1~1.. SURWYitfG.

One of the oldest atts practiced by man is• surveying. f"ro,~

the ear.liest times i t has al){ays been necessary . to· ma r ~
bounda·r ·ies and divide ' ti:acti of land. Through th~ centur1 r~ s
ihe uses of s~rveying ' have expanded such that today i t is
difficult to undertake any typ~ of engineering con~truction
that does not invoive some type of surveying. Planning and
d~sign ate based · on the results df surveys, and construe•
tion is controll.ed by surveying. Professionals in the dif ·-
fere nt fields . of .engineering i:-'.5 well as geologists, archi-
tects, foresteis, agriculturists, and ge og raph e rs are con-
cerned wi th surveying as a means of plannin~ and executing
their respe·ct i ve projects.
Surveys cover a wide range in scope and, complexity,
from ~he. staking out , ~f simple structures or the surveying
of s mall parcel~ of lan8 to the extens ive and di•ff i c ul t
su~veys requir ed in the construction of sutidivisions, brid-
ges', highways , . canals ·, dams; railroads, whar v es , mi ss ile
and rocket launching sjtes, drainage and irrigation sys-
tems , or 'the survey of relatively large portions · of the
ea rth ' s surtace . Surveying is ·als.o required for the laying
1

out of indust~ial equipme~t, preparing forestry and geolo~

~ica-1 maps , positioning -massive and complex mac hin e:r;y, r"n ·
the construction 9f ships and airplanes, as well as in the
survey and exploration of extraterre~trial bodies such as
th e moon a nd the planets .
In .. the training of a technical student the study of
sur v e ying is an important part even thou-gfi he may never ac-
tua lly use it later in pr~ctice. It is one course which
tra ins students to· v.isualize and thrnk logically, to plan,
to work ca ref ul _ly and accurately, and to arrange the pr ·o -
duct of these efforts in a neat and orderly manner •for re-·
cord or presentation. A surveying course will provide the
st udent a wortn~~ile g~neral experience .and also . de v~lop
des_irable traits and habits because the ~ture of the · sub- _
ject with its related · field _ measurements i-ssuch that it
wil l .de ✓ elo~ - habits of ~ccuracy, in~ustry, and reliab i~ity .
In addition, the student will learn a ~ieat deal about
the relcitive _imp ottance1 of measurements. He is fra jned to
decide on ho~ accurate and precise measurements s hould be
made,- _and a cquire essential habits of check i ng nume ric al
calculations, measu ~eme nts , and obs~rvat__ions . All these
attributes are expected to a dd to the stature - and teehrtical
competence of a f uture pro fes sional.

1-2. DEFINITION OF_ SURVEYING.

~11 _surveying operations have the same basic characteris-

tics - that ot delineating a . portion o~ the earth's surfac~
or subsurfa c e or of ~stablishing the position or boQndaries
of ·some object upon it. A host 0 ~ defi~itions have · been
made by d1 f fer;en t author:s, and the foll owi'ng are 1 is ted:
 " Sur ve y ing ls th e a rt of de t erm i ning t he posl tlon s
1.
mea ns of . meas u -
of poi n,ts o n or ne a r t h e e a rth 's su r face b y
na rr - ly, di sta n ce ..
r eme.n t s in th e thre e elem ents of s pace ; .
dire ctio n, and elev atio n." · - Rayn er and S~ha
idt . ·
· ~- ·nsu~ veyi ng is the art o. ~ mea surin g ho r izon tal · and
v e rtic al dist ance s betw een obje cts of, ·mea surin g a ng les
n of line s, and
betw een line s, . of dete rmin ing the dire ctio
lar and 1 in·e a r
of esta blis hing poiz: its by prede ._~er mine d angu
Mikh ail .
meas urem ents ." - · Da v is, Foot e , Ande rson , -and .

3. "Sur veyi ng is th-e art of maki ng such - mea sure men ts

surf ace of the
of . the ~ela tiv~ posi tion s of poin ts on the
e arth that , on draw ing them to scal e , n atur al and arti fi-
ect hori z6nt a l
cial feat ure s may be - exhi bite d in the ir corr
o r ver t ·ical r e l a tion shi ps ." -~ c laik ~ .
math emat ics
0
4 . · "Sur veyi ng . i s that bra nc h •of. rippl i ed .
any por-
w~ i ~h t e~ch e s t he art of dete r mi~i ng the area of
ecti ons of
tion of th e eart h' s ~urf ace ~ t h e l e ngth a nd d ir
the con tou r o f ±he sll r fac e; ~nd of ac-
th e boun dary lin es ,
. Web ster.
cura tely deli neat ing the whol e on pape r ." - such
5~ "Su r v e y ing is the scie nce , o·r art o f . ma king
as .are nece ss~r y to dete rmi n e the · r~la tive
~eas u~e me nt s
s ur fa ce •of the
pos iti o n of poin t~ abov e, 6n, 6r bene ath the
d, Hosm er, and
f~a rt h, · or t o esta bl i sh suctt poj_n ts . " - Bree
Bone . · ·
is the 'scie nce· and art o f d e t er minitheng
6. " Surv eyin g
posi tion s o-f p o in ts a·bov e , OJl , or be n e c:-th
. r elat i ve
s ur face of the e a rt h , or esta blis hing suc h p o ints .''
Br in ker and Welf .
it is oh-
F r om the diff eren t de fini t i ons give n ·ab o v e,
r pa . . _t · of~
.. viou s that surv eyin g acti vi t _i es duri ng the earl i _e
s on or ne a r th e
the d e c ade have only been li'mi ted to surv e y and
s ur face of the eart h. Time s , how ever , h a ve c h a nge d
to s pa c e · e~pl ~-
mod er n ~ u rvey ing tech niqu es ire now appl i ed
al bod ie s . . suc h
r ati~ n · an~ in the mapp ing of extr ater rest ri
mars ,. and in the . n ear f utu re th e othe r pla-
~. as the mo o n ,
nets , st ars , and othe r heav e n ly bqd i es in t
he u·niv e rse .
sur~ eyin g is
The auth o r bel ~eve s that t h e sc i ~ n ce of
feel s that it
now ~mu ch wide r a n d co mp l e~ in ex t e nt, · a nd and
be r~de f ined ma r e appr opr i ate ly as , the art
shou ld
1 i near .· meas ureme ~ts -~o
s c i e nce o f dete rmin i ng angu lar and
e s tabl ish t ~e · form , e,<te nt , and. · rela tive ' · posi tion · of
the
poin ts , li nes , and area s on or n ea r the surf ace of
ugh app li ed
ear th or on ot h~r c~tr ~t e r rest rial bodi es thrb
nt and t ech -
·mat hema tics and t he us e o f spec ia li zed - equi pme
ni q ue s .

