YOUNG’S MODULUS

BULK MODULUS
HOOKE’S LAW - Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
- is the elastic response to hydrostatic pressure
* The elongation of the bar is directly proportional to the and equilateral tension or the volumetric response to
tensile force and the length of the bar and inversely hydrostatic pressure and equilateral tension.
proportional to the cross-sectional area and the modulus - it is also the property of a material that
of elasticity. determines the elastic response to the application of
* English scientist named Robert Hooke, Hooke’s Law stress.
“states that in the elastic range of a material strain is
proportional to stress. It is measured by using the TENSILE (LOAD) TESTS AND STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
following equation”.
TENSILE TEST
- a sample of material is commonly tested to
determine the load-carrying ability and the amount of
deformation before fracture.
- this test consists of applying a gradually
increasing force of tension at one end of a sample length
of the material.

YOUNG’S MODULUS (ELASTIC MODULUS) FRACTURE POINT

- the ratio of the unit stress to the unit strain, is - is the point where the material fractures due to
the modulus of elasticity of the material in tension or plastic deformation.
compression.
- sometimes referred to as Modulus of Elasticity, GAGE LENGTH
meaning "measure" of elasticity. - simultaneous measurements are made of the
- It is an extremely important characteristic of a increasing length of a selected portion at the middle of
material. the specimen.
- It is the numerical evaluation of Hooke's Law,
namely the ratio of stress to strain (the measure of * Stress and strain, as computed here, are sometimes
resistance to elastic deformation). called "engineering stress and strain."

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY/ ELASTIC MODULUS

- The ratio of stress to strain, or the gradient of
the stress-strain graph.

ELASTIC MODULI
- relevant to polycrystalline material are Young's
Modulus of Elasticity, the Shear Modulus of Elasticity,
and the Bulk Modulus of Elasticity.

YOUNG’S MODULUS
- is the elastic modulus for tensile and
compressive stress and is usually assessed by tensile
tests.

SHEAR MODLUS Illustrate the specific points for ductile and brittle
- Shear Modulus of Elasticity (G) material, respectively. Hooke's Law applies between
- is derived form the torsion of a cylindrical Points 1 and 2. Elastic region is between Points 1 and 2.
If stress is removed, the material will return to its original - determined by the divider method, involves an
length. Point 2 is the proportional limit (PL) or elastic observer with a pair of dividers watching for visible
limit, and Point 3 is the yield strength (YS) or yield point. elongation between two gage marks on the specimen.
Plastic region is between Points 2 and 5.
Stretcher Strains or Worms
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - the steel continues to elongate and to become
thinner at local areas where the plastic strain initiates,
STRENGTH leaving unsightly depressions.
- is the ability of a material to resist deformation.
- usually considered based on the maximum load PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
that can be borne before failure is apparent. - is defined as the stress at which the stress-
strain curve first deviates from a straight line.
NORMAL STRESS
- is referred to in quoting the "strength" of a ELASTIC LIMIT
material and is always qualified by the type of stress, - defined as the stress at which plastic
such as tensile strength, compressive strength, or shear deformation begins.
strength. - This limit cannot be determined from the
stress-strain curve.
SLIP * The method of determining the limit would have to
- When a force is applied to a metal, layers of include a succession of slightly increasing loads with
atoms within the crystal structure move in relation to intervening complete unloading for the detection of the
adjacent layers of atoms. first plastic deformation or "permanent set."

* An increase in slip will decrease the strength of a PERCENT ELONGATION

material. - defined as the maximum elongation of the gage
length divided by the original gage length.
* Grain boundaries tend to prevent slip. The smaller the
grain size, the larger the grain boundary area.
DUCTILITY
* Decreasing the grain size through cold or hot working - is defined as the maximum elongation of the
of the metal tends to retard slip and thus increases the gage length divided by the original gage length.
strength of the metal. - defined as the ability of a material to deform
easily upon the application of a tensile force, or as the
ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH ability of a material to withstand plastic deformation
- is the maximum resistance to fracture. without rupture.
- It is equivalent to the maximum load that can - may also be thought of in terms of bendability
be carried by one square inch of cross-sectional area and crushability.
when the load is applied as simple tension.
- is often shortened to "tensile strength" or even * Ductile material will deform (elongate) more than
to "the ultimate.", "Ultimate strength" is sometimes brittle material.
used but can be misleading and, therefore, is not used in
some disciplines. * Ductility is desirable in the high temperature and high
pressure applications.
NECKING
- A marked decrease in cross-section. * Reduction of area is the proportional reduction of the
cross-sectional area of a tensile test piece at the plane of
YIELD STRENGTH fracture measured after fracture.
- is defined as the stress at which a
predetermined amount of permanent deformation * Irradiation and Cold-working will decrease ductility.
occurs. * Ductile substances are aluminum, copper, and steel.
BRITTLENESS
YIELD POINT - The lack of ductility.
* An increase in temperature will increase ductility. - does not form a carbide, but increases hardness
* A decrease in temperature will cause a decrease in by retarding dislocation movement.
ductility and a change from ductile to brittle behavior.
MOLYBDENUM
COLD-WORKING - forms a complex carbide when added to steel.
- is performed in a temperature region and over - because of the structure of the carbide, it
a time interval to obtain plastic deformation, but not hardens steel substantially, but also minimizes grain
relieving the strain hardening. enlargement.
- tends to augment the desirable properties of
ANNEALING both nickel and chromium.
- The heating of a cold-worked metal to or above
the temperature at which metal atoms return to their STAINLESS STEEL
equilibrium positions will increase the ductility of that - are alloy steels containing at least 12%
metal. chromium. An important characteristic of these steels is
their resistance to many corrosive conditions.
MALLEABILITY
- is the ability of a metal to exhibit large WORKING OF METALS
deformation or plastic response when being subjected to
compressive force. HEAT TREATMENT
- of large carbon steel components is done to
TOUGHNESS take advantage of crystalline defects and their effects
- defined as the work required to deform one and thus obtain certain desirable properties or
cubic inch of metal until it fractures. conditions.
- describes the way a material reacts under
sudden impacts. QUENCHING
- is measured by the Charpy test or the Izod test. - varying the rate of cooling (quenching) of the
- Ex: steel metal, grain size and grain patterns are controlled.

