STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK

MECHANICS

Geology Final Requirement

Prepared By Group 3:

Abad, Jayvee
Buraga, Jibril
Gonzales, Rose Marie
Quianzon, Jerry Vie
Mationg, Karel Paolo
Sagun, Louise Alfred
Telan, Jerome
Verdadero, Eloisa
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS

Structural geology
Scientific discipline that is concerned with rock deformation on both a large and a small
scale. Its scope of study is vast, ranging from submicroscopic lattice defects in crystals
to fault structures and fold systems of the Earth’s crust.

The Place of Structural Geology in Sciences

Science is the search for
knowledge about the Universe, its
origin, its evolution, and how it
works. Geology, one of the core
science disciplines with physics,
chemistry, and biology, is the
search for knowledge about the
Earth, how it formed, evolved, and
how it works. Geology is often
presented in the broader context
of Geosciences; a grouping of
disciplines specifically looking for
knowledge about the interaction
between Earth processes,
Environment and Societies.

Rock Mechanics
Rock mechanics is a discipline that uses the principles of mechanics to describe the behavior of
rock of engineering scale. When the scale of the deformation is extended to large geologic structures
in the crust of the Earth, the field of study is known as geotectonic.

Scope of Rock Mechanics

 Civil Engineering

 Mining Engineering

 Petroleum
Engineering

 Geology

 Geophysics
  Etc.

Application of Rock Mechanics

1. Deep Excavations

 Mines (Temporary and Permanent)

 Tunnels (Roads, H.E.P.)

 Underground chambers (Power

stations, storage, recreational)

2. Energy Development

 Petroleum

 Geothermal

 Nuclear (Power plants, Waste Disposal)

 Energy storage caverns

Geological Map
Geological maps represent the solid geology at the Earth’s surface unconcealed by
vegetation, soil or buildings. Different rock types and formations are illustrated by different
colours and/or symbols. Other features such as faults, mineral veins, coal seams, marker
horizons and landslips are shown. Bedding and structural features such as cleavage and
foliations are indicated by strike and dip or plunge and azimuth symbols.

Geologic maps show the distribution of different types of structures and rock
stratigraphic units generally on a topographic base such as a quadrangle map. Key structures
that are commonly shown include (1) bedding attitudes, (2) anticlines, (3) synclines, and (4)
faults.
Attitude of Beds and Outcrops
A bedding attitude is defined as the strike and dip of a bed. Strike is the direction of a
line produced by the intersection of an imaginary horizontal plane with an inclined bed.
From previous laboratories you should know that based on the Principle of Original
Horizontality sedimentary beds are originally deposited as a series of horizontal layers one
on top of another. Such beds would have an infinite number of strike lines as the
intersection of an imaginary horizontal plane with a horizontal bed is an infinite number of
lines oriented from 0o to 360o (Figure 1).

In contrast, if a bed is inclined relative

to the horizontal, then its intersection with
an imaginary horizontal plane produces one
and only one line (Figure 2). The direction of
this line is the strike of the bed.
 Dip is the angle between the imaginary horizontal plane and the inclined bed measured
in a plane oriented at 90o to the strike line (Figure 3).
In all of the above illustrations strike and dip is defined for an inclined layer such as a bed or
lamination or rock stratigraphic unit (e.g., a member or formation). However, the
orientation of any planar surface can be expressed by its strike and dip. For example, the
orientation of a fault or foliation surface is commonly given as its strike and dip.

Most of the time, data collection (stratigraphic, paleontological, structural, etc.) occurs
in the field. Geologists record information from a series of different outcrops. An outcrop is
simply a rock column exposed at the surface, whether naturally (because of erosion or
mountain building) or artificially (because for instance of a road cut, a tunnel, or an
excavation).
 A natural outcrop, caused by river erosion
(Duluth, Minnesota)

An outcrop caused by human activity

(405 freeway construction, Los Angeles, California)
© Alessandro Grippo, 2011

Armed with a topographic map, the geologist records observations about the rocks he
sees, and he then plots, among other things, a variety of different symbols recording
anything he sees, from the rock type to its structures. One of the most important things a
geologist has to note is the attitude of the sediemntary rocks in the area. With these data,
the geologist is able to create a geologic map.

A topographic map (left) and a geologic map (right) of the same area
From © Building a Geologic Map
 In the following illustration we can see a very simple geologic map of a flat area (no
topography). There are three different kinds of rocks, represented by different colors and
symbols: a shale, a sandstone, and a limestone. There are also five T-shaped symbols, with
the number 30 by their side. These symbols represent the attitude (strike and dip) of the
sedimentary layer at the exact position in the field where it is plotted on the map.

The strike and the dip of the layers

are represented, respectively, by the
long arm of the T and by the short arm
of the T. The number by the symbol
indicates the angle of tilt of the dip with
respect to the horizontal surface.

This whole concept can also be

seen in the cross section at the bottom
of the illustration: the layers are all tilted
by an angle of 30° to the left with
respect to the horizontal surface, as
shown by the symbols on the map.

When a layer is tilted, it could be tilted in any direction. It could be thought of as an

inclined plane. This inclined plane would intersect a horizontal plane along a line. That
intersection is the strike. This line (the strike) would make a unique angle with respect to the
(geographic) North.
This angle can be measured in the field with a compass, making it possible to plot the strike
and its orientation relative to the North on a map. The strike is represented by the long arm
of the T in the T-symbol, and its angle to the North is simply visible on a map because we are
drawing it on the map at that angle (remember that all maps have North at the top).
 The dip is simply the angle of maximum inclination of our layer. This is measured
perpendicularly from the strike. That would be the direction along which a ball would roll
down the slope if it were to be put on the layer surface: the ball would always roll in a
direction at 90° from the strike. Hence the dip is represented on a map by the short arm of
the T (at 90° from the long arm of the T, the strike, and from its middle). The dip points in
the direction of tilt. The number associated with the T on a map is the angle of tilt.