l. -3. PLANE AND GEODETIC SURVEYING .

atio ns , pl ane
Sur ve y s are divi ded into two gene ral clas sific
and ge od e tic.
.in wh i c t
1 . Plan ~ surv eyin g -- 'is that type ·of s urve y ing
 the ear th i~ 'consider•~ ~o be a flat surfac~, ,and where
distances and areas lnvolv~d ·are of limited extent that '""the
exact shape . of th~ earth is disr~garOed. With regard t~· bo-
rizontal distances :and dir~ctlons, a level line is con~l-
d.e red as mathematically straight, : the direction ~f the
· plumb 1 ine · is. assumed to be the same at al.l poin~s . Within
the limits of the survey, and all angles. are considered to
I I •

be plane angles.
- - - Plane suiveying is of wide scop~ an~ appli~ation. The
di'fferent methods . of plane surveying are emp.lo.yed in va-
rious surveys undertaken - in engineering, ~cientific, com-
mercial, · architectural, geographic, navigational, and ex-
ploratory work. Since it is . ~he required degree of accu~ac y
which forms the ·contrplling factor in most _surveys, no
definite 'limit can be assig ne d for th~ area up t:o which a
survey may be consi dered as plane . Unless extreme accuracy
is required, plane surveying. is· applicable to · areas of .some
thousands of square kilometers in extent.
2. Geodetic Surveying are surveys oi wide exten t
which take int o account the spheroidal shape of the earth .
These surveys employ principles of geodesy, are of high
precision, and the related calculations involve the --Sol ving
of equations derived from advanced mathematics p~rticularl y
~pherical trigonometry, cal~u l us , and so-e applicatio ns of
the theory of least squares.
Geodetic surveys, which are usually of a national cha-
racter, are mostly underta k en by government agencies to
ser v e as a basis for the production of. accurate base and
topographic maps. 'T'he most refined instruments and methods
of . ob servation are employed since these surveys pr ovide a
~e fere nce framework covering a l~rge area of the ear th's
surface. A number of points of known location and elevat ion
are estab li shed to serve as controls for subordinate sur-
veys of lesser extent which are performed as plane $ Urveys.
El e vations of selected vertical control points are express -
ed in terms of vertical distances above or . below a iefe-
rence ·curved surface usually mea~ sea lev~ l.
The field measurements for most g~odet ic surveys •.are
primari ly observed by the use of theodolites , tapes ,· and
electr onic distance measuring devices . Recent ly, newly de-
vised equipmen t have been ·employe d . s uch as · doppler and
in ert i al surveying systems. Thes·e sophisticated systems are
capable of a chieving ·high deg rees of a ccuracy in shorter
time spans .

1 - 4 . TYPES OF SURVEYS.

Of the different types of surveys the following are the

more C<?rnmonly exe·cuted:

1 ." cadastral Surveys - are _ usually closed surveys which

are undertaken in urban and rural locations for the purpose
of determi.rring and definin(j property lines and bounderies,

__ -
_-
-6- __,....._, IIITlt3DlJCTIOlt
ro StlltY£Y~
cor~e rs·1 ·a n~ ~are~s · These :· sur veys ar e also ·made .__ to f ix the
bound eries of mun .. ci pa l iti-e~ , · t owns· an<! provi nci al juris -
dicti ons. · '

·2 . City Sur v e y s - . ar e surve y s·· of t he are~s in and - n ea r

a ~ity fdr th e purpo se of plahn ing · e ~pans iorts or . i ~pt~ ve -
me nts, . locat ing prope rty 1line s, fixin g re f e -r ence -mo nume n t s,
det ~rmin ing the physi c~! featu res and 6onfi gu~at ion of the
land, ~ nd · pr~~a r i .n g. ma-ps. . • .\
3. Const ructi o n : Surve ys ~ the·s e are su:r:ve ys which are
unde rta k en at~ const ructio n site to provi d~ 1data regar ding
gra des,· refere nce lines , d1me nsion s; groun d co·nfi gurat ion,
and th~ lbcat ion a nd elev~ tion of struc tur~s which ~re of
conce rn to engin ee r s, a rchit ects, •a ·nd build e_r s .
4 . For·~s t ry · ~urve ys · - a type of surve y .exec u ted i~ ;
n, and t h e· -
c~nne c:t ion with f o rest mqnag emen t and -mens uratio
pr9du ction and co nser vat i o n o f f orest l a nds .
S . Hydro graph ic Surve ys - refer to s ur veyin g stream s ,
la k e s , r es e~v oi rs, ha r b6rs , cicean s, a nd 6ther bodie s of
wat e r. Thes e s u rveys are mclde to map s h o r e li nes , chatt the
s hape o f ar e as u nderl ying water surfa cesL · a nd meas·u re the
flow of strea ms . They are o·f gener al i mport a nce ·.1.n conne c-
tion with na vi gatio n, dev_e lopme nt of wate r suppl y a nd · re-
s ource s , f lo od co_n trol, irrig ation ,·· __ produ cti o n of hyd ro-
e lect ri c power , subaq ueous const ructio ns, a na · re cr ea t.ion .
6 . Indu strial \ Surve ys - somet imes known -_- as optic a l
. t:bt>li ng _. It refer s to the use of surve yi n g te c hn-iqu e s iin
ship btiil ding, const ructio n and as~em bly of airct af t, lay~
out a nd insta llatio n of .heavy and con,p'i e·x mac h iner y , and in
other i nd ustrie s where very acc'ur ate . dimen sio na l l~you ts
_are re qui red .
7 . Mine Surve ys - are surve ys which are · p er for m~d ~o-
det er~n e the po s it i on Of . a11 Under gr OU nd e X C a va-t i On s a n d
s ur fac e mine struc tures , to fix surfa c e bo undar ie~ of
minin g \c l aims, ·deter mine geolo gical forma t·i ·ons , to c a l cu-
late exc~v ated volum es, and estab lish lines and gr a des f oe
other re l ated mi n ing· work.
8 • .Photo gramm et~ic Surve ys - a ty p e o f s u r vey which
mak ~s use of photo graph s taken wi th spe c ial ly . d~s~ ·ned
c_ame r as - e i t her ~ r om a i rp l a_ne s o r g r _o u nd s ta,~ i on s . He as e -
ments a re o b taine d from the photo graph s wh ich are use~ n
con junct ion with l i mited groun d ·~urve ys . _ 1
9 . Route Surve .-S invol ves the de t er mina t i on o f
alig~m ent, · gr a d e:>~ earthw ork q uanti t ie s , locat ion of natu ~
ral and artif i ciar"'< i> j e.cj::s in conne ction wi _th the plann ing,
desig n, and cqnst ructiq n of high w~ys, railro ad s , pi_pelin es ,
canal s, trans missi on lines , and other linea r prqje cts.
1 0 . Topog raph ic Surve ys - are those surve ys made for
determ ining the shape of _the groun d, and the _loca tion and
eleva tion of natur al and arti f i c ia 1 f~-~u.r_:e-s--r-upo n i t . The
fe·atu res sho wn includ e such natur al objec ts. as hills , mou n -
tains , river s, lakes , relie f of the ·g~oun d surfa ce , etc ;
and works of man, such. as roads , build ings, ports , t owns ,
muni cipal ities, and_ bridg es .
 2-1-. SURVBYING MKASURBMBNTS. ◄