HARDNESS * The cooling rate used in quenching depends on the

- is the property of a material that enables it to method of cooling and the size of the metal.
resist plastic deformation, penetration, indentation, and
scratching Grain characteristics
- is important from an engineering standpoint - are controlled to produce different levels of
because resistance to wear by either friction or erosion hardness and tensile strength.
by steam, oil, and water generally increases with
hardness. * Grain characteristics are controlled to produce
- Ex: diamond different levels of hardness and tensile strength.
* As hardness and tensile strength increase in heat-
NICKEL treated steel, toughness and ductility decrease.
- is an important alloying element.
- in concentrations of less than 5%, nickel will * the faster a metal is cooled, the smaller the grain sizes
raise the toughness and ductility of steel without raising will be. This will make the metal harder.
the hardness.
Uniform Cooling
CHROMIUM - It is important to prevent distortion
- in steel forms a carbide that hardens the metal.
The chromium atoms may also occupy locations in the WELDING
crystal lattice, which will have the effect of increasing - can induce internal stresses that will remain in
hardness without affecting ductility. the material after the welding is completed.
- produces compressive and tensile stresses.
COPPER
- is quite similar to nickel in its effects on steel. * In stainless steel, such as type 304, the crystal lattice is
face-centered cubic (austenite).
* The temperature rises between 500 deg F and 1000 - if there were no electrical contact, the two
deg F, the austenite is transformed into body centered metals would be uniformly attacked…..
cubic lattice structure (bainite).
May be minimized by:
ANNEALING * The use of corrosion-resistant materials such as
- is another common heat-treating process for stainless steel and nickel, chromium, and molybdenum
carbon steel components. alloys.
- softens steel and improves ductility. * The use of protective coatings such as paints and
- relieves internal stresses caused by previous epoxies.
processes. * The application of metallic and nonmetallic coatings or
- refines grain structure. linings to the surface which protects against corrosion.
- the component is heated slowly to an elevated
temperature and held there for a long period of time, GALVANIC CORROSION
then cooled. - occurs when two dissimilar metals with
different potentials are placed in electrical contact in an
* Stresses are minimized by using heat sink welding and electrolyte.
annealing. - it may also take place with one metal with
heterogeneities (dissimilarities).
COLD AND HOT WORKING
May be reduces by:
COLD WORK * Careful design and selection of materials regarding
- plastic deformation which is carried out in a dissimilar metals and the use of sacrificial anodes.
temperature region and over a time interval such that
the strain hardening is not relieved. * The larger the potential difference, the greater the
probability of galvanic corrosion.
Ex: Molybdenum is cold-worked when deformed even at
red heat because of its high recrystallization LOCALIZED CORROSION
temperature. - takes place when corrosion works with other
destructive processes such as stress, fatigue, erosion,
HOT WORKING and other forms of chemical attack.
- refers to the process where metals are - is defined as the selective removal of metal by
deformed above their recrystallization temperature and corrosion at small areas or zones on a metal surface in
strain hardening does not occur. contact with a corrosive environment, usually a liquid.
- usually performed at elevated temperatures. - it usually takes place when small local sites are
attacked at a much higher rate than the rest of the
Ex: Lead is hot-worked at room temperature because of original surface.
its low melting temperature. - can cause more damage than any one of those
destructive processes individually.
CORROSION
- is the natural deterioration of a material due to STRESS- CORROSION CRACKING
interaction with its environment. - one of the most serious metallurgical problems
- it is the process in which metallic atoms leave and one that is a major concern in the nuclear industry.
the metal or form compounds on the presence of water - is a type of intergranular attack corrosion that
and gases. occurs at the grain boundaries under tensile stress.

* Even noble metals like gold are subjected to corrosion The most effective means of preventing SCC are:
attack in some environments. 1) designing properly;
2) reducing stress;
GENERAL CORROSION 3) removing critical environmental species such as
- involving water and steel generally results from hydroxides, chlorides, and oxygen;
chemical action where the steel surface oxidizes, forming 4) and avoiding stagnant areas and crevices in heat
iron oxide (rust). exchangers where chloride and hydroxide might become
concentrated.
CHLORIDE STRESS CORROSION
- one of the most important forms of stress
corrosion that concerns the nuclear industry.
- is a type of intergranular corrosion and occurs
in austenitic stainless steel under tensile stress in the
presence of oxygen, chloride ions, and high temperature.
- “nuclear industry”.

May be controlled by:

* the removal of oxygen and chloride ions in the
environment and the use of low carbon steels.

CAUSTIC STRESS CORROSION

- Problems occurring with the use of Inconel
include cracking, wastage, tube denting, pitting and
intergranular attack.
* Inconel's resistance to caustic stress corrosion cracking
may be improved by heat treating.