From © Plummer, C.C., and Carlson, D.H., 2008. Physical Geology (12 thed.), McGraw-Hill

In the figure above, we can see the strike, represented by the black line (line of strike)
marking the intersection of the tilted layer and the horizontal surface, here represented by a
body of water for simplicity. We can also see the dip, which is the angle of tilt with respect
to the horizontal surface, and which points to the left (direction of dip). How tilted are the
layers? 30°. How do we represent this on a map (see also the previous figure)? Since a map
gives us a view from above, we cannot represent the angle of tiltgraphically, but only its
direction. Hence, by using a T symbol, the long arm represents the strike, the short arm
represents the dip, and the angle of dip is simply indicated by a number associated with it.

There are several different types of geological maps, the main ones being solid geology,
which show bedrock, and drift maps, which show unconsolidated sediments such as river
alluvium, peat and glacial deposits that lie above bedrock. Geological maps usually include
stratigraphic columns and one or more cross section. Stratigraphy columns show the
different formations on the map in the order of deposition, with the oldest at the bottom
and youngest at the top. They also show their thicknesses and are usually drawn to scale.
The cross sections show the sub-surface (and often the above-surface) geology, as predicted
from the features mapped at the surface.
Example of a Geological map from Dominica

Practically all rocks in

Dominica are of volcanic
origin, with the exception
of a small unit consisting
of limestone on the
Leeward side.  Dominica is
characterized by a series
of 8 major volcanoes (SRU,
2000). Due to their
volcanic origin, the
geologic units are
complex, including
ignimbrites, lava flows,
lahar deposits, and
volcanic ashes. All of them
are very heterogeneous
(vertical and horizontal
changes) and have not
been mapped in detail for
Dominica. The geologic
map for Dominica
contains only 10 units,
subdivided according to its
origin (volcanic or
sedimentary) and to its
age. The units are very
general, and generally do
not differentiate between
lithological units that have
a different behaviour with
respect to landslides (e.g. lavas and pyroclastic deposits which have different characteristics
such as texture, cementation, and strength).
As it could be seen during the fieldwork, the difference between rocks and soils is not clear
in engineering terms, due to the relative degree of consolidation of the volcanic deposits,
their heterogeneity and the effect of weathering.  The volcanic deposits are usually very
thick. This can be observed in near vertical road-cuts (See Figure). Analysing the behaviour of
road cuts in volcanic ash soils requires a detailed analysis of soil types which is not possible
in this study. Volcanic bedrock in tropical climates is susceptible to deep weathering and
mass wasting. Weathered volcanic soil is weaker than the original bedrock and the high
precipitation on the island increases pore-water pressure within discontinuities decreasing
soil shear strength. The loss of shear strength generates zones of failure in which the mass
destabilizes in the form of a landslide or debris flow. The original geological map that we
obtained from the department of physical planning had some serious topological errors. In
order to overcome problem associated with missing polygons, it was necessary to re-digitize
the geology map again. In order to make the lithological map more realistic we decided to
combine it with the slope class map, thus allowing to evaluate the combination of
lithological units under different slope classes.

FOLDS, FAULTS AND JOINTS; AND THEIR BEARING ON ENGINEERING

CONSTRUCTION

FOLDS
Rock strata react to vertical and horizontal forces by bending and crumpling. Folds
are undulating expressions of these forces. They are the most common type of
 deformation. Folds are most noticeable in layered rocks but rarely occur on a scale
small enough to be observed in a single exposure. Their size varies considerably. Some
folds are miles across, while others may be less than an inch. Folds are of significant
importance to military engineers due to the change in attitude, or position, of bedding
planes within the rock bodies.These can lead to rock excavation problems and slope
instability. Folds are common in sedimentary rocks in mountainous areas where their
occurrence may be inferred from ridges of durable rock strata that are tilted at opposite
angles in nearby rock outcrops. They may also be recognized by topographic and
geologic map patterns and from aerial photographs. The presence of tilted rock layers
within a region is usually evidence of folding.

EFFECTS OF FOLDING

1. Change in attitude

2. Shattering of rocks

-Weak in strength parameters

-Porous and pervious in nature

3. Strained nature

IMPORTANCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

1. Location of dams

2. Location of reservoirs

(Under 1 and 2)

Case 1. Dam on upstream dipping beds

Case 2. Dam on horizontal beds

Case 3. Dam on downstream dipping beds

Case 1
3. Location of tunnels

4. Quarrying

5. Ground water occurrence

6. Laying roads and railway tracks along hill

slopes

Oil, gas and ore deposits

 - Oil and gas deposits are often associated with anticlines

- Suitable cap rocks, are also an essential requirement

- Crests of folds offer convenient places for the occurrence of ore deposits

Oil and gas

occurrence in
anticline

Ore deposits in
anticline

Types

There are several basic types of folds. They are—

1. Homocline.

2. Monocline.
3. Anticline.

4. Syncline.

5. Plunging.

6. Dome.

7. Basin.

A rock body that dips uniformly in one direction (at least locally) is called a homocline .
A rock body that exhibits local steplike slopes in otherwise flat or gently inclined rock layers
is called a monocline. Monoclines are common in plateau areas where beds may locally
assume dips up to 90 degrees. The elevation of the beds on opposite sides of the fold may
differ by hundreds or thousands of feet. Anticlines are upfolds, and synclines are downfolds .
They are the most common of all fold types and are typically found together in a series of
fold undulations. Differential weathering of the rocks composing synclines and anticlines
tends to produce linear valleys and ridges. Folds that dip back into the ground at one or both
ends are said to be plunging (see Figure 2-6). Plunging anticline and plunging syncline folds
are common. Upfolds that plunge in all directions are called domes. Folds that are bowed
toward their centers are called basins. Domes and basins normally exhibit roughly circular
outcrop patterns on geologic maps.

