pipe section, primarily in direction or section changes,
which results in undesirable water hammers that are harmful to the facility. In
order to avoid water hammers, the appropriate flow velocities should be around 2
m/s for liquid and between 15 and 20 m/s for steam.

Steam 15 m/s

Water 2 m/s

Figure 6.2

Now, with such a low flow velocity for the steam phase and the large volume that
represents a small percentage of revaporized water compared with the total flow
volume in the return line, the section that is needed to move the additional liquid
turns out negligible in front of the section required for the steam phase. The com-
mercial pipe diameter available determines the closest choice because of excess in
the market-excess that is usually much larger than the section needed to drive the
liquid phase.

Because of all of this, it seems practical to utilize the calculation simplification

hypothesis mentioned, since, in practice the results rarely differ from those obtai-
ned with the most precise calculations.

Use chart 1-7 to calculate the amount of flash steam.

6.6 PRESSURE DROPS

Pressure drops in fluids moving through a turbulent pipe can most frequently be
calculated using the Darcy Equation:

Pc = k *( L * d * V2)/ ( D * 104 * 2g)

6-9 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

Where:
Pc = Pressure drop (Kg/cm2) or (bar)
k = Friction Coefficient
L = Piping length (m)
D = Piping diameter (m)
d = Steam density (Kg/m3)
V= Flow velocity (m/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s2)

The factor of 104 is introduced in order to represent the result in Kg/cm2 (in bars
approximately).

The following equation is use frequently:

Pc = kv *(d * V2)/ (104 * 2g)

The coefficient kv is commonly used in valves and accessories, which represent

concentrated pressure drops. Usually, all concentrated pressure drops are grouped
together in the coefficient kv, as the sum of all of the individual kv.

The total pressure drop happens to be the sum of all of the concentrated pressure
drops plus that caused by the piping itself.

In order to apply these formulas, the pipe friction coefficient (k) must be known,
which depends on the relative roughness of the pipe and the Reynolds number.
Common in all practical cases, for turbulent flow and from Reynolds in the order
of 10 6 , the friction coefficient (k) takes an almost constant value. An average
acceptable value is k = 0.0206.

A sufficiently approximated calculation can be carried out with the help of the
graphs in Figures 6-3 and 6-4, as described below:

» Use the graph in Figure 6-3 to obtain the pressure drop coefficients (k) for the
piping, valves, and accessories.

» Add all of the coefficients corresponding to all of the elements that make up
the steam distribution line in order to determine the total pressure drop coef-
ficient.

» Use the total pressure drop coefficient obtained before, and apply it to the
graph in Figure 6-4 to finally find the total pressure drop (in bars).

6-10 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

20

Pi
pe
10
10

0
50

m
8

30
20
6 10 Angle va
lve
5

5
alve
4 be v
G lo
Tee
3

Expan
2 sion jo
int

Sp
ec
ial
va
lv e
1

Elbow 90º
0,5

0,3

0,2
v alve
erfly
Batt

0,1
10 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 150 200 300 500

Pressure loss coefficients

Figure 6.3

6-11 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

Abs. Pressure
Velocity V
1 00
bar

50
40

rve
30

n cu
20

10

ratio
m
15

/s
20

sa tu
10
25
30
40

m
50

Stea
5
60
70 0

4
8 0
9 0
10 20
1 0

3
14

1,2
1
0,8

50 150 250 350 450

100 200 300 400 500 ºC

0,01
Temperature T
Pressure loss coefficient
0,02
Ejemple:
0,03
1
1,5

Temperature T.................300 ºC
2
3

0,05 Abs. Steam Pressure .......16 bar

4
5

Steam Velocity V ............. 40 m/s

6
1 8
15 0
20

0,1
Pressure loss coefficients on
30
40
50

50 mm diameter pipe and fittings:

0,2 Pipe 20 m.........................8.1
1 Angle valve ..................3.3
0,3 2 Special valves...............5.6
1 Tee ...............................3.1
0,5 2 Elbow 90º .....................1.0

1 Total coefficient ..................21.1

Pressure loss ......................1.1 bar

2
bar

Pressure loss in steam pipes

Figure 6.4

6-12 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

6.7 PIPE EXPANSION

During the start-up of the steam facility, the pipes expand as they continue getting
closer to the temperature of a continuous regimen. The increase in length of the
pipes caused by the temperature can be determined by using the graph in Figure 6-
5, applicable for steel pipes commonly used in facilities (carbon content between
0.1% and 0.2%).

Pipe length (m)

0 10 20 30 40 50
500
60

450

70
400

80
350
90
Temperature difference (ºC)

300 100

110
265 120
300

200

150

100

50

50 100 156 200 300 400

Expansion of the pipe (m)

Expansion of steel pipes

Figure 6.5

6-13 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

This heat expansion, or dilatation, is absorbed by various types of compensators,

some of which are pre-manufactured and must be selected using the manufacturer's
directions, and others are constructed out of piping elements such as elbows and
liras.

In the situation that the pipes change direction, the elbows can be sized in a way
that they absorb the dilatation experienced by the pipes in accordance with the
following expression, valid for pre-compressed elbows with 50% of the expansion
absorbed.

L = 0,063 (f * D)1/2

Where:
L = Length of the elbow arms (m)
f = Dilatation absorbed by the elbow (mm)
D = Diameter of the exterior of the pipe (mm)

This expression is represented graphically in Figure 6-6.

20
mm
18 4 00
f = 350
16 r b ed 0
L o 30
a bs 5 0
2 0
Required lenght on elbow branches (m)

14 n
n sio 2 0
p a
12 Fixet Ex 0
15
point
0
10 10
80
9
60
8
40
7
30
6

5 f = expansion (mm)
D = pipe diameter (mm)
L = lenght of elbow branches (m)
40 60 80 100 120 160 200 250 300 400
Pipe diameter ND (mm)
Expansion absorbed by carbon steel elbows
50% precompressed

Figure 6.6

6-14 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

When the current elbows in the facility's layout cannot absorb the dilatation, it is
necessary to employ expansion compensators or liras. For liras, they can be shaped
like a "swan's neck" or a "double elbow".

Liras in the form of a "swan's neck" are used more than the "double elbow"
because of their ability to absorb expansions with low levels of stress. Despite that
the exact calculation must be confirmed with specialized methods, Figure 6.7
represents the absorption capacity of this type of lira (for elevated temperature dif-
ferences, the values obtained from the graph should be lowered by 20%).

400

A
D
Maximum expansion absorbed d max (mm)

20 N

300
DN
ht B =

16

DN

DN
12
Heig

12
N
D
10

200
DN
N 10
8D

100

rough pipe
smooth pipe
d max is reduced to 80% for T = 400ºC
0 100 200 300 400
Pipe diameter ND (mm)
Expansion absorbed by carbon steel liras
50% precompressed. T = 200 ºC

Figure 6.7

Finally, the pipe must be fixed at specific anchor points so that the expansion is
produced in the desired direction in such a way that the compensator can function
properly. These anchor points are equidistant from the dilatation compensator.

6-15 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

6.8 SLOPES
All of the piping in the facility should have a positive slope in the direction of the
flow in order to allow it to be emptied by gravity. This helps prevent possible
water pockets caused by the pipe deflection produced between two consecutive
piping supports.

The pipes are usually angled with a 2% gradient; any less will allow for the forma-
tion of the aforementioned water pockets, which cause corrosion in the pipes. If
there is a negative gradient (an upward slope), the condensate may flow backwards
due to the force of gravity, opposite that of steam, potentially causing water ham-
mers due to blocking the pipes; this is most common with small diameter pipes,
damaged heat insulators, or in low pressure steam facilities.

6.9 SUPPORTS
Its purpose is to rigidly support the pipes, or to allow for them to expand longitudi-
nally or laterally, thus, helping the mission of the elbow and lira dilatation com-
pensators. The large variety of current pipe supports can be separated into three
types:

» Normal supports

» Anchors

» Lateral guide supports

Normal Supports:

They are regularly spaced along the pipes and allow for longitudinal movement
and sometimes, lateral movement. They are frequently used in the shape of even
rollers (cylinders) that allow for lateral movement, arranged over beam supports or
suspended by a roof or another fixed structure.

Anchors:

Their purpose is to provide pipe immobilization at fixed points. They are made of
flanges that are secured by screws that connected the pipe to an adequate fixed
structure. Their calculation must consider resistance in order to support the forces
not only from the pipe's weight, but also from the thermal mechanical stress that
cause heat expansion in the pipes and any other additional load that may act on
them during the facility's service, as well as start-up and shut-down.

Lateral Guide Supports:

As the name indicates, lateral guide supports allow for the pipe to move laterally,
but they also leave the pipes free to move longitudinally.

6-16 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

6.10 THERMAL WATER HAMMERS

In general, a water hammer is understood as a sudden and significant pressure
increase or pressure wave that usually reaches values of around 150% of the nor-
mal operating pressure. This pressure wave displaces at the velocity of sound
inside the fluid, which can cause elastic deformations, plastic deformations, and
breakage in the facility's elements.

Water hammers are recognized by loud cracks, metallic hits, noises, and vibration
in the facility. They must be separated into two different classes of water hammers,
although they can sometime occur simultaneously.

» Hydraulic water hammers in liquid facilities

» Thermal water hammers in steam and condensate lines

The first are generally caused as a result of the sudden opening or closing of val-
ves or when the valves themselves operate very quickly.