A measurement is the proceM of determining the extent,

size oi dimensions of. a particular quantity in comparison
to a giv_e n s·tandard. In' · sur"veying, measure·ment s are usually .
concentrate d on angles·, . elevations_, times, lines, · areas,
and volumes. Making ·measur~men ts and th,e subsequent cpmpu-
tat, 6ns utilizirig them ~re basic and essential tasks of a
su~veyor. ,The surv~yor's roie-. is primarily t'e -~esign .a
surv~y, then plan·out and execQte th~ required field opera-
tions. In so doing, he . designates the type, exten:1-, and
procedure · . of measur~·ment s to be undertak.en. The .m~asure-
11\ents . obtained · are then evaluated and adjuste·d to obtatn
the de-sired r.esults ·. '
Any .suryeyin.g measurement . is always subject to the im-
perfections of the instrument . used and the different er- .
rors inherent iri the process of• qbtaining the measurement .
There is no such thing as a perfect measuring instrument
nor i~ there a ·surveyor whos~ · senses are sufficientl y per -
fec~ to measure any _quantity exactly. The first thing a
student of surveying must learn about· measlir:ement is that
no exact or ~r~e mea~urement is ev~r possible and the tr ue
value of _ a measured quantity is never . known. Measurement s
are never exact and they will always be imperfect no matte r
how carefully made. · T.he physical measurement s acquired are
correct onlry within certain 1 imi t 's because errors cannot be ·
total ly el i minated . ·
Iri surveying, me2surement s may be made directly or in -
directly. To learn and appreciate the different .. operatio ns -
of surveying it is important for t h e student to understand
t h e fundamental . pr·inciples of mak i ng measurement s or obser-..
vations. It is a fact tha\ the best surveyor ·is not the bne
who m~ k es t~e most accurate and precise measur~ment s~ but
the on e who i s ab l e to choose and .apply the required or
. a ppropri ate deg r ee of p reci s i o~.

• 1. Direct Measuremen ts. A direct measurement . is a _c om-

parison of the measured quantity with a standard measur ing
un\t or · units employed for measuring a quantity of t hat
k in-d. . ·some common examples of direct · measuremen ts · are
ap~lying· a wi re . or tape to a Jine, determining a horizontal
or : vertical a n gle wit"h a · transi't, or fitting a px;otractor
betwe~n two int ers~cting \ lines to determine the i·n tersec-
tio n angle .
·
' .
2. Indirect H,!!asuremen ts .. When i t is no t possible to
apply a · measuring. instrument directly to a quantity ~o be
' • I

·measured an indirect measurement is made. · In this type of

measur~men t, the observed value is•determin ed by its rela- ·
tionship to s~me gther · known values. For ~xample, the total
length of - a line would be an indirettly observed distance
i f i t i s Qet e nr i n e d _ b .¥ a $ umma t i o·n of a s ~ r i es· of direct 1 Y
measured short segments. In the stadia· and subtense bar
.
method, ~oriiontal and vertical distances are :ndirectlY
. '

•
L.!..I..---
14 IN'!'lfODVCrJON
TD SIIRVCYIIII
 obta ined since it mak e s us e o f optical sys~ems for · relatiN;I
a short kn own ' le ng·~h - to t he angle 1.t subtend,s at the di.a ~
ta nce to be d e termined . , .
"T here are nume rous . ind ire.ct mea s urements made 'i n s.ut.--
ve ying operatio ns such t ha t i t i s impor t ant for surv~ybt•
a nd ·s ~udents o f iurveyi ng td have a ~obd work i ng knowl edg~ ,
of t rig o nome try. a nd _geo metr y.

