Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek

He was born on October 24, 1632 ,he was a Dutch tradesman and scientist. He is commonly
known as "the Father of Microbiology", and considered to be the first microbiologist. He is
best known for his work on the improvement of the microscope and for his contributions towards
the establishment of microbiology. Using his handcrafted microscopes he was the first to observe
and describe single celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules, and which
we now refer to as microorganisms. He was also the first to record microscopic observations of
muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa and blood flow in capillaries (small blood vessels) Van
Leeuwenhoek used samples and measurements to estimate numbers of microorganisms in units
of waterDuring his lifetime Van Leeuwenhoek ground over 500 optical lenses. He also created
over 400 different types of microscopes, only nine of which still exist today. His microscopes
were made of silver or copper metal frames holding hand-ground lenses. However, because of
various technical difficulties in building early compound microscopes were not practical for
magnifying objects more than about twenty or thirty times natural size. Leeuwenhoek's skill at
grinding lenses, together with his naturally acute eyesight and great care in adjusting the lighting
where he worked, enabled him to build microscopes that magnified over 200 times, with clearer
and brighter images Van Leeuwenhoek's main discoveries are:

 the infusoria (protists in modern zoological classification), in 1674

 the bacteria, in 1676
 the spermatozoa in 1677.
 the banded pattern of muscular fibers, in 1682
 1683, Leeuwenhoek observations on the plaque between his own teeth, "a little white
matter,and he observed observations on the plaque between his own teeth, "a little white matter,
there were many very little living animalcules, very prettily a-moving
 discovered bacteria, free-living and parasitic microscopicsperm cells, blood cells,
microscopic nematodes and rotifers, and much more
 1702, gives descriptions of many protists, including this ciliate, Vorticella
 He was the first to see living sperm cells of animals
 Van Leeuwenhoek's discoveries of how smaller organisms procreate just as larger organisms do,
did eventually overturn the traditional belief of the time in the spontaneous generation of such
organisms
 In 1673, Leeuwenhoek began writing letters to the newly-formed Royal Society of London,
describing what he had seen with his microscopes
 In 1680 he was elected a full member of the Royal Society
 Died on August 30, 1723
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Heinrich Herman Robert Koch (11 December 1843 – 27 May 1910)

He was a German physician. He became famous for isolating Bacillus anthracis (1877), the
Tuberculosis bacillus (1882) and the Vibrio cholerae (1883) and for his development of Koch's
postulates. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his tuberculosis
findings in 1905. He is considered one of the founders of microbiology

 A major contribution to bacterial techniques was the development of methods using solid
medium for the cultivation of bacteria. Koch was convinced that microbes caused some diseases.
However, to test this idea, he needed to isolate the causative agent. Almost all samples from
diseased animals or any natural surface contained many different microbes and it was impossible
to tell which one was the problem. A method was needed to separate these different bacteria. The
most common method of isolation was to continually dilute a sample in liquid broth in hopes that
at high enough dilution, only one type of microbe would be found. A problem with this method
is he was unable to isolate pure culture , so he was unable to identity disease causitive organism.
so a solid medium would seem to provide distinct advantages.
 Koch had tried gelatin for these experiments with unsatisfactory results. Building on the work of
Brefeld and Schroeter, Koch used potato slices as a solid medium and observed that a boiled
potato left in the open air would develop tiny circular raised spots.Examination of these spots
revealed they were made up of microorganisms and each spot had just one type of microbe in it.
He realized that these colonies were pure cultures of bacteria and probably arose from a single
species of microbe By boiling a potato, slicing it with a hot knife and keeping it in a sterile
container with a lid, Koch could keep the potato sterile
 Later he used agar-agar as solidifying media because it does not melt until a temperature of 100
°C, remains molten at temperatures above 45 °C, Few microbes are able to degrade agar, can
also be stored for long periods of time, Any type of broth can be mixed with agar,
 Koch's laboratory also developed methods of pure culture maintenance and aseptic technique.
Aseptic technique involves the manipulation of pure cultures in a manner that prevents their
contamination by outside microorganisms. Equally important, aseptic technique prevents their
spread into the environment.

 Koch studied anthrax more closely. He invented methods to purify the bacillus from blood
samples and grow pure cultures. He found that, while it could not survive outside a host for long,
anthrax built persisting endospores that could last a long time.These endospores, embedded in
soil, were the cause of unexplained "spontaneous" outbreaks of anthrax. So Koch started using
his microscope to look at the tissue of animals that had died from anthrax, and found strange
microscopic rods and threads within the samples that he examined. Were these rods alive? Were
they the cause of the illness? Tissue from healthy sheep and cows did not contain these
mysterious threads.Koch began to experiment with ways to isolate and grow these microbes.
After learning to grow the anthrax rods in sterile fluid from the eye of an ox, he began to infect
mice with small samples of the microscopic rods originally isolated from dead farm animals. The
infected mice always died, and upon dissection, were found to be teeming with anthrax rods.
Koch had single-handedly proven that a specific microbe caused a specific disease.

 he was able to discover the bacterium causing tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) in

1882

 In 1883, Koch worked with a French research team in Alexandria, Egypt, studying cholera.
Koch identified the vibrio bacterium that caused cholera,

Koch's postulates

 The suspected causative agent of a disease must be found in every case, and absent in healthy
individual

 The agent must then be isolated and grown outside the host (i.e. cultivated in a laboratory
environment).
 When a healthy, susceptible host is inoculated with the agent, the host must develop the same
disease.