The second type of water hammers are cause by sudden condensation of steam
bubbles inside a mass of condensate with a much lower temperature, thus, produ-
cing what can be considered an "implosion". These implosions get stronger the lar-
ger the bubbles are or the faster their condensation occurs (larger temperature
difference between flash steam and condensate).

It is not easy to calculate the overpressure produced in thermal water hammers, but
it is obvious that their intensity depends on the size of the steam bubbles, the velo-
city of water and steam, and their temperature difference.

Thermal water hammers can occur as a result of inadequate sizing of equipment or

piping, poor selection of draining devices or defective steam traps and energy
traps, internal steam leaks in the draining devices, improper installation or place-
ment of these elements, or a combination of all of these.

In any case, water hammers must be avoided starting at the design of the facility
with respect to a series of regulations, some of which are listed below:

» Limit the use of steam traps to when they are absolutely necessary

» Install energy traps before pipe elevations

» Install energy traps at the lowest point of the facility

» Transport condensate originating from steam of a very different pressure in

independent lines; if this is not possible, water hammer compensators should
be installed and strategically placed

6-17 / Design of steam and condensate networks

DESIGN OF STEAM AND CONDENSATE NETWORKS

» Avoid condensate elevations after the draining elements, and when it is inevi-
table, use water hammer compensators if water hammers occur

» In order to reduce the potential intensity of water hammers, equip the dis-
charge pipe with holes or openings that distribute the steam in small bubbles
in situations where the return line arrives to a condensate tank at a lower
level than the liquid

Preventing thermal water hammers:

The best way to prevent thermal water hammers is with the use of intelligent
energy traps. With them, internal steam leaks can be detected immediately and its
energy efficiency can be monitored and adjusted, which effectively prevents the
occurrence of water hammers.

6-18 / Design of steam and condensate networks

Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

CHAPTER 7

DESIGN OF DRAINING STATIONS

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In general, the basic objective of draining stations is to discharge the condensate
that has formed in the distributions lines or in the processing equipment without
letting any live steam escape.

However, as indicated in Chapter 2, draining stations currently perform other

important control operations related to increasing energy efficiency, reducing CO2
emissions into the atmosphere, improving facility reliability, etc.

The following aspects must be taken into account in order to ensure that the drain
stations can complete their objective:

» Mounting and placement position (of the drain station)

» Selecting the type of draining element (steam trap or energy trap)

» Sizing the draining element

» Constructing drain stations

7.2 SELECTING DRAINING POINTS

The location of draining points is critical in ensuring that the stations produce the
desired results.

In steam distribution lines, the draining points have to be spread throughout the
entire facility, with the objective of draining all of the low points and/or where
condensate is expected to have accumulated because of an interruption in steam
flow (ex. before shut-off valves); It is also necessary to anticipate automatic air
venting points located at the highest points or where non-condensable gases are
expected to have accumulated in the distribution network and the processing
equipment. In terms of tracing lines and steam jacketed piping, the drain points

7-1 / Design of drain stations

Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

must be distributed throughout the facility. Obviously, process equipment has drai-
ning points situated along their lower section.

So, in a non-exhaustive summary, the following indicates the most characteristic

places where drain points should be installed (Figure 7-1):

» A thermostatic deaerator should be installed at the highest point of the steam

facility (various locations for large facilities)

» Located at distances of 30 to 50 meters from each other along straight steam

distribution pipe sections, tracing line sections, or in steam jacketed pipe sec-
tions

» Before vertically ascending pipe sections

» Before dilatation liras in piping

» In all of the water pockets or low points of the facility

» In front of automatic valves in steam distributions pipes

» At the end of steam lines

» After each process equipment that uses steam

» Thermostatic deaerators should be installed at the high points of process

equipment with large steam chambers (autoclaves, etc)

50 - 70 m

Drain point

Typical drain points

Figure 7.1

7-2 / Design of draining stations

Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

7.3 SELECTING THE TYPE OF DRAINING ELEMENT

Selecting the type of drain element is primarily determined by the characteristics
of the processing equipment for draining or the application; but other aspects must
be considered, such as the characteristics of the facility, work and environment
conditions, energy efficiency, reliability and availability, ease of inspection and
maintenance, robustness, lifespan, resistance to failures, and finally, its cost.

Therefore, the first decision to make is in selecting the type of drain element; there
are two basic options:

» Steam Trap

» Energy Trap

It is usually recommended to use steam traps when it is necessary to ensure that

there is absolutely no condensate in front of the trap, without considering the faci-
lity's energy efficiency. In this situation, the effects of the rise in flash steam in the
discharge of the trap should be assessed in order to prevent any consequences
(backpressure, thermal water hammers). Thermodynamic disk traps are used to
evacuate small and medium steam flows, while inverted bucket traps and float
traps are used for large steam flows.

It is recommended to use energy traps when it is necessary to increase the energy

efficiency of a facility by reducing steam consumptions, and with it, CO2 emis-
sions as well as improving the operation of condensate return lines, avoiding back-
pressure and thermal water hammers. The evolution of thermostatic energy traps
always provides a satisfactory solution for each application; to evacuate small and
medium steam flows, bimetallic and bi-thermostatic energy traps are used, while
multi-element thermostatic energy traps are used for large steam flows. For tracing
applications, the most appropriate type is the bimetallic thermostatic energy trap,
preferably the bi-thermostatic energy trap due to its external regulation mechanis-
mthat allow for the most benefits.

When choosing the drain element, an aspect that should be considered is the
method to be employed for future inspection and maintenance. The rising use of
intelligent energy traps simplifies the inspection tasks and reduces energy and
maintenance costs. However, even when the use of intelligent steam traps is not
anticipated, it is advisable to design a drain stations in a way that allows for an
easy incorporation of additional elements for future monitoring (SwartWatch con-
nection, pressure and backpressure sensor connections), and in this way the costs
would be reduced when the conventional stations are updated to intelligent drai-
ning stations.

Just as the energy trap is implicitly related to its automatic air-venting capacity,
when steam traps are used, thermostatic air-venting elements should be included in

7-3 / Design of draining stations

Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

order to prevent possible blockage caused by air or non-condensable gases. It is

recommended to avoid using internal by-bass orifices as automatic air vents, since
they create a continuous steam loss that is injected into the return lines, causing
problems.

Sizing the Drain Element:

Once the type of draining element has been decided, it needs to be sized; in order
to do this, the following aspects must be taken into account:

» Maximum pressure and temperature of the design

» Maximum operational differential pressure

» Minimum operational differential pressure

» Maximum steam flow to be evacuated in low differential pressure conditions

» Optimal condensate evacuation temperature

» Safety factor

» Type of connection

The design's maximum pressure and temperature determine the materials of the
draining element in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.

The draining element must be able to function properly up to the maximum opera-
tional differential pressure. Note that energy traps may lose steam when the diffe-
rential pressure exceeds the maximum amount indicated by the manufacturer; on
the contrary, float traps and inverted bucket traps remain blocked when the diffe-
rential pressure exceeds the amount indicated by the manufacturer.

The size of the draining element is imposed by the maximum steam flow to eva-
cuate, including safety factors and in situations of minimum differential pressure.
It is not advisable to utilize exaggerated safety coefficients since over-sizing is
harmful to the element's regulatory operation and it reduces its lifespan. It is worth
pointing out that steam traps require greater safety factors than energy traps, since
the latter have an intrinsic safety coefficient that superimposes the one measured
by the user. Typical values for this coefficient are from 2.5 to 3 for steam traps and
1.5 to 2 for energy traps.

When considering the discharge capacity of a draining element, the steam flow
curves provided by the manufacturer have to be used. There is no uniformity in the
way of presenting these curves, and therefore, while some offer cold condensate
flow information, others refer to condensate flow at the condensate's boiling tem-

7-4 / Design of draining stations

Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

perature; figure 7-2 represents the form of Differential pressure (psi)

a typical condensate flow graph. 5 10 20 50 100 139 319 609
5000
11000
In the absence of other information, it must 2000 4400
be assumed that the maximum evacuation

Capacity (Kg/hr)
1000 2200

Capacity (lb/hr)
capacity at the saturation temperature is 500 G25 1100
usually approximately 70% of the draining 200 440
element´s maximum cold discharge capa- T25
100 220
60 132
city. The standard is very different in 40 88
44
energy traps since its intrinsic safety coef- 20
2
22
0.1 0.5 1 3 5 10 20 50
ficient is higher and the maximum cold Differential pressure (bar)
evacuation steam flow is usually between
3 and 4 times more than the amount Figure 7.2
that corresponds to the saturation tempera-
ture; because of this, the safety factor must be reduced when sizing energy traps.

The average temperature of the condensate produced in a heat exchanger is bet-

ween 10 and 20 degrees lower than the saturation of steam (this is precisely the
situation where it is possible to successfully use energy traps in process equipment
and reduce steam consumption). Therefore, it is advisable to try to adapt the
energy trap's characteristics to those of the process in order for both to work under
the best conditions possible.

As shown, for small steam flows, drip legs, and tracing lines it is recommended to
exclusively use thermostatic energy traps, bimetallic bi-thermostatic energy traps
in particular, due to their robustness, evacuation temperature regulation, operation
and design characteristics that are not only adaptable to each application but also
to each draining point. It is suggested to discharge condensate between 10 ºC and
40 ºC below the steam's saturation point for drip legs and tracing lines. On regular
tracing lines, it is highly recommended to adjust the condensate discharge tempera-
ture 40 ° C below the steam saturation temperature.