2- 2 . THE METER . ·

The inte rnational unit of linear measure is the meter ~ Thi s

wa s •. proposed ~ometi me in 11a·9 by .F r ench scienti sts wh o
hoped to es t ab~ish a system suita ble for.all times and a ll
peop les, and ,wh i ch co uld be . base d upon pe rmanent natura l
sta nd ards. Ori g i na lly, the me t e r · was d e fine d as
1/1 0.,0o·o_,000 of the ea rth ' s meridiona l quadra nt . .
The · growing use o f the mete r leci to · demand s for a n
int ei nat ~o na l or ganizat i on t o i nsure · the uni f o r mity and
s t a ndard i zation of i ts de fin ed l ength. · Se v er a l con f e r eric e s
we re convene d by the French g over nme_nt for thi s· pa r ticular
object i ve . Fina lly , i n . Ma y 20, 1 87 5, a t reaty was sig ~e d in ·
Pa ris · ~y tepres entatives of e ig~teen countrie s ( 1 3 from
Eur o pe , 4 f r om the Ame r ica n cont ine nt , and · 1 fr o m the
Middl e East ) whic h c reated a per mane nt I nt e i; na t i ona l Bu rea·u
o f We i ghts and Me a s ures. As a d i r ect te su lt ; of th is tr e a ty,
the s t and ard for li nea r mea sur e wa s establis he d as the
I nter nat i ona l M~t e r which was init i ally ba se d on a n i ron
me ter bar sta nda rdiz ed j_n Paris i n 17 99 . The me t e r was
def i ne d as .the distance be twe en two l i nes e ngraved ~cro s s
t he. surfa'ce tnea. r the ends ) of a bar w i th an· X-shap.e d
~ross-sect i on , co mp ose d of 90 perce nt pla tin um a nd lO p er-
cent i ridi_~ m, vih en t he t e mperature of tht:) bar i s O degrees
Celsi us .
The orig i n al . internat i ona l me t e r bar wa s depos i te d a t
t he I nternati onal Bu r eau i n Sevres ~ near Par i s, ' France . The
bure a u t o ok ca r e of the prot otype stand a rds of the · me t e r
and was gi ve n ·t he task to per iodi c ally c ompare a nd cali-
brat e th e pr i mary standard~ of t he pa rt i c ipating co~ntri e s
~hich ha s grown to 3 5 members . i n 1 9 54 . The bur eau a l so
carried on r e s e arc h .to impro ve the s t a ndards and method s ~f
measureme nt.
All thro ug h the f ol l o~i n g y e ars the me tric st~ n dards
n~de of pl ati nu m and iridi um served its purpose vell ~
however, many s cienti s t~ be l ie~e that the s yste~ sh ould
eventually be ba s ed upon th~ natural · $tandards ~f even .
' greater permanence, and · po s sibly of_ gr ea ter. .preci sion..
Ide~s were conceived to ado p t a natural standard in li e u 6£
the previous man--made physical standard . Such a s t d ndard
would have the advanta ge , of beihg reproducibl~ and a ls~
immuhe to possible damage by accident or by hos t il e act.
I q p ctober 1960, the mete~ was . red e f ined at the 11th
Gen eraT 'Con f erence on We ights and Measur e s and agree d upo n
by , 3 6 ti O u n tr i es . The mete r is now de f i n e d as a 1 en gt h equal
. .
. '
 to 1 650 7~ 3. 73 wa,v ~ leng ths _o f ,, the ora n 9e -r ed. ligh t pro-
duced' by burning t he el ~·me.nt krypton~ ~wi t h an ·_at omic weight
of 8 6 ) a t a spe•ci f 'ie d e ne_r9 y . level .1 n the s~e ct~um. _Thts
new deiirtition will ~n~ble nations now using the intetn~-
tion a i s yst em o f. un'its to_ make more ac,c ur_a ~~ measurements
with th e me t er ., It wil+ .k eep- them. fr om ·hav1~g to check and
c a li bra te · th¢ir mete-r bars- against _the international proto-
type ba r in France . since ~his· n·ew defined length presumably _
can ' be reprodu ced with great . accuracy in · a well-equipped
labora tor: y ~-

2-3. INTERNATIONAL -SYSTEM OF UN ITJI (SI) .

A movement is now unde_rway _tb s ta ndardize and simplify
unit s of m~a sur e men_ t throughout th~ world, . The Interna-tic»n-
al Bure a u of We ig h t s a nd Meas ures : pr omulga t e d in 1960 the
In ternat io na·l . S y ste m of Uni t s , ge n era ll ,r known as SI. The
ultima te g oa l is t _o modernize t he . me t ri c syste m by introdu-
ci·ng a coh erent and rati o nal ~orldwide ~ystem of uni t$. SI
uni t t are now . ~dopt~d by .most co un tr i ~s i n Europe , the
Middl e Ea st , Africa , and i n Asia . The Uni t e d St at es of
Ame ri c a has started to adopt the InternatJ onal Syste m of
Uni'ts, alt hou g h wit h great 'hesitation .
Effe ct i v e ,Jan uaryl, 1983 t he English Sys t em was of fi-
ci a lly p has e d out in t h e Phrlippines and · only · the moder n
met r ic s yste m ,¥las al1o\i/ed to, be . used . · Metric conversi o n or
cha n ge -over was signed into law on December 1978 by f o;mer
Pr es ~ Ferdinand E . Ma r cos . The ~etric s~stem piescr i bed' t he
u s e · of th e I n ter nat i anal Sys tem o_f Uni ts , (.SI) as establ is h-
ed by th~ denera l C~nference on We i ghts an~ Measur~s a nd a s
modi f i ed by the . ~ocal Met ric Sys t em Board to _suit ~hil i p -
pine c ondi t i o~s .
Units i n SI of majo r concer n to surveying are the ~et e r
( m) f o r li near measure, t he squar~ mete r (sq m or m2 ) for .
areas 1 the cub.ic meter ( cu ~ or\ m 3 ) fo r v olumes, and the
' .
r a di a n ( rad ) for plane angles. There are certain u nits
which are not part of SI but are still widely u se d .
Exa mp l es are liter , hectare, knot , day ~ hour, and minute .
Thes e are still a~cepted for use in the Philipp in es s i nce
it i s not practica l tb abanddn ~hem ye t. For longer d is t an-
ces the k i l ome t e r ( km } may be used an d f or lar g er a r eas the
hectar e ·( ha ) is used . Degrees , minu tes , and seco nds are
also acceptable f o t p l a n e an g les measured in SI~

2-4. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT .

The usua l survey in g t y pe ·of measurement enta il both angular

and linear mea sur e men t s ·. Whe n usi n g S I , al l linear measure-
ments,. as e a rli e r stat~d, are base d up o n the me ter . Large r
and smal l er units· are derived f ro m it i n d~ ci ma l st e ps, and
their names are formed by a ddin g pr ef ixes. -In SI a total
~ ~ t of 18 pr e fixes are ~se d to for m multipl es and submulti -
~,~-s of diff eren t units . 'l1he following more commonly used

\
 pre f ixe s a. re ctdd_e d t o bas i c npes .
.me ga - = .1 000 00 0 c e nti- = 0.01
k ilo - - l 000 mii li - = 0.001 ·
he c t o- = · 10 0 mic ro- = 0.000 00.1 •
Qeca - · = 10
\
de ci- O·. l
n a no..:. - 0 . 000
I .
000 001
',

•1. L inear~ Ar e a , and Volume Me a s ureme nts. Using the

pr ~f ixes, the follo wing _li ne3 r uni~s are d~rive a·:
. 1 k'i.lom et e~ ' (km)
1 mete r (m) = 1 000 me ters .
I •;:;1 000 mi 11 ime te·rs
1 mi 11 ime t'er <mm> = 1 'ooo mic r ome ters
1 in i -crorne ter (um )
= r ..,Boo mi l li microm e ters
1 mil i imi crome ter ( mu) .
1 me ter ( m)
=• 1 0 00 mi 11 i on . .mi er
omet e rs
l dec i meter ( am·J ·
= 10 decime t e rs
= . 1 0 c e ntim¢t e rs
I c e ntime t ".? r ( cm).
. •
~ 10 mi;J..li rriet e r s
•
I