FAULTS
Faults are fractures along which there is displacement of the rock parallel to the
fracture plane; once-continuous rock bodies have been displaced by movement in the
earth’s crust . The magnitude of the displacement may be inches, feet, or even miles
along the fault plane. Overall fault displacement often occurs along a series of small
faults. A zone of crushed and broken rock may be produced as the walls are dragged
past each other. This zone is called a “fault zone” . It often contains crushed and altered
 rock, or “gouge,” and angular fragments of broken rock called “breccia.” Fault zones
may consist of materials that have been altered (reduced in strength) by both fault
movement and accelerated weathering by water introduced along the fault surface.
Alteration of fault gouge to clay lowers the resistance of the faulted rock mass to
sliding. Recognition of faults is extremely important to military engineers, as they
represent potential weakness in the rock mass. Faults that cut very young sediments
may be active and create seismic (earthquake) damage.

RECOGNITION

Recognition Faults are commonly recognized on rock outcrop surfaces by the relative
displacement of strata on opposite sides of the fault plane and the presence of gouge or
breccia. Slickensides, which are polished and striated surfaces that result from movement
along the fault plane, may develop on the broken rock faces in a direction parallel to the
direction of movement. Faulting may cause a discontinuity of structure that maybe observed
at rock outcrops where one rock layer suddenly ends against a completely different layer.
This is often observed in road cuts, cliff faces, and stream beds. Although discontinuity of
rock beds often indicates faulting, it may also be caused by igneous intrusions and
unconformities in deposition. Faults that are not visibly identifiable can be inferred by
sudden changes in the characteristics of rock strata in an outcrop or borehole, by missing or
repeated strata in a stratigraphic sequence, or (on a larger scale) by the presence of long
straight mountain fronts thrust up along the fault. Rock strata may show evidence of
dragging along the fault. Drag is the folding of rock beds adjacent to the fault. Faults are
identifiable on aerial photographs by long linear traces (lineations) on the ground surface
and by the offset of linear features such as strata, streams, fences, and roads. Straight fault
traces often indicate near-vertical fault planes since traces are not distorted by topographic
contours.

Fault zone
EFFECTS OF FAULTING

-Fracture and shattering of rocks along fault zones

-Serves as pathways for water, causes leakage

-Fault zone lubricated with water are potential sites for further movements

-Gouge and breccia causes problems

-Faults bring together, different rocks, hence homogeneity is lost

Importance:

Location of dams and reservoirs

- Too many joints in a site, will render it

- Unsuitable for construction of dams

- They act as avenues for serious leakage of water

- Upstream dipping joints are less harmful

Types

Faults are classified by the relative direction of movement of the rock on opposite sides of
the fault. The major type of movement determines their name. These types are–

1. Normal (gravity).

2. Reverse (thrust).

3. Strike-slip.

Normal faults are faults along which the hanging wall has been displaced downward
relative to the footwall. They are common where the earth’s surface is under tensional
stress so that the rock bodies are pulled apart. Normal faults are also called gravity faults
and usually are characterized by high-angle (near-vertical) fault planes. In a reverse fault, the
hanging wall has been displaced upward relative to the footwall. Reverse faults are
frequently associated with compressional forces that accompany folding. Low-angle (near-
horizontal) reverse faults are called overthrust faults. Thrust faulting is common in many
mountainous regions, and overthrusting rock sheets may be displaced many kilometers over
the underlying rocks. Strike-slip faults are characterized by one block being displaced
laterally with respect to the other; there is little or no vertical displacement. Many faults
exhibit both vertical and lateral displacement. Some faults show rotational movement, with
one block rotated in the fault plane relative to the opposite block. A block that is
downthrown between two faults to form a depression is called a “graben” . An upthrown
block between two faults produces a “horst”. Horsts and grabens are common in the Basin
and Range Province located in the western continental United States. The grabens comprise
the valleys or basins between horst mountains.

Fault Terminology

JOINTS
Rock masses that fracture in such a way that there is little or no displacement
parallel to the fractured surface are said to be jointed, and the fractures are called
joints. Joints influence the way the rock mass behaves when subjected to the stresses of
construction. Joints characteristically form planar surfaces. They may have any attitude;
some are vertical, others are horizontal, and many are inclined at various angles. Strike
and dip are used to measure the attitude of joints. Some joints may occur as curved
surfaces. Joints vary greatly in magnitude, from a few feet to thousands of feet long.
They commonly occur in more or less parallel fractures called joint sets. Joint systems
are two or more related joint sets or any group of joints with a characteristic pattern,
such as a radiating or concentric pattern.