The bimetallic bi-thermostatic energy trap offers an interesting characteristic by

providing an energy trap that appears to have been specially manufactured for each
individual draining point (external adjustment mechanism), even though it is mass
produced.

The internal elements of a draining element, the cone valve and seat, are subject to
very severe work conditions that cause considerable wear and tear. Therefore, it is
important to guarantee that the internal pieces are of the highest quality, requiring
special steel that is highly durable and resistant to wear and tear, preferably, with
its surface coated with special materials such as titanium nitride, tungsten carbide,
or similar materials. This considerably lengthens its operational lifespan.

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

Take into account that a draining element with a robust design that uses special
materials in the components will mean a higher purchasing price, but this is tho-
roughly compensated by its high reliability, long life, and energy savings.

The draining element's possibility of including an external adjustment mechanism

raises the final price, but the enormous advantages in energy savings, easy mainte-
nance, versatility, etc, offered by this mechanism undoubtedly put to rest any eco-
nomic comparisons with elements that lack the mechanism.

Occasionally the draining element must withstand temperatures below zero. This is
the case for facilities with intermittent operations, which can leave them filled with
condensate when the outside temperature is below zero degrees. In these situa-
tions, the draining element is required to be durable enough to support freezes, set-
ting aside those that are constructed from iron casts or that have sensitive internal
elements. Additional, in this situation the drain element design must favor auto-
draining the facility into the atmosphere; this will keep a facility safe against free-
zes.

In situations where thermal water hammers are expected to form from discharging
condensates of different pressures to a shared condensate return line, sensitive ele-
ments of the energy traps should be discarded, such as floats and capsules or liquid
expansion bellows. Here, the most adequate are the bimetallic followed by the
inverted bucket elements.

It is preferable to use float traps or inverted bucket traps when the condensate is
very dirty or oily. In the situation that another type of element is used, it is conve-
nient to have a filter (a "Y" filter if possible) with a drain valve to help clear any
potential obstruction of the element.

Ideally, the draining element has a good air-venting capacity during start-up and
regular operation. The most common automatic air-venting mechanism is the ther-
mostat, which should be bimetallic due to its robustness against liquid expansion.

Some float traps have permanent venting holes with the purpose of creating auto-
matic air venting. These types of vents must only be used in applications that
require it in order to avoid the formation of a "steam jam", like draining rotating
cylinder dryers with a siphon. In all other situations, this type of vent is a source of
unnecessary energy loss.

Lastly, choosing the type of connection has an impact on future steam leaks in the
facility. There is no doubt that the most dependable connection against leaks is
welding, although the flanged connection offers high reliability and easier mainte-
nance. In tracing facilities with a large number of draining stations, it is normal to
use the threaded, the cheapest but with frequent leaks throughout pipe accessories

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

such as connecting nuts. Angular and non-standardized connections should be

avoided as they implicate a dependency on a manufacturer.

Although it is risky to provide recommendations regarding the type of draining

element for each application, the following shows certain guidelines that help faci-
litate the selection, limiting the wide variety of possibilities, in descending order of
priority:

Application: Tracing, radiators, and jacketed pipes

» Bi-thermostatic with external temperature adjustment

» Bimetallic

» Thermostatic

» Other type

Application: Drip legs and line ends

» Bi-thermostatic with external temperature adjustment

» Bimetallic

» Thermostatic

» Float

» Inverted Bucket

» Other type

Application: Steam blowers and turbine protectors

» Bi-thermostatic with external temperature adjustment

» Inverted bucket when the superheated steam level allows

» Thermodynamic

» Impulse

» Other type

Application: Tanks, water heaters, heat exchangers

» Bi-thermostatic with external temperature adjustment, when steam flow

allows

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

» Thermostatic, when the steam flow allows, and/or multi-element

» Float

» Inverted Bucket

» Other type

Application: Autoclaves and sterilizers

» Float

» Inverted Bucket

» Thermostatic, when the steam flow allows

» Thermodynamic

» Other type

Application: Air heaters

» Bi-thermostatic with external temperature adjustment

» Bimetallic

» Thermostatic

» Float

» Other type

Application: rotating cylinder dryers

» Special energy traps and automatic wastepipe valves

» Float

» Inverted Bucket

» Other type

Application: Vulcanizers and flat presses

» Inverted Bucket

» Float

» Thermodynamic

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

» Bi-thermostatic with external temperature adjustment, when steam flow

allows

» Thermostatic

» Other type

Application: Air heaters and hot air dryers

» Bimetallic

» Thermostatic

» Float

» Inverted bucket

» Other type

Application: Evaporators and beer distilleries

» Float

» Inverted bucket

» Bimetallic

» Thermostatic

» Other type

Application: Steam irons and laundry grills

» Bi-thermostatic with external temperature adjustment, when steam flow

allows

» Float

» Inverted bucket

» Thermodynamic

» Other type

Other than a few exceptions, note that thermodynamic traps rarely appear in the
previous recommendations due to the fact they have very low energy efficiency as
a consequence of its principle of operation.

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Recall that the size of the draining element is not determined by the diameter of
the connection, but rather the diameter of the internal orifice of the valve, which is
sized for the maximum steam flow to evacuate and the minimum possible differen-
tial pressure.

In the petrochemical industry, the two most expansive applications are tracing or
heavy material heating and drip legs in steam distribution lines. In both cases, the
operation steam flows in a continuous regimen are almost always less than 50
Kg/h (generally they do not exceed 10 Kg/h). So, in situations of the reduced flow
as mentioned, any small steam leak results in an extremely high percentage of
energy loss; therefore, it is essential to use draining elements that thoroughly gua-
rantee that the steam is hermetically sealed and that the condensate discharge is
carried out by controlling its temperature, which leads to the necessity to use bi-
thermostatic energy traps in both applications.

In order to facilitate the selection of BiTherm energy traps, use the computer tool
"Energy Trap Selection Software", available in the following link:

http://www.smartwatchweb.com

7.4 CONSTRUCTION OF DRAINING STATIONS

The construction of a draining station differs according to its application; the follo-
wing are the most common:

Automatic Air Venting Points:

Air venting points are located at the highest points of the facility, close to steam
generators when possible. They are constructed by implanting a 1 to 2 meter long
pipe section, 3/4" to 1" in diameter, at an ascending angle, with a thermostatic
energy trap or air vent at the end. At the outlet of the energy trap, a piece of pipe in
the shape of a swan's neck is connected in order to prevent dripping on the energy
trap itself. The air-venting pipe and the
energy trap itself must remain without
thermal insulation in order to assist
Steam Line D
their air-venting function.
4"
Drip Legs in Steam Distribution 10"
D
Lines:
3/4" 1/2"-3/4"
Drip legs are designed in such a way
that gravity causes the condensate to Energy Trap
enter in order to be removed by the
draining element (Figure 7-3).

Figure 7.3

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

As a general rule, the depth of a drip leg usually spans between 250 mm and 700
mm (the depth increases as the differential pressure drops) and its section, up to 4",
typically coincides with the diameter of the pipe itself. Beyond 4", the drip leg dia-
meter is slightly reduced. The largest section of the drip leg must never exceed
10", no matter the situation.

At the bottom of the drip leg, a descending vertical connection is implanted with a
draining and cleaning valve; this valve is 3/4" in drip legs up to 2", 1" in drip legs
that measure 2.1/2" or 3", 1.1/2" for diameters larger than 3" but less than 10", and
2" for drip legs with diameters 10" and above.

At 3/4 of the height of the drip leg from its base, a horizontal draining pipe is
implanted and measures 1/2" or 3/4" according to the user's standard.

Steam trap

Good Better
Wrong elevation of condensate after a trap Correct elevation of condensate after a trap

Figure 7.4 Figure 7.5

When condensate has to be elevated after the draining element, up to the return
line, it is advisable to do so in accordance with the diagram in Figure 7-4.

If condensate is elevated before the draining element, a small siphon should be

placed before the elevation in order to prevent water hammers (Figure 7-5).

In addition to the draining element,

draining stations must contain ele-
ments that make the maintenance pro-
cess easier (filters, isolation valves,
and when necessary, bypass valves),
but the current tendency is to use com-
pact draining stations known as TVS
(Trap Valve Stations) which, in addi-
tion to the draining element, incorpo-
rate all of the previously mentioned
valves as shown in Figure 7-6.
Figure 7.6

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

Tracing Lines:

Any section of a tracing line Product Line

must not exceed 100 meters in Tracing Line 70 - 100 m
length. Steam distribution sta-
tions and energy traps alike Energy Trap
must be grouped in manifolds
in order to make their mainte-
nance easier (Figure 7-7). Steam Line
Condensate Line

Figure 7.7
Jacketed Lines:
Steam
Jacketed lines are commonly Jacketed Tracing
used for transporting substan-
ces that require high temperatu-
res in order to remain in the Product Line
liquid state with an adequate
viscosity. In this case, tracing is
very critical and condensate
temperatures have to be kept
monitored. Steam Trap

Figure 7.8

Valve and Instrumentation

Tracing:

This method applies the same Steam

goals mentioned in the pre-
vious paragraph; however, in
this case it is carried out by
wrapping a copper pipe around
the valves or instruments to be
heated (Figure 7-9).

Steam Trap

Valve and Instrument Tracing

Figure 7.9

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

Process Equipment Draining:

Air vent

Steam Trap

Sterilizer

Bath

Syphon

Steam Trap

Figure 7.10 Figure 7.11

When draining process equipment, the drip leg must have a vertical descending
distance between the equipment and the energy trap of between 300 and 700 mm,
selecting the drain pipe diameter and the diameter of the energy trap itself in
accordance with the capacity of condensate to be evacuated, differential pressure,
design safety factor, and any other condition imposed by the design.