.Th e commcm upits for lenqth are t h e kilome t er , · -_ me ter,

c e ntimet er , and the millim eter. iength mai a l s o re f e r to
othe~ li n eai dimens ions such as width, dept h, t hi ck n es~,
· h ei g h t , o r d !stanc e . The kilome ter · is used for lon'] d i s _t a n-
c e s a nd in meas.ur ing the s-ides · o_f large trq.cts -o :f. land . F or
the mea$-u rement of object s shch as buildi ngs, • s tr uct uies i
r e si'de'r1t ial ·10.ts, heigh t ~ o~f mount ains , · tides , pi p es a nd
c a bl es , · th~ -- .~net~r _is · used , T~ e centim eter and mi _l:. i me ter
a r e not commo nly -used .. in surve yin g . They a r e s ui t ab le ·. f or
sma-1 1 _ d~men sion;; needed in U abora tories where v e r y p r e·cise ·"":
b_u t minu te measur ements a r e re qu i red.
The unit ~f 1area. i n SI i s t he square me t e r . For · v er y
sma ll areas, sq u are rnill ime t ers • or sqq are c0.n t i mete r s is
. ·us ed . Ar·eas o~ s ma l 1 t r acts o f la nd, -. floor 2r e o.s of b ui ld-
i ngs• and struc-t ures are mea sur ed in sq u are me ters . Th e hec -
t are, ( ha ) , a l th~ugh not an SI u n1 t ., is cornmu n.1.y used for
. the meas u remen t of large t racts of land suc h as c iti es ;
· p;rov inces , . s ~?a r cane J?)anta t i ons , . r ~ce fie l d s i _ and £ or e st~ i.
·The s quare k -1 lome.te r 1s t he a p p r o priate SI un it f or , t h -~
pu rp ose . Th e f o llowin g are, th e co mmonly us ed re~ a tion s hi r J: ·
1 He ctar e :::: 1 0 0 0 0 s g ID . or 10 0 a res , 1 are = l O0_ s q m; 1 s g
k m ·= l OOO QOO sq -m , or 10 0 he_ct ares • ·
The co mmon '1\etric un ~ts £"or volume a r e - t h e cubtc me te r,
li t er~ a nd· t he mil lilite r .· Precis e vo lumes , act ual - pbysi-
ca l' ' volum es , and the vo l umes ' of s ol id s a nd liq ui ds should
be e xpre~s ed d epend ing o n mag n itude ; in cubic me ·t'e r s cubic
c e nt illl,e te rs , . : or c ub i c . mi 1 1 i me t e r s. Th e cu b i°c me t e :t :·.;::; u s e'tt
f or , l ar ge r v e lumes wh i'c h ar f_ common in e n g in e~ r-i ·;_, J cons-
· t ructio ns an~ in meas u r i Qg v a rious quan t i t i e s in.sL1 rveyin g.
2 . AnCJu l a r · Meas uremen ts . The SI uni~ f or . plane· angl~s
i s t h e rad ian. The r adian is de f ined as an angle .~ rnbten ded
by •an arc of a circle· h ~ving a length e i]ual to the raiius
of the circle . Obvio usly,- 21f r-ad := 360 deg ,. l _ rad ~-= 57 deg

INrRC DUCTION
·'ff) $1/IIVl:J'JN!i ~. . . ... _
' 1
 i 7 miri 44 ~8 s ec or 57.2958 deg, "a nd 0 . 01745 rad = 1 dei .
The rela tio n shi p ma y also be expresse d a s follo ws : 1 deg =
( 3 .1 41 6/ 18 0 ) rad, l . mi n = (3.1416/10800) rad, and 1 se c=
( 3 .1 4~6 /6 4 8000) rad.
Th e s ter a dian i s ·· ·the supplementa ry unit o~ a sol id
a11gle ( one which has its vertex in the center of a sphere
which cuts bff an area bf th~ · surface ~gual to that of a
squar e with sides of length equal to the rad~us of the
sphere) . . I n the Philippines th e sexagesimal un~ts are ~sed
with SI for· angular .• measuremt •lts b~cause - of the i.r praC:t ical
importance and our familiarity with it.

a ) Sexagesi ma l Un its - the se}:Cagesimal units of an~ular

rneastirem~nt ar E the degiee, minute, and second. The_unit of
angle used in s urveying - i s t he d egr ee whic·h ~s def~ned as
11360th of a circle. One degree e quals 60 minutes,_ and ~l
rni~ute e qual s 6 0 se conds. Di v is)~ n ~ o f s eco nd s are given in
t e nths, hund red t h s , · a nd. thousandt h s .
b) Cen tesima l - Units - many countries in Euro pe a nd the
Middl e Eas t u se · the · centesima l system where th e ·gr aq i s _the
a~gular u ni t . In th i s system the c ircumfer enc e of a circ le
( 36 0 deg) i s div i ded into 400 grads. The grad is di vided
in to 100 c e n te~imal minutes or 0.9 degrees , and the minute
is subd i Vi d ed into 100 centesimal seconds or O de g 00 min
32. 4 sec . Gr ads are µ sua l ly e xpressed in d ee imals .' Fo r
example., 1 9 4 g 45c 82cc i s expressed as 1 94 . 458 2 g r a ds .

2-5. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES .

In re c or ding results from v a lue ~ o bt a i ned bi meas ur e ments

and in making com[l_utations , i t i s importan·t to de termi n~
which s ho uld be ~etained as sig ni ficant figures . By ~e f ini-
tion, the nu mb~r of sign i fica~t figures in any v al u e in-
clude s t h e n qmber of c erta i n. digits plus 9ne d i g i t t hat is
estimat e d arid, the r efore, questionable or uncer t a in . For
~x~ mp 1 e , if a . line is •measured with a seal~ giad~ ate d . in
one me t e r i ncrements and recorded as 3.6 meters, t he value
has t wd _s i gnificant figures - the 3 th~t is certai n and the
6 which is es t imated . Any further: estimat io n made would not
be signific~n t . I f the same l ine is agai n me~sure d wi~h a
scale gr a duate d in tehths of a meter, · and ·· rec orded with
•thr e e significant f1 g ur es .- as 3.65· meters , the 3 and 6 - are
c:!e r~a in, whereas the 5 is es ti mated or u nce rta'in . ·
,The numbe r . ot si g ni f ica n t figur e s is often· confused
with the number .of deci ma l pl a c es ~ De ci ma l --pla ces may have
t? - be used • ~o ma int:ain the cor r e ct number of s~gnificant
f~gu-re s, but 1n themselves they do not ·indicate significant
figures, Some examples are: ·

1. One Significant Figure .

100 9 0.001
4JO 8000 0.000005
 2~ ftl> Slgnlf lcant Pigure a .•
·2 4 O·! 020 0. 0 0 24 ·
· o·. 24 0. 00006_5 . 3.6
!
3 . .Three Signif ic ant ·Fi-guJ:es •
·,
36 5' 3. 65 . 0. 000 2 49. ·'
•
12.3 1 0.l 0.0120
.
4 . Foilr Si gn if icant Figure s .

765 4 o·. a1~ 2 0~0000 6712

·Ji.2s 15 . 00 364.0

5 . •Fi ve Signif icant Figure s o

I

12 34 5 100.00 4 0.000
0. 86 7 40, 46 . 609 1 55 . 28

Some .., gen·e .r al rules. regard ing .signif icant f igu r ( ; are :

~ Rule 1 ~ : Zeroes betwee ~ other : signif icant figure s .. are

s i gnific ant, as, for exampl e in - the . followi h-g, values e'a c h .
of which contai ns 4 signif icant figure s: ' 12.. 03, 35 . '06,. a nd
· 400 9 .
·Rule 2 - For values i ess than one , zeroes immed iate ly
t o -the right o.f t he de c imal are not- _signi ficant . T,h eY
mer ely show the posi t io n o f th e decima l such as i'n .t he
fo llowi n.g v~lue-s which conta in th r ee signif icant figure s :
0.0032 5, 0.0004 68, and 0 . 0230 .
· Rule : 3 - Zeroes placed a t th e e nd of de~im al . numbe rs
a r ~ signif ic~nt such as: 169 . 30, 366.00 , and 11.000 . Thise
th ree values all have five si r;J rtifica nt figure s. ·
•
Wh~h compu tati9rts are to be made with values obtai ned .
fro~ rr.aasu rement s, it is import ant that enou9h figure s · b e
r etaine d to insure that the signtf icant figtlre s in t h e
f inal re~ ul t are consis tent with the precis ion o-f the mea-
sureme n t • . care must r also. be taken to. preven t .pick·ir ig up·
,..f i gu re~ during compu tations whic_h lead- to a . fina L r esu lt
conta'i ning . more s·igilif ican't figure s than the prec i s io'n of
the ori g ina l measur ements . Final result s fro·m c o~p utatio ns
couldn 't. be more prec_ise than the p~eci sio n of t h e l ea st
preci se va l ue use d ' in the . cpmpu tations ~ ·
. ~ \

· i t. is a l so import a~t that data resu l ting .fr om meas e -

'

ur
ment s . are r e co r d e d 'with the. correc t number of
sign i f ic.a n t
fi gure s : ) .f a s i g nifica nt figure is drop ped in r e cordin g a
V•lue, th~ •t/~ e and_ effo r t s pe nt in it t aining a give n pr e -
cision is . l!iasted . If. da t a ~r e r ec o rd ed with mor e f lgur e s
than those •• which are si-1ni f icant, • a false precis ion is
impli e d . . : • ..
In sdrvey ing me~sur ements the proper number of s igniEi -
•
tNTR0011 cnON IQ
lP SUR ll£ YIN(J - - - ,%_)
 ca nt• f igure .s shou l d be r e ~or q'e d. for ever y· meas u r.ed
v alue .
If this is d one, t he prec-isio n · wit h ' whl~ h - the meas ur~m ent
was mad e .is ciea rly ind i c ated . For exam p,le~ i f · a le 11gth is
de t er mine d . to t he ri e ar e s t h~nd red~h ~ f a met e-r as
65. 9·0 m,
t hen · i t s ~o u ld be \ recdr ded as 65.00 ~ - n? t 65 . 0
m ·or 6 5 m.
By recor ding .' it as 65. O ,ni, · the , i mpli ca t,,ion is that
the d is-
ta nce wa s me a sqred only .to the neare,st· t ent h of a
met e r; if
o~ly. 65 m is recor ded, the impli ca·tio n is .that the dis-
taa1ce wa s measu rect on'i'y to _the near e st me.te r. ·
.
Th~ - numb er : of sigri ifi~a nt figur es in a dir~ ~tly obser
~
ved quan tity. i ~ rela~ ed to the . prec i~ion or
refin emen t
emplo yed in t he obse rva tion~ To be co·n s is tent with the
theo ry of e rrors , it i s es s e nti a Q t h a t me a s ured value s be
. . .
recor ded with t h~ corre ct numb er of si gn if ican t figur
es .
2-6 . ROUNDING OPP HUMBBRS .

Roun ding off a value i s the proc ess of drop ping one
or m~re
of • t he f ina l · digi ts so t ·hat the value cont ains onl y t he
si g n ifica nt · figur es requ ired for furth er · co mput a~i.o
n or for
por t .ca y i n g the final resu lts. The follo wing proc edure s of
roun ding of f value s ~ie gene rally acce pted:

1. Digit ' is Less Than 5 . · Whe n t he d i gi t to be. dr

o p pe d
is less t h an 5, the numb er i s ~rit ten with 6ut t~e d igit .
Th us , 2 4. 2,4, round ed off t o th e ne ares t hu nd~e dth,
bec om~~
2 4 . 24 , Corre spon ding ly, t o fur th er r o und o f f 24.24 t o the
n eare st tenth s, the value b e aome s 24.2.
2 . · Digi t is Equa l to 5 . When the digi t to be dropp
e~ . is
e xa c t ly _ 5 , the near est e ven numb er is used for the . pr e ce -
ding d igit . Thus. 26 .175, round ed off to t he near est hund -
redth b ecom es 26 . 18 . Also , 156.2 85 ~ould be 15 6 . 28
.
3. Dig i t is Grea ter Than 5. When the digi t to be
dr op-
~ e d i s grea ter than 5~ the numb er is writt en wi th
the p r e -
c e din g digi t incre ase d b y one. Thu s , 2 26 . 276, round ed off
to the n ea r e~t nund red t h bec o mes 226.2 8. Corre spon d ing ly,
226 . 28, r ounde d off to t he n e ar est tent hs would be
226 .3 .
• The proc ed u res i n t ound ing off va l u e s as illus t
ra ted in
1 and 3 abo ve are stand ard pra~ t ice. Appa rent ly , h owe v e r ,
many diffe r when the d ig it t o b e dr o p ped is equa l
to 5 such
as . ·in the p roc ess of round in g off 156 , 285. S ome peopl e
alwa ys •take t he n ex t highe r hund re d t h (i . e., 15 6 . 29),
wher ea s othe rs in varia bly use t h e n ext l o wer hund redth
{i.e ., ·156. 28) . It shou l d be noted th a t us ing th e. near es t
even 1igi t prod uces be tt er ba lanc ed res u lts i n a
serie s of
cornp utati o ns. 'fhe · s o-ca ll e d " c .omp u te r r ul e " in rou
~1 ding off
value s -~hou ld not be ap p li e d to me::l s tired qu a ntiti
es. The
rule was appa rentl y devis ed .tor non-mea sured valu
es .

' ) ·""
'" •..-~..,-:•.·\"-,_ ,-,, ~
. r 1QN
1.r,wx,u;; -
:,aYIHfl
 3- 1 . ·s'tUDBN'l' PI&LD PRACTICS .

I n a n el e men t ar y s u r ve yin g co u r s e, . the sft den t _ a cqu i r es · a

c erta i n extent of fie ld •p r a ct i c e . . I t is not p osf i b le, in
the or q i na ry fie l d c our se in survey ing, to d evelop the s t u-
dent lnt u an ex pe r t l nst r ume ntma n; it i s e x p e ct ed, ho weve t
that the co u rse wiil give the ~ t udent a wor k ing kno wl e dg;
o f su r ve yi ng ins t 'r ume nt ij a nd thei r us es . I n e l e me n t a ry sur-
ve y ing fi eld work n,o l o ng s ur ve ys ci r e a tt e mpt ed, bu t a nuxn ..
be r of s hort s u r vey prob lems are t a ken up · ~h i c h in prac-
t ice mi gh t . become part s of ~xtende d s u rveys.
Membe r s 10 £ the s t ude n t f ie l d part ie s s h " u lp from " t ime
to t irne alt ernate l y a s suIQe the v a ri ou s du t i e s · i nvol v e d i n
the fi ~ ld wo r k . The ab ili t y · t o hol d th e rod p r ope rl y i s ~ s
e ~se n t i a l · a s t he k n o wle dge o f ho w ~o ma n i pu l a te t he
d i ff er e n t i ns t r ume n ts . The us e o f eu rve y i.ng i ns t rume nt s
r eq u i rl? n ot o nl y a tha.rough u ndei s tand in g • of
the bas ic
t he o ries· ~ nd pr inci p les of survey ing bu t a l s o a f a ir ly e x-
tensive am~u n t of fie l d practice .
.
J·- 2 . SURVEYING FIELD NOTES .
\

S urve y i ng field notes const i tu t e th e only re l i a bl e a nd

per·manent rec;ord of actual wo rk do n e i n t he fie l d . I f t he
no tes are inc6rrect br incomp l etel y done , or are obl it e r a -
ted , much or all o f th e t i me , mdney , ~nd effort in t he ga -
t !)e r i ng of survey •: dat a are wasted . , Fu~;t bermore, n o .ma tter
h ow- carefully the ' fie l d meas u rements are made, th e s urve y
a s • a whole may be use le ss if some of the measureme n t s a re
n ot· recorded or i f t he meaning o f any recorded d at a i s
mi s i n tF.rpreted or misundersto od. Tn ere i s no p hase i n a
s u r v eyo r ' s work whi ch i s of g r eater itiportance, or wh ich
re q u i res more caref
_ u l attention ~ than the keep ing of f i e ld
no tes. From 'the beg inn ing o f hi s s t udies , the s t ud e nt of
su r v ey i ng· should rea liz e t h a t t h e qua li t y o,! his fie ld wor k
is re f,1 e ct e d • d ire ct 1 y i n t he mann e r he keeps hi s f i e 1d
rec o r d . Before any - su r vey is mad,e , t he necessary da t a t o be
_coll ected shoald be ·consi d e r ed c a r~ ful l y- and. i ri t he f i e ld
a l l s uch required data shOul d be obtained . The fi e ld no te s
b e c o·me the off i cial record ,of ·t he survey . I t is for t his
rea s on tha t- notes must be co"mplete , leg i tlle·, conc i s e a nd
c ompre he n sive, and 1 og i ca lly arrang.ed accord.i ng t o r e cog-
n i ze d pr act fee .. · · .
.F ie·l d np-t es are us-ually wo.rked over in t he o ff ice into
. some mor e a d vanced f.orm · of presentation , suc h as a ma p , a
r e po r .t , ' or c1 co mp ut ation . The n_ot es a r e the n al~a y s kept
f o r f utu r e __r efer e nc e . Fiel d notes ma y b e use·a _b y a not her
s ur ve yor s ome ye a r s . l ate r . I t .i s n o t p ossi bl e to pr e d.ict to
wha t e x t e nt t he i nfor ll\at ion gat he red o n most s urve y s ma y
be come . o f value i n the f u t u r e . A n ee d t o r erun, e xtend, or
o th a r wis e make use rrf• p r e v i o us su rve ys ma y be r e quir e d for
a r e lated pr o je c t . Jn s uc h c a se i t wou l d be most logica l
tha t t he old fi e l d not es wi ll be th~·onl y ava il a ble re f e ·
•
•==-----
~22 111 r 1tooucr1011
n, SIAV£ 1'WI
 · iy upo n th e corn -
·11 d .epe nd l a r ge
the ir . val. ue. , ·wi~
ce ' ~nd.
. r en nd cla rity wit h whi ch the y hav e be e n rec ord e d .
. ple te nes s a
e fie ld not e s are
rn· man y e ngi nee ring app lied s~r vey s th
iael wh c .1a v~ not see n
used ~r re f:rr ~d ,to by off ice per son r wit h con ufti ons on
t he f1~ ~d site _ or _wh o are not tarn i lia onl y upo n wha t has
y
t he pro Je ct sit e . . Th ey rel y e nti rel be
been rec ord e d. It 15 fo r thi s rea son tha ~ not es sho uldcom-
cle arl y, · and sys te mat ica lly . To be
mad e com ple tely , wit h . . a
a, · tog eth e r
·pl ete , .·· the . not es · sho uld sho w all dat s th a t may
suf fic :en t :nt e rpr ~ta tion to ans wer a l l qu es tion sur vey or
sar vey . The
~ - ra i se d wit h res p ect to a ny giv e n of
the imm edia te use s
sho uld kee p cle arl y in min d not onl y
bl y be exp ec t ed to·
the dat a b ut tho se ·wh ich ma y r eas ona rec ord wri tten in a
ari se at som e fut ure tim e. A com plet ed
cau ses mor e mi st ake s
di s ord e rl y and con fus ed ma rin er ofte n
and err one o us_ ·i nfo rma tion . .
the con ven tior ial an d
· The n ote s sho u l d be rec ord ed in of . the
ing to ·whims
· gen e r all y use d form at and not acc ord e nds
fiel d s u rve yor . the . arra nge me nt of not es usu ally dep s ·.
ds , · and pre f ere nce
upo n de_par fme nt-a l or off ic·e · stan dar but in
not es in use ,
The t .~ are ·dif fer ent form s of fie1 d
form s d~v ised to mee t
pra ct ice the se mus t be ada pte d or new
unu sua l situ a.ti ons . F-ie ld not es are
.