FORMATION

Joints in rock masses may result from a number of processes, including

deformation, expansion, and contraction. In sedimentary rocks, deformation during
lithification or folding may cause the formation of joints. Igneous rocks may contain
 joints formed as lava cooled and contracted. In dense, extrusive igneous rocks, like
basalt, a form of prismatic fracturing known as columnar jointing often develops as the
rock cools rapidly and shrinks. Jointing may also occur when overlying rock is removed
by erosion, causing a rock mass to expand. This is known as exfoliation. The outer layers
of the rock peel, similar to the way that an onion does.

SIGNIFICANCE

Because of their almost universal presence, joints are of considerable engineering

importance, especially in excavation operations. It is desirable for joints to be spaced
close enough to minimize secondary plugging and blasting requirements without
impairing the stability of excavation slopes or increasing the over breakage in tunnels.
The spacing of the joints can control the size of the material removed and can also
affect drilling and blasting. The ideal condition is seldom encountered. In quarry
operations, jointing can lead to several problems. Joints oriented approximately at right
angles to the working face present the most unfavorable condition. Joints oriented
approximately parallel to the working face greatly facilitate blasting operations and
ensure a fairly even and smooth break, parallel to the face. Joints offer channels for
groundwater circulation. In excavations below the groundwater table, they may greatly
increase water problems. They also may exert an important influence on weathering.

Extension joints Jointed intrusion Columnar Jointing

Importance:

1. Occurrence of Landslides

- Landslides take place, when the surface slope of the hills and the dip of the beds are in the
same direction

- Joints facilitate the heavy percolation of water

- This water comes in contact with clayey material below the ground, producing fine
lubricating materials, which causes the slipping of over lying rocks.
2. Quarrying

- Depending on conditions, joints can play a helpful or harmful role in quarrying

- Joints cut in situ rocks, which can be easily extracted, without the use of explosives

- Too many joints, on the other hand, render quarrying useless, due to excessive decay of
rocks

3. Tunneling

- Joints can severely hamper the strength of rocks

- They may cause rocks to fall from the roof of the tunnel

- Joints can cause the ground to be saturated with water, decreasing the strength of the
rocks

- They may act as sites for the development of solution cavities in limestone terrain

Engineers responsible for the design of underground construction in rock have

frequently been asked to assess ground behavior during, as well as a long time after, such
construction. Both temporary and permanent support requirements for such constructions
are ordinarily designed with these assessments of ground behavior which are largely based
on precedent. Should the construction be, however, in rock formations for which little or no
prior experience is available, the selected design is either confirmed by or modified with
data gathered from observational programs instituted during actual excavation in the field.
While several theoretical, empirical and semi-empirical procedures are presently available to
predict ground behavior under varying geological conditions, the use of such procedures has
the greatest chance of success if the rationale behind the formulation of these procedures is
thoroughly studied by the users. The primary objective of this report is, therefore, to briefly
discuss some of the pertinent geological and construction considerations leading towards
the design of temporary support systems or protective measures for tunnels in metamorphic
rocks at shallow depths while recognizing the fact that these systems may or may not be a
part of the permanent support systems. Among geological considerations, lithology,
weathering, rock quality, rock structures, ground water, engineering properties of rock, rock
cover, and pillar width are briefly discussed. Of the rock structures, foliations, bandings,
faults, shears, shear zones and joints are examined from a ground behavior standpoint. The
nature of the individual discontinuity is defined herein in terms of attitude, frequency,
location, continuity, shape, roughness, tightness, and coating and/or filling materials. The
significance of detailed definition is further elaborated so that possible behavior of
discontinuities could be appropriately estimated during construction. The strength and
deformation properties, and swelling as well as squeezing characteristics of rock are
discussed insofar as these influence rock mass behavior. Several construction parameters,
which include sequences of excavation, sequential geometry and size of opening, methods
of excavation, direction of drive and types of initial support systems, are considered. Among
various types of support systems steel sets, rock bolts, shotcrete and rebars are discussed
insofar as methods of supporting rock loads with these systems are concerned. The report
also outlines behavior patterns for which temporary support and protection measures are
generally found necessary. Specific behaviors include rock loosening, squeezing, swelling,
decomposition of material, piping, and surface deterioration.

Rock Mechanics
Rock mechanics is a subdiscipline within
applied geology, geological engineering, and
mining engineering focused on the physical
mechanics of rock with applications in both
dynamic structural geology and in engineering.
An understanding of rock behavior requires
proficiency in engineering mechanics, material
properties and physics, and engineering
geology, including structural geology. Rock
mechanics may be considered with soil
mechanics as end members of geomechanics.

Problems that arise in rock mechanics

Civil engineers have to routinely deal with geotechnical matters where natural
conditions remain unknown and inferences have to be made based on observations and
experience, with some assistance from laboratory testing. By contrast, the applied science of
mechanics and structural engineering is based on deduction that gives definite results. These
two aspects have to be considered when you try to understand what rock mechanics is and
where an engineer has to assess the properties and strengths of the rock that he can use for
foundations for structures.

Rock mechanics determines how a particular rock reacts when it is put to the use
required by mankind for buildings, roads, bridges, dams, tunnels, and other civil engineering
uses. It will assess the bearing capacity of the rock on the surface and how the force applied
on the rock by the structures being built on it will affect the rock at various depths. Rock
mechanics will determine the shear strength of the rock, which in turn will allow the rock to
resist the forces applied to it. Rock mechanics can also determine the response of rock when
it is subjected to dynamic loading that may be a result of manmade applications or natural
occurrences like earthquakes. The failure mechanism of rocks will allow engineers to
counteract these so that the structures built on the rock are safe. Rock mechanics will also
study the effect that defects in the rock from cavities, fissures, joints and bedding planes can
have on structures founded on them.