In situations where there are special conditions like bottom coils with condensate
elevations before the energy trap (Figure 7-10), bottom siphons need to be used in
order to prevent water hammers.

In process equipment with large spaces for steam and/or frequent starts and stops,
it is necessary to prevent automatic air venting at the equipment's high points in
order to avoid the presence of non-condensable gases that would reduce the stea-
m's partial pressure (Dalton's Law), along with its saturation temperature, affecting
the thermal efficiency of the heating process. A thermostatic energy trap can be
used as an automatic air vent. Note that in these situations it is not sufficient to
have an energy trap with automatic air venting capabilities located at the bottom,
since the air and non-condensable gases in the upper area of the equipment would
never reach the bottom energy trap, making it necessary to install an air vent at the
top. The air vent must be installed at end of the vertical ascending pipe at least 1
meter in length, coming to an end in the shape of a swan´s neck behind the energy
trap, without any thermal insulation.

If the condensate flow to be evacuated in the equipment is unknown, follow the

rule of selecting the energy trap diameter that is one step lower than the diameter

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

of the equipment's outlet pipe. For example, a 2" energy trap is used if the equip-
ment outlet is 2 1/2".

Finally, the collective draining of process equipment through a single draining ele-
ment must be avoided (Figure 7-12) given that if it malfunctions, it simultaneously
affects all of the process equipment, and also, in certain conditions could cause a
backflow of condensate and non-condensable gases towards any one of these pie-
ces of equipment, which would result in a loss of efficiency, thermal water ham-
mers, and unexpected corrosion.

Wrong Steam Trap

Steam Traps

Right

Collective or single drining

Figure 7.12

7.5 MOUNTING OF DRAINING ELEMENTS

The mounting position of a draining element is determined by its principle of ope-
ration; in general, follow the rules below:

» Thermodynamic, labyrinth, or impulse steam traps must be installed horizon-

tally with the disk or upper cap at its highest position. If they are installed in
another position, they lose more energy and deteriorate quicker.

» Float or inverted bucket steam traps can only be installed in whichever posi-
tion that allows the flotation mechanism to move vertically with no restric-
tions. If they are installed in another position, the trap is no longer
operational.

» Thermostatic energy traps can be mounted in any position as they are exclusi-
vely controlled by the temperature of the condensate, and the mobile parts of
the valve are guided along their entire path.

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Draining stations are usually mounted in groups in a compact design, but it is

worth considering easy access and handling at each draining element in order to be
able to easily carry out future inspection and maintenance operations.

In some applications it may be useful to install a sightglass upstream of the drai-

ning element in order to be able to observe its operation; but, it must be taken into
account that the sightglass is an element that requires maintenance to clean the dirt
from its window. However, the same effect may be achieved through the use of
monitoring the drain element just as described in section 8.3.

Due to the evolution of the draining station inspection systems, the use of ultra-
sound makes it unnecessary to install test valves on the draining stations themsel-
ves.

In the same way, the problems generated by improper maneuvering of by-pass val-
ves (pressurization in return lines), together with the advances in the energy trap
design with external adjustment mechanisms, are contributing to eliminations of
by-pass valve, except in process equipment drains or highly critical drains where
they must be conserved for reasons of reliability.

Check valves, when necessary, must be of the highest quality and the lowest pres-
sure drop, especially in low differential pressure systems in order to not cause any
serious problems that keep the energy trap from operating, a very common situa-
tion in petrochemical facilities.

In areas where the meteorological conditions are not favorable, it is expected that
wind, rain, or freezes will have an effect on the draining stations' operation and
energy losses. Thus, when using thermodynamic steam traps, which are very sensi-
tive to adverse environmental conditions, or mechanical steam traps (float or
inverted bucket), which are large and have internal steam chambers, they must be
protected with adequate metal caps in order to keep the rain from falling directly
on them, since their operation would be seriously affected resulting in excessive
increases in energy loss and backpressure in the entire facility.

Remember that draining elements must not be thermally insulated since this could
invalidate its automatic venting capacity and reduce its evacuation capacity.
However, the rest of the pipes and valves that compose the draining station must
be thermally insulated.

Preventing freezes is extremely important for maintaining the facility, especially

when its operation is intermittent. If this is not anticipated, it may result in serious
damages. For this, plan on locating generously oversized drains in various low
points of the facility, as well as to avoid the elevation of condensates in all of the
draining stations, designing their own structure with atmospheric draining valves
that remain open during the periods when there is risk of freezes in all of the drai-

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Energy Traps and Intelligent Traps

ning stations that are susceptible to being affected, thus, draining the condensates
into the atmosphere. After the freeze risk period is over, the valves will be closed
in order to recover the residual energy of the condensates.

An alternative system for preventing freezes, more costly but undoubtedly more
worthwhile, is to substitute the manual draining valves for thermostatic valves,
preset at a temperature of 60 to 70 degrees; they remain closed during normal ope-
ration and they automatically open when there is a risk of a freeze so that the drai-
ning station can be emptied and avoid damages. For this purpose, thermostatic
energy traps with an external temperature adjustment mechanism are very useful in
that they make this task much easier.

When there is a risk of a freeze, horizontal pipe sections must be avoided before
and after the energy trap by using slopes. All of the pipes that drain into the atmos-
phere must be as short as possible.

During the draining of equipment with automatic steam supply control, a vacuum
can even be formed when the steam retained inside the equipment condenses while
the control valve is closed. In such situations, it is necessary to anticipate the use
of a vacuum breaker valve with a connection to the outside air on the draining side
of the process equipment.

Always when possible, draining element discharge must be sent to the main con-
densate return tank; when the condensate is elevated at the outlet of the draining
element, 1 bar of backpressure for approximately every 7 meters of elevation must
be taken into account (theoretically it would be 1 bar for every 10 meters of eleva-
tion, but in practice the previously mentioned amount is used in order to factor in
the presence of a certain amount of flash steam that coexists with the condensate
as well as the increased local backpressure that is produced). To avoid backflow,
use high quality check valves that have small pressure drops.

In process equipment with automatic steam supply control when there is expected
to be a differential pressure that is too low to evacuate condensates because of its
excessive elevation, it is necessary to install a safety draining system, made up of a
secondary energy trap mounted in parallel with the first, discharging into the
atmosphere or an atmospheric tank to recover the condensate.

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CAPITULO 8

INSPECTION OF DRAINING STATIONS

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The inspection of draining stations is meant to detect any type of anomaly whether
it is operational, related to efficiency, or of any other nature. Among the most fre-
quently detected issues during the inspection process are: internal or external
steam leaks, inadequate design or sizing, defective mounting, inadequate discharge
temperatures, obstructions, blockages, thermal water hammers, and excessive
backpressure.

Statistically, more than 80% of the incidents detected are related to steam leaks
and energy efficiency, while the rest are operational. Frequently, more than 20% of
draining stations have steam leaks or low energy efficiency, which is inconsistent
with rational energy use and sustainable development.

Establishing an effective inspection and intensive, preventive, and corrective main-

tenance system considerably reduces all of the previously mentioned incidents and
is especially useful in reducing steam leaks, optimizing energy efficiency, and
reducing greenhouse gas emissions in steam networks.

The following table shows the approximate amount of incidents in draining sta-
tions in relation to the frequency of inspection and maintenance:

Frequency of inspection and preventive

Typical failure rate
maintenance of draining stations
24 months 30 %
18 months 25 %
12 months 15 %
6 months 7%
3 months 5%
1 month 3%
1 day (continuous monitoring) < 0,2 %

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

Logically, the percentage of incidents decreases as the frequency of inspection

increases.

The choice of draining element also has a great influence on the facility's energy
efficiency, but looking at the previous table, this undeniable objective can only be
guaranteed through the implementation of continuous monitoring and an intensive
maintenance program (see chapter 9).

8.2 MOST COMMON INCIDENCES AND SOLUTIONS

The following are the most common incidents and solutions in draining stations:

Draining element is cold or does not drain:

» Verify that there is steam in the line

» Confirm that the filter is in good condition, inside or upstream of the draining
station, as well as possible obstructions in the line caused by a broken ele-
ment in the isolation valves, etc.

» Confirm that value of the real differential pressure as well as the steam trap
or energy trap's adequacy to work under such pressure (sometimes a larger
orifice is used to replace the internal valve of a float trap in order to increase
its discharge capacity; this can have completely negative outcomes since the
float will remain permanently blocked if the admissible differential pressure
limit for this orifice is exceeded).

» Verify the movement of the mechanism that drives the valve of the energy
trap. In float traps or inverted bucket traps, verify that there are no cracks or
holes that would reduce its buoyancy.

» Check if the automatic thermostatic air-venting device is obstructed or dete-

riorated, as this could produce blockage caused by non-condensable gases.

Draining element has an insufficient discharge capacity

» Verify the size of the draining element.

» Confirm that the internal automatic air-venting device is functioning

correctly.

» In thermostatic energy traps, modify its adjustment (if it has an adjustment

mechanism).

» In steam traps with intermittent discharge, check that the discharges are cycli-
cal, and if not, the steam trap is inadequate.

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

Draining element with an internal leak

» Verify the differential pressure and check that it is adequate for the draining
element being used.

» Check the wear and tear of the internal parts or for an object that could be
blocking it.