 That same agent must then be reisolated from the experimental host

Louis Pasteur December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French chemist and
microbiologist His discoveries reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and he created the first
vaccine for rabies. His experiments supported the germ theory of disease, pasteurization

 In Pasteur's early work as a chemist, he resolved a problem concerning the nature of

tartaric acid (1849). it rotated the plane of polarization of light passing through it. The
mystery was that tartaric acid derived by chemical synthesis had no such effect, even
though its chemical reactions were identical and its elemental composition was the same.
Upon examination of the minuscule crystals Pasteur noticed that the crystals came in two
asymmetric forms that were mirror images of one another. Tediously sorting the crystals
by hand gave two forms of the compound: solutions of one form rotated polarized light
clockwise, while the other form rotated light counterclockwise. An equal mix of the two
had no polarizing effect on light.
 Pasteur demonstrated that fermentation is caused by the growth of micro-organisms, and
that the emergent growth of bacterium in nutrient broths He exposed boiled broths to air
in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles from passing through to the
growth medium, and even in vessels with no filter at all, with air being admitted via a
long tortuous tube that would not allow dust particles to pass. Nothing grew in the broths
unless the flasks were broken open; therefore, the living organisms that grew in such
broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within
the broth. This was one of the last and most important experiments disproving the theory
of spontaneous generation.so he concluded the groth of organisms is not spontaneous be
it is due to biogenisis.
  Pasteur's research also showed that the growth of micro-organisms was responsible for
spoiling beverages, such as beer, wine and milk. With this established, he invented a
process in which liquids such as milk were heated to kill most bacteria and molds already
present within them. This process was soon afterwards known as pasteurization.

 He proposed preventing the entry of microorganisms into the human body, leading
Joseph Lister to develop antiseptic methods in surgery.

 In 1865, two parasitic diseases called pébrine and flacherie were killing great numbers of
silkworms Pasteur worked several years proving it was a microbe attacking silkworm
eggs which caused the disease, and that eliminating this microbe within silkworm
nurseries would eradicate the disease

 While examining samples from a butyric acid fermentation microscopically, he found

that the motile butyric acid bacteria at the margin of a flattened drop became immotile
when they came in contact with the air. while those at the centre remained motile. He
reasoned that oxygen was inhibitory to the growth of butyric acid bacteria. To establish
this, he passed a current of air through the butyric fermentation fluid and found that this
resulted incomplete arrest of the fermentation so Pasteur discovered anaerobiosis,

 Pasteur also showed that microorganisms are not evenly distributed in the atmosphere
and that their number varies from place to place.

 During his life time, Pasteur studied a number of other fermentation processes and
showed that not only each type of fermentation is accomplished by a specific type of
microorganism but that each fermentation required specific environmental conditions.

 Worked on immunology and vaccination of chicken cholera, antharax,small pox,rabis

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Alexander Fleming 6 August 1881 – 11 March 1955) was a Scottish biologist and
pharmacologist. Fleming published many articles on bacteriology, immunology and
chemotherapy, discovery of the enzyme lysozyme in 1923 and the antibiotic substance penicillin
from the fungus Penicillium notatum in 1928, for which he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine in 1945

 Fleming served throughout World War I as a captain in the Army Medical Corps

 his search for a chemical substance which would destroy infectious bacteria without
destroying tissues or weakening the body's defenses.

Fleming noted that on a culture plate of staphylococci a mold (Penicillium notatum) which had
been introduced by accidental contamination had dissolved the colonies of staphylococci--an
example of antibiosis. He found that the broth containing the bactericidal substance (penicillin).
He investigated its positive anti-bacterial effect on many organisms, and noticed that it affected
bacteria such as staphylococci, and many other Gram-positive pathogens that cause scarlet fever,
pneumonia, meningitis and diphtheria, but not typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever—which are
caused by Gram-negative bacteria—for which he was seeking a cure at the time. It also affected
Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which causes gonorrhoea although this bacterium is Gram-negative.later
he cultivated and isolated pure pencilln with help of Howard W. Florey, an Australian
experimental pathologist.

 Fleming also discovered very early that bacteria developed antibiotic resistance

 Fleming discovered that nasal mucus, human tears, and, especially, egg whites contain a
chemical substance with marked bactericidal properties. Inasmuch as it lysed (dissolved)
microbes and had the properties of an enzyme, Fleming called it lysozyme.
Branches of Microbiology

1. Virology is the study of viruses and virus-like agents: their structure, classification and
evolution, their ways to infect and exploit cells for virus reproduction, the diseases they
cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy.
Virology is often considered a part of microbiology or of pathology.

2. Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their
genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source
for tinder, medicinals (e.g., penicillin), food (e.g., beer, wine, cheese, edible mushrooms)
and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection.
3. Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects
of the immune system in all organisms . It deals with the physiological functioning of the
immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system
in immunological disorders (autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities, immune
deficiency, transplant rejection); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics
of the components of the immune system

4. Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a
biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or
environment in question, but by their way of life. This means it forms a synthesis of other
disciplines, and draws on techniques from fields such as cell biology, bioinformatics,
biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, genetics, evolution and ecology.

5. Recombinant DNA (rDNA) is a form of DNA that does not exist naturally, which is
created by combining DNA sequences that would not normally occur together. In terms
 of genetic modification, recombinant DNA is introduced through the addition of relevant
DNA into an existing organismal DNA, such as the plasmids of bacteria, to code for or
alter different traits for a specific purpose, such as antibiotic resistance
6. Medical Microbiology- This branch involves study of microbes that causes diseases in
humans.It involves identification of the causative microbe,prevention,and study of
antibiotic sensitivity to various diseases in humans like tuberculosis, typhoid,sexually
transmitted diseases and other illnesses.
7. Environmental microbiology is the study of the composition and physiology of microbial
communities in the environment. The environment in this case means the soil, water, air
and sediments covering the planet and can also include the animals and plants that inhabit
these areas. Environmental microbiology also includes the study of microorganisms that
exist in artificial environments such as bioreactors
8. Biotechnology is a field of biology that involves the use of living things in engineering,
technology, medicine, etc.. Modern use of the term refers to genetic engineering as well
as cell- and tissue culture technologies. However, the concept encompasses a wider range
and history of procedures for modifying living organisms according to human purposes,
going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants and "improvements" to
these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization

9. Molecular microbiology is the branch of microbiology devoted to the study of the

molecular principles of the physiological processes involved in the life cycle of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, unicellular algae,
fungi, and protozoa. This includes gene expression and regulation, genetic transfer, the
synthesis of macromolecules, sub-cellular organization, cell to cell communication, and
molecular aspects of pathogenicity and virulence.

10. Agricultural microbiology is a branch of microbiology dealing with plant-associated

microbes and plant and animal diseases. It also deals with the microbiology of soil
fertility, such as microbial degradation of organic matter and soil nutrient
transformations. It s importance is Decomposition of resistant components of plant and
animal tissue,
11. Industrial microbiology or microbial biotechnology encompasses the use of
microorganisms in the manufacture of food or industrial products. The use of
microorganisms for the production of food, either human or animal, is often considered a
branch of food microbiology. The microorganisms used in industrial processes may be
natural isolates, laboratory selected mutants or genetically engineered organisms A huge
variety of biopolymers, such as polysaccharides, polyesters, and polyamides, are
produced by microorganisms. These products range from viscous solutions to plastics.
The genetic manipulation of microorganisms has permitted the biotechnological
production of biopolymer

12. Food microbiology is the study of the microorganisms which inhabit, create or
contaminate food. Of major importance is the study of microorganisms causing food
spoilage.[1] However "good" bacteria such as probiotics are becoming increasingly
important in food science.[2][3] In addition, microorganisms are essential for the production
of foods such as cheese, yoghurt, other fermented foods, bread, beer and wine.
13. Microbial biodegradation of pollutants can be used to cleanup contaminated
environments. These bioremediation and biotransformation methods harness naturally
occurring microbes to degrade, transform or accumulate a huge range of compounds
including hydrocarbons (e.g. oil), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), pharmaceutical substances, radionuclides and metals
14. Biotreatment Microorganisms are used to treat the vast quantities of wastes generated by
modern societies. Biotreatment, the processing of wastes using living organisms, is an
environmentally friendly, relatively simple and cost-effective alternative to physico-
chemical clean-up options. Confined environments, such as bioreactors can be employed
in biotreatment processes Biological wastewater treatment is undoubtedly one of the most
important biotechnological processes, which have been used for over a century to treat
municipal and industrial wastewaters. A number of new exciting insights into the
structure, function, and dynamics of complex microbial communities in wastewater
treatment processes have been gained, which have significantly expanded our
understanding of process design, operation and control. Microbes play a vital role in the
cycling of nitrogen in wastewater treatment processes
15. Cellular microbiology is a subfield of biology. It is a discipline that bridges microbiology
and cell biology.

16. Ecology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the distributions, abundance and
relations of organisms and their interactions with the environment
17. Veterinary microbiology: The study of the role in microbes in veterinary medicine or
animal taxonomy.
18. Evolutionary microbiology: The study of the evolution of microbes. Includes the study
of bacterial systematics and taxonomy.