Rock mechanics will also allow engineers to decide how to protect slopes, the
proper technique to be used for tunneling, the strengths that can be expected from
rock that functions as ballast for railway tracks or as base for roads. The strength of rock
also plays a large part in aggregate used for concrete that makes up most of the
buildings being built nowadays.

Testing in rock mechanics

 While laboratory testing for rocks does give extensive data for engineers to determine
bearing capacities, shear strengths, permeability, and other concerns for designers, it is
being acknowledged that rock mechanics benefits most from in situ testing of the rock and
observation of geological conditions that can affect the way a rock behaves when subjected
to loads and stresses. Engineers are then able to decide whether the stability of rocks and
rock slopes could affect the structures that they build. Cavities present in the rock, besides
making the rock vulnerable to fracture, can also act as reservoirs for water and other
solutions that can affect civil engineering structures. This becomes especially critical in the
case of dams and tunnels where these cavities can affect the stability of the structure, and in
case of tunnels, can affect traffic going through them. Rock mechanics along with geological
studies can decide on whether rock slides or rock falls could take place and the measures
that would be needed to prevent them.
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rock
A rock material is an aggregate of mineral particles

The performance of the rock, under a particular condition depends upon physical and
mechanical properties of rock materials

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK MATERIAL

Physical properties of rock material as known as index properties, which describes the rock
material and helps in classifying them

The Physical properties of rocks affecting design and construction in rocks are:

1. Mineralogical composition, structure, and texture;

Mineralogical composition is the intrinsic property controlling the

strength of the rock Although there exist more than 2000 kinds of

known minerals, only about nine of them par take decisively in

forming the composition of rocks. They are:

• Quartz

• Feldspar

• Mica

• Hornblende (Amphiboles)

• Pyroxenes

• Olivine

• Calcite

• Kaolin, and

• Dolomite

2. Specific gravity G
- is the ratio of the density of solids to the density of water.

Ms 1
G= ∙
V s Pw
where

Ms = mass of solids

VS = volume of solids

3. Unit weight γ
 W
γ=
V
where:

W - is the total weight of the sample

V - the total volume of the sample

4. Density
Density is a measure of mass per unit of volume. Density of rock material various,
and often related to the porosity of the rock. It is sometimes defined by unit
weight and specific gravity. Most rocks have density between 2,500nd 2,800
kg/m3.

5. Void ration e
- is the ratio of the volume of voids (VV) to the volume of solids (VS)

6. Porosity n
- is a measure of the storage capacity of a reservoir. It is defined as the ratio of
pore volume to bulk volume, and it may be expressed as either a percent or
a fraction.

(The unit weight of water = 1 g/cm3 = 1 t/m3 = 9.81 kN/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3)

Porosity decreases with increasing age of the rock and depth of the
rock
Porosity is a measure of water – holding capacity of a rock material
7. Moisture content (M)
- it is the ratio of weight of water in the voids to the weight of dry solids in the rock
sample

M = Ww / Ws

where:

M = Moisture Content

Ww = Weight of water

Ws = Weight of Solids

8. Degree of saturation, S
- it is defined as the volume of water in the void to the total volume of voids in the
rock sample

S = Vw / Vv

where:

Vw = volume of water

Vv = volume of voids

*The rockmass having higher porosity has higher degree of saturation

9. Coefficient of Permeability k
the ability of porous material to allow a liquid to pass through

its pores, units: cm/sec, or m/sec

Q=kiA

Q= discharge through area, i= hydraulic gradient

10. Electrical Conductivity

- How well the material conducts electricity - metals and graphite are good
conductors.

- Insulators  are materials that do not conduct electricity - plastics (polymers),

rubber (elastomers) and ceramics are all insulators.

11. Thermal Conductivity

- How well a material conducts heat. most metals are good conductors of heat,
especially copper and aluminium.Unit for thermal conductivity are Watts per
metre Kelvin - W/mK

- So copper which is a good conductor has a value of 283 whereas lead has a value
of 35 and rubber which is an insulator has a value of 0.15.
 - Poor conductors are called insulators - clearly this will often be the property
which is needed.

12. Magnetic - Some metals can be magnetised (most steels). Ferrous metals are
generally able to be attracted by a magnet. There are also some ceramic materials
which have magnetic properties.
13. Coefficient of thermal expansion of the rocks
- increase in length due to a change in temperature

14. Swelling - it is an increase in volume of the mass due to suction of water or due to
contact of water for a longtime. Swelling is more in weaker type rocks
15. Anisotropy - properties of the elements of the rock mass are not similar in every
direction, due to sequence of rock formation, i.e., due to existence of bedding
planes, etc. Anisotropic material has some weakness in a particular direction
Sedimentary rocks have high degree of anisotropy
16. Corrosion resistance - The ability to withstand environmental attack and decay.
Plastics have been developed or mofified to withstand hostile environments e.g.
uPVC is resistant to the effects of UV light which would quickly cause normal PVC to
become brittle. A range of coatings and surface finishes are used to enhance
materials appearance and corrosion resistance.
17. Durability - it is the resistance to destruction. If rock is more durable means it will
last for a longer period when put into use. It depends upon the nature of
environment against which the rock is going to be used. Swelling index or slake
durability test is used to describe nature of weathering.
18. Fusibility - The abilty to change easily into a molten state when heated (without
chemical breakdown/burning). Especially important for metals and polymers which
are to be cast, moulded or welded.

o MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK MATERIAL

- known as strength properties, which will give an information about the
performance of rock materials, when subjected to a particular loading system.