» Confirm that there are no leaks in the gasket between the body and valve seat.

» In inverted bucket traps check for hydraulic seal and replace it in case missed
by closing its output valve for several minutes and cooling the trap's body.

» In liquid expansion thermostatic energy traps, check for some stiffness of the
thermostat (bellows or capsule); if there is none, it could be due to the loss of
internal liquid from a perforation in the thermostat.

Draining element with an unjustified leak:

» Confirm if the real differential pressure is within the limits of the draining
element being used. If it is required, change the type of draining element or
reduce backpressure.

» In steam traps with automatic air venting, verify the integrity of the thermos-
tat or the venting element.

» In bimetallic energy traps, verify that the thermostat plates are in the correct
order; they must be grouped in pairs and the side facing outwards on both
plates must be the metal with a higher heat dilatation coefficient. To make
this process easier, the manufacturer generally labels the side with the higher
dilatation coefficient.

» In BiTherm bi-thermostatic energy traps, the lower thermostat, made up of a

single extended bimetallic plate, must have its labeled side facing towards the
valve seat.

8.3 METHODS FOR THE INSPECTION OF DRAINING STATIONS

The verification of draining stations should not only confirm the status of all of the
elements (draining elements, isolation valves, bypass valves, … ) but also its ade-
quacy and sizing for each application, as well as its energy efficiency.

This verification usually requires a certain level of experience and the combination
of different inspection methods, as described below:

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Direct visual inspection:

Observing the atmospheric discharge of a draining element (Figure 8-1) requires a

certain level of experience to be able to distinguish between live steam and flash
steam.

Undersized Good: Large flowrate of condensate

Good: Small flowrate of condensate Bad: Steam leak

More frequent failures in draining elements

Figure 8.1

The presence of flash steam in a draining element's discharge is natural and it does
not mean that there is a live steam leak. However, the formation of flash steam is
significantly reduced in tracing applications since it takes advantage of using part
of the condensate's sensible heat in order to increase energy efficiency-a currently
undeniable objective.

Generally, when a completely transparent stream of steam can be observed at the

drain's exit, it is without a doubt live steam, but if it is accompanied by drops of
water and it is slightly opaque, it could be flash steam formed from a properly
functioning energy trap. In-between cases are difficult to specify and experience is
necessary to make a proper diagnosis.

Visual inspection must take the following circumstances into consideration:

» When the energy traps discharges into a return line instead of the atmosphere,
a test valve is required in order to carry out the visual inspection.

» In steam traps, the test valve should always be installed just after the trap.

» In energy traps, the draining valve can be before or after. When the test valve
is placed before the energy trap, it provides the advantage of verifying if live

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

steam or condensate is reaching the element. Therefore, a few drops of water

should escape immediately followed by steam if the energy trap is working
properly; on the contrary, if dry steam is all that escapes, it is a sign that the
energy trap is leaking live steam, since there cannot be flash steam before it.
Note that if the test valve is mounted after the energy trap, it is natural for it
to release flash steam, even though it is functioning properly, which makes it
difficult to make the correct diagnosis.

» In the case of steam traps that intermittently discharge (thermodynamic and

inverted bucket traps), a test valve after the trap can verify if the operation is
intermittent; in any other case, the trap is leaking steam.

» In the case of steam traps that continuously discharge (float), the valve after
the trap always discharges flash steam, sometimes mixed with live steam; this
is why visual diagnosis can be inaccurate.

It must be taken into account that the visual inspection method is not highly
recommended since the draining element's real working conditions are changed
when the test valve is opened, eliminating backpressure.

It is common and widely known that draining elements that work correctly when
they discharge into the atmosphere are partially blocked or leak steam when they
are reconnected to the condensate return line.

Visual inspection with a sightglass

Inspections of draining station using sightglasses substitutes the test valve of the
visual inspection for a glass viewer located in the pipe before or after the steam
trap or energy trap.

There are three types of sightglasses:

» Simple

» Syphonic

» Electronic

The simple sightglass is generally installed after the draining element and only
allows for the verification of discharge but it is usually not possible to differentiate
between live steam or flash steam.

The syphonic sightglass (Figure 8-2) is a simple sightglass that incorporates an

internal siphon. It is installed before the draining element, and therefore, it is pos-
sible to identify the phase transition of the fluid (condensate or live steam) since
there will never be flash steam before the draining element.

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

Codensate flooded Good

Images on a shyphon sightglass installed before a draining element

Figure 8.2

In the siphonic sightglass, three different situations can be seen (Figure 8-2):

» Sightglass is entirely inundated: the draining element is flooded with con-

densate due to a lack of discharge capacity, obstruction, or blockage.

» The liquid level seen in the viewer of the sightglass reaches the highest point
of the central separator of the two sides of the siphon: the draining element is
working properly, without loss of steam.

» The liquid level seen in the viewer of the sightglass does not reach the hig-
hest point of the siphon separator: the draining element leaks steam, which
increases as the distance between both levels increases.

The usefulness of sightglasses is limited to low pressure applications and has the
disadvantage of getting dirty quickly, losing its transparency due to the progressive
build up of oxide particles on its glass, invalidating its usefulness and increasing
maintenance costs.

A more sophisticated type of sightglass is electronic, which consists of a small

recipient with an internal electrode. In the presence of condensate, the electrode
closes the electrical circuit by conductivity, and it opens it when there is a steam
leak. The signal is isolated by exterior measuring equipment that is connectable
to the recipient; however, its is almost never used due to its high costs and low
reliability, since the electrode short-circuits when it is recoated with a layer of iron
oxide (magnetite) which invalidates its diagnostic purpose.

Inspection using time measurement

This method is only applicable in steam traps that operate in cycles, as these are
the basis for obtaining a time measurement between two consecutive discharges of

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

the trap. A chronometer is not necessary; it is sufficient to count 101, 102, 103, …
in order to achieve a sufficiently valid duration of the trap cycles in seconds.

If there are no cycles, these three situations may occur:

» The trap is cold, out of service, or blocked.

» The trap is inundated with condensate and it discharges condensate at a low

temperature, either as a result of under sizing or excessive backpressure.

» The trap leaks steam and has a very elevated temperature.

If the trap opens cyclically, verify that the duration of these cycles are not excessi-
vely short. In thermodynamic disk traps, the duration of the cycles must not be
less than 30 seconds; if not, the shorter the cycle is, the more deteriorated the inter-
nal valve will be and the larger the energy loss will be.

Inspection using temperature

Inspecting draining elements exclusively using temperature measurements usually

produces errors, since it can only be applied correctly with additional information
that is not typically available to the person performing the inspection. For this
method of diagnosis to be reliable, the following facts must be understood:

» The type and operation of the draining element (continuous or intermittent

discharge, super-cooled or saturation temperature discharge), which determi-
nes the discharge temperature adjustment limitations.

» The type of service (turbine protection, drip leg, process equipment, normal
tracing, critical tracing, tank heating, …) determines the optimal discharge
temperature of the draining element for each application.

» Inlet pressure of the draining element: This value may vary due to the action
of regulator valves at entrances to equipment or because of variations in con-
sumption. For example, in low-pressure steam networks, this value can fluc-
tuate between 2.5 bar and 4 bar, altering the steam's saturation temperature.

» Outlet pressure of the draining element: this is usually unknown since it is

not enough to know the pressure in the steam line, but rather the amount of
pressure right at the energy trap's outlet, where there may be large variations
due to the formation of local flash steam. Its value modifies the energy trap's
discharge temperature.

The variations of outlet pressure can depend on multiple causes that are difficult to
identify (internal leaks, insufficient sizing of local return line, elevated discharge
temperature forming excessive flash steam, partial obstruction of the return line or

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stop valve, manual draining of water, inadequate regulation of the energy trap for
its service, type of draining element itself and the nearest draining elements, …).

When there is doubt about the existence of leaks, various temperature measure-
ments must be taken: before, on, and after the draining element. If the draining
station is operating correctly, the backpressure is less than the pressure of steam,
and therefore, the outlet temperature is lower. If the temperature of the inlet is
correct and there is not thermal jump because the inlet and outlet of the draining
stations, there must be internal steam leaks.

In summary, diagnosis through the exclusive use of temperature measurement can

be erroneous if all of the previously mentioned variables are not taken into
account.

Inspection using ultrasound

This method is quick and very reliable for detecting internal steam leaks in drai-
ning stations. It consists of capturing the ultrasound generated by the passing of
steam or gas through an orifice.

In effect, gas or steam that flows at a high velocity through a narrowing generates
noise along a wide range of frequencies, highlighting the harmonic that corres-
ponds to a narrow frequency range around 39 KHz (+/- 2 KHz).

In order to apply this method, it is recommendable to understand how the draining

element operates, its discharge type (continuous or cyclical), and how to choose
the sensitivity of the instrument that corresponds to the pressure of the steam of the
draining element; next, firmly apply the contact probe on the draining element in
order to read the diagnosis on the LCD screen.

Figure 8-3 shows the BiTherm LeakTector LT3-EX ultrasound detector, with a
contact probe, an optional directional probe for detecting compressed gas leaks, a
discontinuous sensitivity selector, and a rechargeable battery. This equipment has
the intrinsic safety certificate according to ATEX II 1G, "Ex ia IIC T4 Ga", for use
in potentially explosive environments, and its elevated sensitivity makes it capable
of diagnosing very small steam leaks.

The reliability of this method depends on the quality of the ultrasound detector, the
adjustment mode of its measurement scales, and the user's experience level. To
avoid diagnosis errors and to make use easier, avoid using continual scale selectors
as the sensitivity adjustment depends on the expertise of the operator and the
results are not always reliable.

Note that the ultrasound method losses reliability when the local backpressure is
very high after the draining element and the differential pressure is reduced to a

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

Figure 8.3

low value; in this situation, the steam's velocity can be so low that it does not
generate an ultrasound, invalidating this method of detection.

When in doubt, such as in draining elements with large steam flows where there is
a large amount of flash steam produced which can create its own ultrasound that
can be misinterpreted as a live steam leak, two readings must be taken: one over
the draining element itself, and another 1 to 2 meters downstream. When compa-
ring both measurements, if the ultrasound level detected is similar at all of the
points, there is most likely a steam leak; on the contrary, if the ultrasound weakens
downstream, it is produced by flash steam and not by the passing of live steam,
which can be interpreted as an acceptable condition.

In energy traps with small steam flows, temperature measurements are generally
dismissed since ultrasound detection is sufficiently reliable.

Inspection using the SmartWatchWebTM remote monitoring system:

The SmartWatchWebTM monitoring system, an essential part of modern intelligent

energy traps and valves (Chapter 5.3), combines the measurement of up to four
parameters (ultrasound, temperature, pressure, and backpressure) in order to remo-
tely analyze the operation and energy efficiency of the draining stations in real
time.

Therefore, it is not a simple inspection method but rather a technology that provi-
des the analysis and diagnostic tools necessary to implement the "Intensive Main-
tenance" methodology in steam networks (Chapter 9).

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The measurements are automatically taken at regularly programmed intervals

(usually every 5 seconds), saving all of the information gathered in a local or
remote server, accessible to any authorized user.

The upper part of figure 8-4, shows a screen of the system's graphic interface; in it,
the draining elements are grouped in loops. Each loop consists of 4 small colored
icons, all of which correspond to a monitored parameter (row 1-ultrasound, row 2-
temperature, row 3-pressure, and row 4-backpressure). The color of each icon
easily identifies the status of the corresponding parameter.

Note that there is only a small number of icons that fall into rows 3 and 4 of the
loops; this is because a lesser number of pressure and backpressure sensors is
enough to obtain a pressure map of the steam/condensate network.

The measurements taken are kept in a history record, allowing for the analysis of
the evolution of any incident in monitored draining elements as well as the verifi-
cation of its correct interpretation; this way, the diagnosis obtained is highly relia-
ble.

Clicking on any colored icon will provide the information that corresponds to the
draining element it represents, as shown in the lower section of figure 8-4.

This new screen of the graphic interface allows for the analysis of the evolution of
the monitored parameters in the draining elements for any time range selected.

The combination of all of the information and the availability of measurement

records makes it possible to have an accurate analysis, eliminating the diagnostic
errors described in all of the previously mentioned methods when evaluated indivi-
dually. In effect, the variations detected in each parameter remain registered and
their analysis allows for the identification of any incident; in addition, adequately
setting the alarm thresholds, the system carries out a predictive analysis of inci-
dents, making it possible to avoid failures and extend the life of the draining ele-
ments considerably.

It is generally not required to check all of the individual information of each ele-
ment being monitored unless it is necessary to do a full analysis. The interface has
a button that performs an instantaneous audit in all of the elements being monito-
red and it generates a list of all of the incidents detected so that they may be repai-
red immediately.

Lastly, there is an alarm screen that makes it possible to analyze any of them
throughout time in order to improve the facility's future operations.

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OK
OK
Loop 1
Low temperature
Low pressure
High back pressure
Steam leak Lack of sign

Legend

Figure 8.4

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8.4 PROTOCOLO DE INSPECCIÓN DE ESTACIONES DE PURGA

A continuación se resume el protocolo de actuación recomendado para realizar la
inspección de estaciones de purga.

Se distinguen dos casos:

Estaciones de purga no monitorizadas

Es aconsejable realizar su inspección periódica al menos una vez cada seis meses
con objeto de reducir costes energéticos y de mantenimiento. El procedimiento de
inspección recomendado es el siguiente:

1.Revisar el aspecto exterior de todos los elementos de la estación de purga

(válvulas de aislamiento, filtro, elemento de purga, accesorios, conexiones,
placa de identificación de la estación de purga, etc) y anotar cualquier defi-
ciencia que se observe en ellos.

2.Anotar o verificar la exactitud de los datos del elemento de purga (número de

identificación, marca, modelo, tamaño, conexión, presión de vapor, presión
de retorno, tipo de aplicación, etc).

3.Revisar el estado de las válvulas de asilamiento anterior y posterior. Si

alguna de las dos está cerrada el diagnóstico es "fuera de servicio".

4.Revisar el estado de las válvulas de bypass (si existe) y, si está abierta el

diagnóstico es "purga por bypass"

5.Comprobar que el elemento de purga no esté bloqueado; si su temperatura es

próxima a la ambiente y la estación de purga no dispone de válvula de lim-
pieza de filtro el diagnóstico es "bloqueado". Si la estación de purga dispone
de válvula de limpieza de filtro, abrirla para soplar el filtro y verificar si se
resuelve el problema. Si la situación persiste el diagnóstico es "bloqueado".

6.Si la estación de purga está operativa, aplicar la sonda de contacto del detec-
tor de ultrasonido al cuerpo del elemento de purga para verificar su funciona-
miento. Si el detector capta ultrasonido debe asegurarse que es generado por
el elemento de purga y no procede de vibraciones estructurales, elevado nivel
de revaporizado, fuga por bypass o por otro elemento de purga próximo. Para
ello debe aplicarse la sonda del detector en elementos próximos al inspeccio-
nado para tratar de identificar la fuente de ultrasonido. En zonas con presen-
cia de vibraciones estructurales reducir la sensibilidad del detector y
asegurarse de que el método de ultrasonido es aplicable; en otro caso sustituir
este método de verificación por otro. Una vez garantizada la validez del
método y asegurado que el ultrasonido es causado por el elemento de purga
pueden suceder varios casos:

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» Ultrasonido continuo < 20 % de la escala. Diagnóstico "fuga parcial".

» Ultrasonido continuo > 20 % de la escala. Diagnóstico "fuga continua".

» Ultrasonido discontinuo con ciclo > 30 sg en trampas de vapor termodiná-

micas. Diagnóstico "aceptable".

» Ultrasonido discontinuo con ciclo entre 5 y 30 sg en trampas de vapor ter-

modinámicas. Diagnóstico "bajo rendimiento".

» Ultrasonido discontinuo con ciclo < 5 sg en trampas de vapor termodinámi-

cas. Diagnóstico "fuga parcial".

7.Cuando no se alcanza la temperatura deseada en el proceso debe analizarse si

la estación de purga está bien dimensionada y su ajuste es correcto.

8. Finalmente registrar los datos recogidos en campo en una aplicación ade-

cuada de gestión de estaciones de purga, por ejemplo TrapHelp, a fin de obte-
ner fácilmente estadísticas de fallos, listados de reparaciones, pérdidas de
energía debidas a fallo, tipos de fallo y distribución por tipo de equipos, etc.,
en su defecto, utilizar una base de datos.

9.Generar el informe final de inspección con recomendaciones para mejorar la

eficiencia energética, funcionamiento y mantenimiento futuro de la instala-
ción.

Estaciones de purga monitorizadas (SmartWatchWeb)

En este caso la inspección de la estación de purga se realiza continuamente de

modo automático; no obstante, se recomienda realizar una inspección ocular con
carácter periódico, por ejemplo semestralmente, para descartar posibles incidencias
que no pueden ser detectadas por el propio sistema de monitorización (desmontaje
de sensores de su fijación original, etc.)

Es importante observar que todos los posibles fallos en estaciones de purga serán
detectados y registrados por el sistema de monitorización siempre que hayan sido
correctamente ajustados los umbrales de los parámetros monitorizados (ultraso-
nido, temperatura, presión y contrapresión), de otro modo los parámetros seguirán
siendo medidos pero las alarmas no serán reales.

La correcta fijación de umbrales debe ser realizada analizando la aplicación de

cada estación de purga para adecuarlos a cada caso particular con objeto de maxi-
mizar su eficiencia energética y optimizar el funcionamiento de la instalación.

El ajuste de umbrales de parámetros monitorizados debe fijarse de acuerdo con los

siguientes indicados a continuación; no obstante estos criterios se modificarán de

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acuerdo con las características particulares de cada aplicación y la experiencia

obtenida:

Umbral de ultrasonido:

En sensores de 8 bits de resolución (antiguos dispositivos SW-10) el umbral básico

por defecto se fijará a un valor digital de 50. En caso de ruido estructural se fijará
50 unidades digitales por encima del nivel medio de ruido ultrasónico detectado
por el sistema. En casos especiales debe fijarse el umbral en concordancia con el
umbral de temperatura.

En sensores de 10 bits (nuevos dispositivos SWW-10) el umbral básico por defecto

se fijará a un valor digital de 200. En caso de ruido estructural se fijará 200 unida-
des digitales por encima del nivel medio de ruido ultrasónico detectado por el sis-
tema. En casos especiales debe fijarse el umbral en concordancia con el umbral de
temperatura.

Umbral de temperatura:

Este parámetro solamente puede aplicarse en purgadores BiTherm ya que otros

purgadores no disponen de conexión directa para SmartWatch.