When we talk of Rock Strength we generally understand that:

 Rock material is generally strong in compression.

 Rocks exhibit a brittle type behaviour when unconfined, but become more
plastic as the level of confinement increases.
 Conditions in the field are primarily compressive and vary from unconfined
near the opening walls to confined at some distance from the opening.
 The strength of a rock is affected not only by factors that relate to its
physical and chemical composition such as its mineralogy, porosity
cementation, degree of alteration or weathering, and water content, but
also by the methods of testing, including such factors as sample size,
geometry, test procedure, and loading rate.

1. Strength

Ability of a material to resist an externally applied load, but In Rock mechanics,

strength is the Force per unit Area required to bring about rupture in a rock mass
at a given environmental conditions.
 Classification of strength: depending upon type of loading and the stresses, the
strength in general may be classified as:

Compressive Strength - The ability to withstand  pushing or squeezing

forces (compression).

Direct Method: It requires a preparation of sample as accordance to ISRM

(International Society of Rock Mechanics).

1. Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of rock material and deformation

behavior under loading is verified by applying compressive load until failure

occurs in the core by a fracture in the middle using high capacity Compressive testing
machines

2. Tri axial Compression Test - it is when the rock specimen is subjected to

confining pressure in addition to vertical pressure, the strength exhibited by rock

specimen

Indirect Method

1.Point Load Test

Point load test of rock cores can be conducted diametrically and axially. In diametrical
test, rock core specimen of diameter D is loaded between the point load
apparatus across its diameter. The length/diameter ratio for the diametrical test
should be greater than1.0.

2.Schmidt hammer Test

It normally tests on surface hardness of rock sample

as it is also easy to use and handle. The sample
can be in core or in block shape and it is non-
destructive type of test. The best part of the
test is that the sample used for the previous
test can be used again.

Tensile strength - The ability to

withstand pulling or stretching forces (tension).
The unit for tensile strength is the MN per square metre
Shear strength Tests - define as the maximum resistance to deformation due to
shear displacement caused by shear stress. Shear strength in a rockmass is derived
from the surface frictional resistance along the sliding plane, interlocking between
individual rock grains and cohesion in sliding surface of the rock.
2. Hardness

- Hardness is a measure of how easily a material can be scratched or indented. Hard

materials are often also very brittle - this means they have a low resistance
to impact. Well known hard materials include diamond and hardened high carbon
steels. Same units as for tensile strength. The methods used for testing hardness
are the Brinell test which uses a hardened steel ball and produces a hardness
number HB  which can be used to compare the hardness of materials.

- The Vickers hardness test uses a diamond square based pyramid - a microscope is
needed to observe the indent -the VHN is also used for comparisons.

- The Rockwell test uses a ball for softer materials and a pyramid cone for hard materials
- the reading is taken directly using a dial. This method is less accurate.

3. Brittleness

- A material that has a tendency to break easily or suddenly without any extension first.
Good examples are Cast iron, concrete, high carbon steels, ceramics, and some
polymers such as urea formaldehyde (UF). Opposite to toughness.

4. Toughness

- A material that absorbs impact (sudden forces or shocks such as hammer blows) well is
tough - this is the opposite to brittleness. [units for toughness are energy per unit
area - Joules/m²]

5. Plasticity

The materials which deform permanently when small forces are applied show plasticity.
Plasticine and clay are good examples

6. Elasticity

- The ability of a material to return to its original form after a load has been applied and
removed. Good examples include rubber, mild steel and some plastics such as
nylon.

7. Stiffness

- The ability to  resist bending.

8. Malleability

- The ability to plastically deform and shape a material by forging, rolling or by any other
method of applying pressure. Being easy to beat into a thin sheet is the literal
meaning. Good examples are lead, gold and copper.

9. Ductility

- The ability to be drawn out into a thin wire or threads. It is a measure of how easily a
material can be  worked. Good examples are gold, copper, titanium, wrought iron,
low carbon steels and brass.

10. Stability
 - A general property of resistance to changes in shape or size.

Dynamic Properties of Rocks

 

Typical Rock Properties

 Modulus of Deformation – Young’s Modulus - E

 Modulus of Rigidity – Shear Modulus – G

 Modulus of Volume Expansion – Bulk Modulus - K

 Poisson’s Ratio - μ

 Bulk Density – ρ

 Compressive Strength – σC

 Tensile Strength – σT

Rock Properties Referenced to Blasting Actions

 Young’s Modulus is a measure of the resistance of a solid to transmit load

      allows transmission of longitudinal stress from shock wave impact

 Bulk Modulus is a measure of the resistance of a solid to change in volume

      allows transmission of transverse stress resulting from shock wave impact

 Poissons’ ratio defines the amount of borehole expansion that can occur under
dynamic loading just before rock/ore failure

      maximum amount of ‘hoop’ stress that can be tolerated before cracks are
generated

 Compressive strength dictates the level of crushing that will occur at the borehole
wall

 Tensile strength dictates the level of tensile stress when crack formation will occur

      Can have supersonic cracking as well as interstitial cracking

Dynamic or Static

 Fragmentation of rock/ore is a dynamic process, not a static one

 Rock/ore appears to be much stronger in the dynamic case, than the static one (rule
of thumb is to assume that dynamic such as compressive and tensile strength are
twice the values of static properties)

 Degree of fit (correlation with measurement properties) is better with dynamic

rock/ore parameters
  Easier and less expensive getting dynamic rock properties using dynamic loading
such as detonating explosive charges

 Rock/ore core strength values do not appear to correlate well with dynamic values

 Dynamic properties are preferred in computer models relating the dynamic

processes of blasting action to dynamic properties of the material being blasted

Local or Global

 If rock/ore core is used, samples must be obtained that have not been exposed to
dynamic process like blasting operations

 Properties that are acquired using static test methods can be considered to be ‘local’
properties since individual samples taken at one time can define only a small portion
of a rock or ore mass – prejudiced in favour of strength

 May be useful in determining rock or ore properties with a small confined blasting
area or volume (typically within one or two burden distance

 Using dynamic value testing methods, a complete rock/ore mass can be

characterized

Testing Program for Defining Dynamic Rock/Ore Properties

 Drill a series of holes for explosive in addition to water-filled monitoring holes – use
small charges of fully coupled explosives in holes having a depth of about 5 m (no fly
muck) – use a trigger monitor (time zero)
 Instrument the water-filled monitoring holes with pressure sensors in order to check
P wave motion as well as stress attenuation characteristics of rock/ore – observe long
duration pressure sensor readings to indicate gas entry into monitoring boreholes
 Install radial and transfer accelerometers in a monitoring hole to sense primary
wave and shear wave components
 After test program is completed (in difference zones of rock/ore) evaluate primary
wave and shear wave velocities in order to define dynamic property information
 Evaluate stress attenuation characteristics
 Determine dynamic tensile strength of rock/ore type in order to work out blasting
pattern dimensions

 
Sensors That can be Used in a Testing Program Described Above for Both
P Wave, S Wave and Seismic Decay Constants
Pressure Sensors
 

The above picture shows a pressure sensor (either piezoelectric or semiconductor strain
gauge types) being lowered into water (used as a pressure gauge itself) for the
measurement of shock pressure and arrival time of P waves). The pressure sensors have an
addition feature as well, in that they can sense when gas products from an adjacent
detonating holes have intersected the monitoring hole. A typical reading is shown in the
bottom frame.

 
Note from the traces above that there is gas arrival at sensor P1 showing the long duration
wave front with a flat trace shown for P2 in which gases have not yet migrated into
monitoring hole P2. From the sensor reading, a strain measurement can be calculated to
determine not only the dynamic tensile strength of the rock, but also the velocity of the
crack that intersected the monitoring hole.

Seismic Sensors (Peak Particle Velocity or PPV)

 

This illustration shows a transverse seismic sensor (moving coil) used to determine the
velocity of S waves thorough rock/ore. The sensor is illustrated well below the surface of the
ground in order to reduce reflections from the ground surface. The sensors are either
cemented or glued in place

Types of Waves Theory

Compare and contrast properties and mechanics of different types of waves

When an earthquake occurs, some of the energy it releases is turned into heat within
the earth. Some of the energy is expended in breaking and permanently deforming the
rocks and minerals along the fault. The rest of the energy, which is most of the energy, is
radiated from the focus of the earthquake in the form of seismic waves.

Seismic waves fall into two general categories: body waves (P-waves and S-waves),
which travel through the interior of the earth, and surface waves, which travel only at the
earth’s surface.

Body Waves
 Body waves travel through the interior of the earth. There are two types of body waves:
P-waves and S-waves.

P-Waves

The P in P-waves stands for primary, because these are the fastest seismic waves and
are the first to be detected once an earthquake has occurred. P-waves travel through the
earth’s interior many times faster than the speed of a jet airplane, taking only a few
minutes to travel across the earth.

P-waves are predominantly compressional waves. As a P-wave passes, material

compresses in the same direction the wave is moving, and then extends back to its original
thickness once the wave has passed. The speed at which P-waves travel through material is
determined by:

 rigidity—how strongly the material resists being bent sideways and is able to
straighten itself out once the shearing force has passed – the more rigid the
material, the faster the P-waves

 compressibility—how much the material can be compressed into a smaller volume

and then recover its previous volume once the compressing force has passed; the
more compressible the material, the faster the P-waves

 density—how much mass the material contains in a unit of volume; the greater the
density of the material, the slower the P-waves

P-waves travel through liquids and gases as well as through solids. Although liquids and
gases have zero rigidity, they have compressibility, which enables them to transmit P-
waves. Sound waves are P-waves moving through the air.

Because the earth’s mantle becomes more rigid and compressible as the depth below
the asthenosphere increases, P-waves travel faster as they go deeper in the mantle. The
density of the mantle also increases with depth below the asthenosphere. The higher
density reduces the speed of seismic waves. However, the effects of increased rigidity and
compressibility in the deep mantle are much greater than the effect of the increased
density.

P-waves travel through materials with rigidity and/or

compressiblity, and density

greater rigidity faster P-waves

greater compressibility faster P-waves

greater density slower P-waves

S-Waves
 The S in S-waves stands for secondary, because they are the second-fastest seismic
waves and the second type to be detected once an earthquake has occurred. Although S-
waves are slower than P-waves, they still travel fast, over half the speed of P-waves, moving
at thousands of kilometers per hour through the earth’s crust and mantle.

S-waves are shear waves (though that is not what the S stands for). They move by
material flexing or deforming sideways (shearing) from the direction of wave travel, and
then returning to the original shape once the wave passes. The speed at which S-waves
travel through material is determined only by:

 rigidity — how strongly the material resists being bent sideways and is able to
straighten itself out once the shearing force has passed – the more rigid the
material, the faster the S-waves

 density — how much mass the material contains in a unit of volume – the greater
the density of the material, the slower the S-waves

S-waves can travel only through solids, because only solids have rigidity. S-waves cannot
travel through liquids or gases.