Su umbral se fijará de acuerdo con la aplicación, pero debe tenerse en cuenta que
el sistema mide la temperatura externa del purgador y que la interna es unos 80 º
superior. Así, por ejemplo, en aplicaciones de traceado el umbral típico de tempe-
ratura mínima es 40 ºC (120 ºC en el interior). En los sensores SWW-10, en los
que también es posible fijar un umbral máximo de temperatura, este máximo debe
ser unos 10 º C por debajo de la temperatura de saturación, para garantizar la
detección del deterioro progresivo del purgador mucho antes de que se llegue a
producir su fallo; esto reduce enormemente el coste de mantenimiento.

En otras aplicaciones se utilizará el mismo criterio adecuando los umbrales a la

temperatura del vapor en el proceso.

Umbral de presión:

El umbral de presión de máxima de entrada se fija con valor elevado, sin sobrepa-
sar la máxima presión que el elemento de purga puede soportar.

El umbral de presión de mínima de entrada se debe fijar por defecto a un valor 20

% por debajo de la presión nominal del vapor.

Umbral de contrapresión

El umbral de presión de máxima de salida se fijará de acuerdo con el máximo valor

de contrapresión admisible en cada estación de purga, que depende de la contrapre-

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sión existente y del tipo de elemento de purga. Por ejemplo, en aplicaciones de

baja presión (3,5 bar) este umbral será 2,5 bar para purgadores termostáticos y de
1,5 bar para trampas de vapor termodinámicas; de esta forma se garantizará una
presión diferencial mínima compatible con el tipo de elemento de purga y se evita-
rán problemas de funcionamiento de la instalación.

El umbral de presión de mínima de salida se debe habitualmente en cero.

8.5 MANTENIMIENTO DE ESTACIONES DE PURGA

El mantenimiento de estaciones de purga dependerá de su plan de inspección;
cuanto mayor sea el periodo entre dos inspecciones consecutivas mayor será el
deterioro de los elementos de purga y mayor el coste de repuestos.

En estaciones de purga monitorizadas, todas las anomalías son detectadas tan

pronto como aparecen y pueden ser reparadas en menos de 24 horas, de esta forma
se obtienen los máximos beneficios no sólo energéticos sino de mantenimiento.
Así, la experiencia ha demostrado que los elementos de purga multiplican su vida
útil cuando cualquier fuga incipiente detectada en ellos es reparada en menos de 24
horas.

Para realizar las reparaciones deben emplearse siempre piezas de origen; debe evi-
tarse reparar piezas deterioradas a menos que posteriormente se realicen los trata-
mientos térmicos y superficiales a que fueron sometidas durante su fabricación
inicial.

Cuando se desmota un elemento de purga es aconsejable sustituir todas las juntas

existentes entre superficies de unión para evitar fugas posteriores.

Para reducir costes de reparación y mejorar el funcionamiento de la instalación es

aconsejable utilizar, siempre que sea posible, purgadores bitermostáticos de pre-
sión equilibrada y mecanismo de ajuste externo. Esto alarga considerablemente la
vida útil y reduce enormemente el consumo de repuestos ya que sus reparaciones
se realizan mediante un simple ajuste externo, que se realiza sin interrupción del
vapor y no precisa ningún repuesto.

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CAPITULO 9

ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND MAINTENANCE

9.1 INTRODUCTION
The relationship that exists between the correct functioning of the draining ele-
ments and energy efficiency of the steam network has already been mentioned in
previous chapters. However, there are some very common applications (tracing)
where energy traps can act as a direct energy saving element, by simply adjusting
its discharge temperature to 40 °C below the steam saturation temperature.

In other cases, it is possible to apply this concept although the discharge tempera-
ture is adjusted closer to the values of the steam saturation temperature, such as
draining drip legs in distribution lines where there is a vertical distance from the
drip leg to the draining element greater than 2 meters; in this case it is possible to
reduce the discharge temperature so that it is able to retain a small column of water
(less than 1 m height) upstream of the steam trap, which reduces conduction
energy losses to the outside in the affected area due to the fact that the heat trans-
mission coefficient of water-metal-air is a hundred times smaller than the heat
transfer coefficient of steam-metal-air. Additionally, this practice extends the life
of steam traps and reduces backpressure in the return line.

When discussing the topic of saving energy in steam networks, the energy effi-
ciency of draining elements must be considered, which depends on its own energy
consumption as well as its direct and indirect energy losses associated with the
type of draining element.

Furthermore, any equipment requires maintenance in order to keep it functioning

properly, but in the case of equipment that handles energy, such as draining sta-
tions, their maintenance must be focused on optimizing energy efficiency.

Until the birth of modern intelligent energy traps, the maintenance of draining sta-
tions was corrective, with periodic survey campaigns being conducted, (yearly or
bi annually) to detect incidents and steam leaks to be subsequently repaired.

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The need to reduce energy consumption, increase efficiency of production proces-

ses, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions requires the use of ever more advanced
technologies, which when applied to the field of draining elements has led to the
development of intelligent energy traps.

The use of such intelligent energy traps provides real-time operating data, elimina-
ting the need for long and laborious field surveys; this has substantially modified
the classical concept of draining station maintenance, leading to a new concept
known as "Intensive Maintenance".

8.2 DIRECT AND INDIRECT ENERGY LOSS

All draining elements have certain energy self-consumption. Of course, it depends
on its size, the physical phase of the fluid inside (steam or condensate), its working
principle, material and thickness of its body, and operation temperature.

This self-consumption can be in the form of live steam, or steam which is conden-
sed inside the draining element due to energy loss. The first form is a direct energy
loss, easily observable and measurable, while the second form due to self-con-
sumption is more subtle and can be qualified as indirect loss (Figure 9-1).

BIG INDIRECT ENERGY LOSS SMALL INDIRECT ENERGY LOSS

Big heat transmission coefficient Small heat transmission coefficient
(STEAM - metal - air) (WATER - metal - air)

O
WATER

STEAM

STEAM TRAP

STEAM TRAP ENERGY TRAP

Figure 9.1

For example, direct energy loss is the live steam that escapes in each cycle of a
thermodynamic steam trap, while indirect loss is due to the condensation of steam
inside an inverted bucket steam trap.

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In humid, cold or windy climates, the size of the trap has a significant influence on
its self-consumption of energy. Of all atmospheric phenomena, rain is the most
influential on the energy losses of draining elements; they can be multiplied by 5
to 10 times with respect to a dry day on thermodynamic steam traps (disk type).

Atmospheric phenomena strongly affect steam traps containing live steam inside,
while they have a small influence on thermostatic energy traps which only contain
hot condensate. Obviously the condensation of steam inside the steam trap repre-
sents an indirect energy loss that is much stronger than the energy loss due to sen-
sible heat transfer on thermostatic traps that only contain hot condensate. This
happens in float and inverted bucket traps where steam is always present; this
steam continuously condenses through heat transfer to the outside which constitu-
tes an indirect loss of energy.

Indirect loss is particularly relevant in the thermodynamic disk trap whose upper
control chamber retains a small amount of steam, which aims to provide the clo-
sing force; the heat transfer toward outside under the influence of the weather
(rain, cold and wind) causes the condensation of steam retained in the control
chamber and the steam trap opens. This occurs even when there is no condensate
to evacuate, discharging live steam into the return line.

To mitigate this energy loss, steam traps can be covered by a cap that protects them
from the rain; remember that steam traps must never be thermally isolated in order
not to hinder its automatic air venting ability.

Thermostatic energy traps are much less sensitive to indirect energy losses because
there is only condensate inside and their efficiency is usually affected only around
15%.

Another interesting aspect is the volume of the trap; the more voluminous it is, the
greater its indirect energy loss. Sizing of the internal valve must also be considered
because an oversized valve worsens its regulatory ability and causes more wear
and tear, increasing energy and maintenance costs.

It is common to think that the losses of any small steam trap (1/2 ") are negligible
because they are generally used to drain a low flow rate, the order of 10 kg / h. But
this is misleading, because individually a typical loss around 20 kg/h to 30 kg/h is
small in absolute value, but since the number of elements in this situation can rise
to several hundred or thousands of elements the resulting amount is considerable.
Note that the average flow rate of tracing points is around 10 Kg/h. Therefore, a
loss of steam from 20 to 30 kg / h represents a huge energy waste from 200% to
300%. Therefore, in practice, using intelligent energy traps is possible to save a
gigantic amount of energy on steam facilities where there are thousands of drai-
ning elements (tracing and drip legs).

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8.3 PRESURIZATION OF RETURN LINES

Pressurization of return lines has strong impact on the efficiency of the steam net-
work. Return lines lead the condensate evacuated through draining elements and
the residual energy of the condensate to the boiler to be transformed back into
steam using part of the sensible heat of the liquid.

Internal steam leaks through draining elements produce a pressure increase in

return lines, which causes serious problems affecting both the operation of the
facility as its energy efficiency.

The most important problems caused by pressurization of return lines are:

» Difficulty to return condensate to the boiler

» Reduction of discharge capacity of draining elements

» Modify the discharge temperature in thermostatic energy traps

» If backpressure exceeds 60% of the inlet pressure, it causes great loss of

energy in thermodynamic traps.

» Increase the temperature in the return lines and thus energy losses by conduc-
tion, convection and radiation into the atmosphere

» It favors cavitation in boiler feed pumps

» It causes thermal water hammers and thus the occurrence of leaks in valves
and fittings

» It reduces the overall energy efficiency of the steam network by recirculation

of energy

Pressurization of the return lines is a spontaneous phenomenon associated with the

flash steam formed in condensate discharge of draining traps (see section 1-3).