Because the earth’s mantle becomes more rigid as its depth below the asthenosphere
increases, S-waves travel faster as they go deeper in the mantle. The density of the mantle
also increases at greater depth, which has the effect of reducing the speed of seismic
waves, but the increase in rigidity is much greater than the increase in density, so S-waves
speed up as they get deeper in the mantle, in spite of the increased density.

S-waves travel through materials with rigidity and density

greater rigidity faster S-waves

greater density slower S-waves

Surface Waves

There are two types of surface waves, Rayleigh waves and Love waves. Rayleigh waves
are named after Lord Rayleigh (John Strutt), an English aristocrat who, in his work as a
scientist and mathematician, developed a detailed mathematical accounting of the type of
surface wave named after him. Rayleigh waves are set off by the combined effect of P- and
S-waves on the earth’s surface. Rayleigh waves are sometimes called rolling waves. In
Rayleigh waves the surface of the earth rises up and sinks down in crests and troughs,
similar to waves on the surface of water. People who are outdoors during a major
earthquake commonly see Rayleigh waves moving across the surface of the earth, and can
feel the ground rising and falling as the waves pass beneath them.
 Love waves, sometimes called L-waves, are named after Augustus Love, an English
mathematician and physicist who first modeled them mathematically. Love waves involve
the surface shearing sideways and then returning to its original form as each wave passes.

All surface waves travel slower than body waves and Rayleigh waves are slower than
Love waves.

Factors Influencing Wave Velocity

Wave velocities in a rock are computed from wave propagation travel times from sonic
logs. Elastic wave velocity is a powerful parameter used to interpret the physical properties
underlying the rock. However, a range of geological rock properties affect wave velocities.
Understanding the microstructural, fluid, stress, and mineralogical controls on elastic wave
velocities is at the center of laboratory experiments on the rock core. It is mostly in a
laboratory setting where we can quantify (calibrate) and separate the effects that
subsurface conditions (stress, temperature, fluids), rock composition, and pore space have
on wave propagation velocities.

Wave velocity, distance traversed by a periodic, or cyclic, motion per unit time (in any
direction). Wave velocity in common usage refers to speed, although, properly, velocity
implies both speed and direction. The velocity of a wave is equal to the product of its
wavelength and frequency (number of vibrations per second) and is independent of its
intensity.

Earthquake: P waves and S waves P and S waves travel through the planet Earth after an

earthquake. Scientists studying the waves produced by earthquakes learned that Earth's
core has separate liquid and solid layers. S waves do not travel through liquid, but P waves
do. A simplified diagram shows the S waves on the left and the P waves on the right, but
waves of both types would actually radiate in all directions.

Factors influencing seismic velocities and elastic moduli as known, slope stability is
influenced by the balance between the resistance of materials to the motion and the action
of external forces (gravity and earthquakes). The specific behavior of a particular litho-type,
i.e. its response to stress, depends on the stress/strain relations that characterize the
examined litho-type, which in turns depends on its elastic moduli and density. The most
important factors of influence on the elastic moduli, and consequently on the velocity of
seismic waves of a material, are its compactness, porosity, degree of fracturing and
weathering, mineralogical composition (which influences its clay content), water content,
and its depth and age. All these characteristics control the litho-seismic and geo-mechanical
behavior of the materials and consequently affect both seismic site amplifications and
resistance of slopes to the shaking connected to earthquakes. As the literature studies
described below refer to rock samples, we note that in presence of joints, fault planes.
 Fig. 1. Plots of (a) Vp versus density of fracturing C, (b) Vp versus quality factor RQD, (c)
Vs versus density of fracturing C, (d) Vs versus quality factor RQD, (e) ratio Vp/Vs versus
density of fracturing C, (f) ratio Vp/Vs versus quality factor RQD. Note that y-axes are not in
scale. Modified after Leucci and De Giorgi (2003). and slipping surfaces, a lower slope’s
mechanical characteristics (shear resistance, cohesion) may be expected. Moreover, rock
shear wave variations depend also on the scale of observations, with the reduction in clay
shear resistance connected to the presence of smear joints and/or to fault planes being
only reflected when observed at a detailed scale.

Static and Dynamic Moduli

By definition, the dynamic moduli of rock are those calculated from the elasticwave velocity
and density. The static moduli are those directly measured in a deformational experiment.

The static and dynamic moduli of the same rock may significantly differ from each other.
The main reason is likely to be the difference in the deformation (strain) amplitude between
the dynamic and static experiments.

In the dynamic wave propagation experiment the strain is about 10 -7 while static strain may
reach 10-2.
 Radial
σ Strain Stress E = σ / εa
εr

εa
ν = εr / εa
Axial Strain

Typical Plastic Behavior

Load
DYNAMIC
Stress

STATIC Unload

10 -2
10 -7

Log Strain

Need for Static Moduli

Static moduli are often used in wellbore stability and in-situ stress applications to evaluate
the possibility of breakouts, elevated pore pressure, and tectonic stress distribution. For
example, a common method of calculating the horizontal stress in earth is by assuming that
the earth is elastic and does not deform in the horizontal direction.

Poisson’s

HorizontalRatio
S
Stress V

S
H
 SH =SV

Vertical

(Overburden)

Stress

Hydro-fracture can be approximated by a 2D elliptical crack who's dimensions depend on

the static Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio.

1−ν2 Importance of Static Young's

Modulus and Poisson's Ratio for
b= 2c Hydrofracture Design

E
P

2b
2c

SHmin

Static and Dynamic Moduli in Sand

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