Pressurization of the return lines is the most common problem that is present in
large facilities, such us refineries and chemical plants, where a huge amount of
draining elements exists.

Pressurization of the return lines increases not only because of the presence of
internal leaks of live steam but also because of the flash steam. The formation of
flash steam depends on the condensate discharge temperature. It is obvious that the
influence on the backpressure in the return lines depends on the type of draining
element.

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However, during the return lines design, sometimes the type of draining element is
not considered. This results in a bad calculation of the return lines backpressure
which causes serious problems in the whole network, mainly when large steam
network are involved with low operating pressures (For example, tracing lines
using 3,5 bar steam pressure).

In accordance with section 6.5 in this manual, the theoretic amount of flash steam
that the return line will drive has to be considered to calculate the return line. In
this calculation, it is required to consider a flow velocity of 15 m/s for the mentio-
ned flash steam.

However, even in the situation that there is not any steam leak, the formation of
flash steam does not only depend on the condensate discharge temperature but also
on the small amounts of live steam put inside the return line. These small amounts
are used as the control steam that some steam traps need to work properly (ther-
modynamic steam traps, inverted bucket steam traps, impulse steam traps, etc).
The mentioned small live steam injections allow certain amount of condensate to
revaporize inside the return line, and this live steam is very difficult to estimate.

On the contrary, thermostatic energy traps reduce the return line backpressure
because of their less discharge temperature. That means reduce the residual energy
discharged to the return line.

In summary, theoretical calculations for sizing the return lines are valid when they
correspond to draining elements discharging at the saturation point. Pressurization
will be lower when using thermostatic energy traps, and will be higher to the theo-
retical when using steam traps.

In the practice, frequently it happens that facilities are extended in the future but
the return line remains changeless. This, as well as the aged deterioration, worsens
the design situation to a situation where the network collapses. So, it is necessary
to discharge the condensate to the atmosphere, meaning huge energy losses.

One of the most harmful features of the pressurization of return lines is that it
expands quickly along the whole network, although the effect begins in lonely
points, the discharge of steam traps affects other nearby. This results in increasing
steam leaks what means there is a multiplier effect that quickly expands along the
whole return line.

Thermostatic energy traps help to reduce this effect, due to the fact that the local
backpressure in the return line hinders and restricts the discharge of other nearby
energy traps, avoiding that the effect quickly expands.

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9.4 INTENSIVE MAINTENANCE OF DRAINING STATIONS

In large facilities, the classical preventive and corrective maintenance system of
draining points is very laborious process due to the thousands of elements to
check. The process consists of two sequential steps. First, all the elements of each
draining station have to be periodically inspected what will end in making an ins-
pection report. Second, repair of all incidences that were mentioned in the report.

It is recommended to divide the entire population of elements to be inspected in

smaller groups in order to make easier the inspection. However, the inspection and
repair of thousands of draining elements take long time, and this fact leads to big
delays between the inspection of one draining element and its repair. The intensive
maintenance substantially modifies this work scheme because the use of intelligent
energy traps eliminates the periodically and manual inspection, providing on real
time all information about any incidence.

The main feature of the intensive maintenance is to join the concepts of predictive,
preventive and corrective maintenance in only one process, in which all anomalies
are detected as soon as they appear, and so they can be repaired in less than 24 h to
optimize the human resources.

Figure 9.2

Figure 9-2 shows one of the multiples tools provided by the intensive maintenance
graphical interface, where the incidences are easily identified by colours.

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As it is shown in this figure, this online intensive maintenance interface can also
handle the classical maintenance of non intelligent draining stations.

All information, regarding both types of draining stations, is recorded in the server
and it can be queried by the customer. The interface allows the customer to make
instantaneous energy audits, make all kind of reports, etc. For example, figure 9-3
shows a report of the status of all draining elements, this report can be filtered by
the type of incidence.

Figure 9.3

9.5 BENEFITS OF THE INTENSIVE MAINTENANCE

The experience shows that all elements subject to intensive maintenance multiplies
their lifespan by 2 or 3 times respect to the one achieved by the classical mainte-
nance scheme, because the internal leaks not detected on time are very erosive and
destroy the internal of the draining stations.

The intensive maintenance of draining stations adds the following goals to those
expected from the classical maintenance:

» Predict, prevent and/or correct any incidence in draining stations, focusing on

multiple aspects (operational, energetic, etc)

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» Reduce maintenance costs (they can be considered negligible because the

benefits of the intensive maintenance are much higher than that of total main-
tenance costs)

» Increase reliability and availability of the steam and condensate network

» Increase safety of facilities and people

9.6 INTENSIVE MAINTENANCE AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Environmental aspects and the efficient use of scarce resources, for example water,
will impulse the energetic performances in the world during the next years. In the
Climate Summit in Cancun, it was agreed that the global average temperature has
not to exceed 2ºC in the year 2050, and to achieve this goal all required actions to
reduce the greenhouse gas emissions have to be taken. The most outstanding action
that can be taken is regarding energy efficiency because it contributes to reduce
CO2 emissions and the consumption of products with high energy value in the mar-
ket, as well as water that is a scarce resource in the world.

In the following years, all countries have to take actions to achieve this commit-
ment especially since the 1st of January, 2012. This year, Kyoto Protocol finishes.
The UE is leading environmental actions in the world. The UE has taken on the
firm commitment from all their Members to achieve a 20% improvement in energy
efficiency and reduce 20% CO2 emissions in 2020 regarding those of 2008. Presu-
mably, similar actions and even more strict will be agreed in coming Climate Sum-
mits. The visible effects of the climate change (heavy flooding, large tornadoes,
etc) will impulse new actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Energy effi-
ciency is the simplest and most profitable tool to achieve this goal, recognized by
the International Agency of Energy, followed by renewable energies, CO2 capture
and storage, and Nuclear Energy.

Large energetic facilities should anticipate the coming changes, in an intelligent

way, improving profitably the energy efficiency of those processes for reducing
emissions. As it is known, Petrochemical facilities consume huge amount of steam,
meaning energy, mainly generated from fossil fuels. Energy efficiency of steam
networks is strongly conditioned by steam energy degradation, which is handled
by thousands of draining elements, so considering all these elements as one only
equipment, then becomes one of the most important steam consuming equipment
in these facilities. Additionally, steam leaks and energy inefficiency in draining
elements result in huge energy losses, increase of consumption of treated water,
increase of production and maintenance costs, as well as huge CO2 emissions to
the atmosphere.

Currently, without any doubt, Intensive Maintenance applied in steam networks is

the tool that can have most impact for energy saving, to produce increases in

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

energy efficiency between 8% and 15% and the corresponding greenhouse gas
emissions reduction.

For example, figure 9-4 shows the energy graphic of the graphical interface to
manage “Intensive Maintenance”.

Figure 9.4

Each bar represents the daily steam leak in draining stations. The bottom part of
that bar, with a more intense colour, corresponds to non monitored draining sta-
tions. The upper part of that bar, with a less intense colour, corresponds to intelli-
gent draining stations.

The upper chart shows the typical evolution of steam leaks after implementing the
Intenisve Maintenance in the facility. The chart in the middle shows the evolution
of CO2 emissions, and the bottom chart shows the initial base line (top horizontal
line) and the evolution (green area) and accumulated amount of CO2 emissions
reduction, in the selected period. The following example gives an idea of the eco-
nomical repercussion of this subject:

The energetic cost of refining crude represents between 50% and 60% of the total
cost, in Europe. 25% of this energy corresponds to steam consumption. So, steam
consumption means a percentage between 12,5% and 15% of the total cost of refi-
ning crude. Due to the fact that this steam is handled by draining elements, it is

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Steam Manual: Steam Traps, Steam Energy Traps and Smart Energy Traps

obvious that a 15% increase of its energy efficiency will reduce between 1,87%
and 2,25% of the total refining cost (here it is not considered the additional benefit
of reducing CO2 emissions).

Draining elements are the direct responsible for energy efficiency in the steam
facility as well as they are involved in the following aspects:

» Influence the increase of backpressure in return lines

» Influence in the occurrence of thermal water hammers

» Influence in the occurrence of thermal water hammers

» Affect the lifespan of the facility: pipelines, accessories, …

» Control the energetic degradation of steam and, so, influence in the genera-
tion of CO2 emissions

» Contribute to the general thought about the right use of energy

The following information highlights the importance of this matter:

One steam leak (42 Kg/h) in a small draining element (1/2” size) installed in a low
pressure steam line, represents an energy cost of 368 tons of steam per year and
103 Tons of CO2 emissions to the atmosphere per year.

In order to estimate steam leaks occurring in draining elements, it can be used the
software "Simulation of steam leaks" in the following website:

http://www.smartwatchweb.com

9.7 ADVICES ABOUT REPAIRING OF DRAINING STATIONS

It is worth to recall that all repairs have to be done by using the original spare parts
from the supplier, in all cases, avoiding repair the damaged pieces unless they are
thermally treated, and coated as they were originally.

It is advisable to replace all gaskets between the bonding surfaces after disassem-
bling a draining element in order to avoid future steam leaks.

It is advisable to use bithermostatic energy traps, whenever possible, which is a

balanced pressure energy trap and with external adjustment mechanism in order to
reduce repair costs and improve operation in the facility. Using this type of energy
trap considerably lengthens lifespan and highly reduces the use of spare parts, as
its repairs can be done by only using the external adjustment without interrupting
steam in the facility.

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