mee t sp~ cia l con diti ons .

.
.
som etim es mo difi ed to
.

Al.t hou gh sev era l sys tem s of n ote

.

kee pin g are in g~_n era l use , cer tain pri nci ple s app ly to
st pos sib le npte .s wit h
al 1 ~ · The aim is to mak e the cle are tem at i c
eff ort . A sys
the l eas t exp end itur e of tim e and r ecd rd
orta nt if ihe
arr a n gem ent of all sur vey dat a is imp i n form a-
the req u·ir ed
i s · t o be con cise and inc lud es a ll of app orti onm e nt
tion . Acc tira cy is alw ays aid e,p by met hod ical
and cla ssi fic ati on of dat a . e to ot her s
It i s ess ent ial tha t not es be int el lig ibl g on the ·
wi tho ut v erb al exp lan a tio ns. Ano ther per son rea din
t has bee D don e
no tes ~ho u ld be ~bl e to qui ckl y ima gin e wha lf in
in the fie ld. The no tek eep er s ·hou l d alw ays put · him st. th e
at the tim e
th e pla ce "'o f ·one who is not in th e fie ld a ll
sur vey is mad e. ThE! fie ld not es mus t the n _co nta in
rec ord ed in suc h a man -
nec ess ary info rma tion ana the dat a
n~i tha t it wil l allo w onl y theble cor rec t i nte rpr eta tio n of
for stu den ts to hav e an
,ga the red d~t a~ It is als o des ira fir st
cov erJr t9 the ir
~xp ert ly des ign ed set ~f aot efo rms The s tu -
lie ld ~or k , to set hig h sta nda rds and sav e tim e . the
set of not es ove r
d~n t s hou ld str ive to imp rov e eac h ortu n ity
pre ced ing one . He s~o uld ava il hire se lf of thi s opp
sin ce it wil l g rea tl y
to dev e lop not eke ep in g tec hni que s,
als o i n oth er eng in~ er-
hel p him not onl y ~n sur vey ing .but
at ory exp erim ent s and
ing wor k, . s u ch a~ re6 ord ing la b6r me mor and a
par ati on of
t est s as wel l as in dra f tin g an d pre ies . ·
u~ ed i n . ·exe cut ive o r pr~ fes sio nal dut in
ord e d di re ctl y
Fie l d ~or k obs erv atio n s sh ou ld be rec Not es mad e
s are mad e .
the not ebo ok at the tim e obs er v at ion may be
l a ter . fro m mem ory or co pie d f rom
t emp ora r y not e s
ld n ote s . Stu den ts are t e mpt ed
us ef ul~ ... .
but - the
.
y are not fie
1Nre0D u c· 10.t· 23
l'V thlPYCYl ~ C' ~-- ___ ;
to a ~ r 1bbl,e notes on scra !) aheeta of. pape r fo r; later t rana ...
f•renc c in neat foim to the r~gular field book. - Thia Pr1c,
tl~& defe~ta the purpose of a surveying field work cours~
vhich is to provide experien~ e in taking notes unqer act uai
job condition s. ,
In court 1 f ield . notes may be ~sed as evidence~ Or ig inal
notes are thot9e taken ·while measurem ents ar_e being made.
All other sets aie co pied and mus t be so identifie d . Copied
notes. ma,y not be,• accepted in co urt. Be c ause of._ the possibi -
lity that field n?tes may beco m~ court ~vldence , many
s urveyors dG not ' allow e r asin9 in the fi e ld book . An
erasure could cause suspicion that the f~eld record ~as
a l te red after the ' field wor~ was finished. Insteadt
1lista kes are cross ed out in puch · a manner that th ey can
sti ll be read, and the cor~ect entry is made whi le sti l~ in
the field .

3-3 . THE FIELD NOTEBOOK .

In prac~ice th e field notebook should be of good quality

rag paper, . with stiff board or leather cover made to
,withsta nd h ard usage, and of pocket size. ' Treated paper s
a re ava i1able which will shed rain; some of these can be
wri~ten on even when wet . Special field notebooks are sold
by engi~eerl ng supply c~mpani~s for particula r kinds of
note s , such as cross-sec ~ions for earthwork . For . general
surveying or for students in field work _where the problems
to be done are general in character , an excellen t form of ·
not ebqok has the right-han d page divided into small
rectangl es with a re~ line running up the middle, and has
the le ft-hand page divided into several columns; both pages -
have the same hori -z ontal ruling. Another commo n form, used
in l e vel i ng, has both pages ruled in columns and has wider
!' hori zontal -- spacing than the field book. This' is called a
lev~lboo k .
The f i el d n o·tebook may -be bound in any of~ three ways:
conventio nal, ring, or loose-lea f. The ring-type , whi ch
con s is~s of many metal rings passihg through perforati ons
1n the pa ges , has the advantage . over the conventio nal
binding that the book opens quite flat and that the covers
can be fo lde d back against each other. ·Loose-le af notebooks
are more popu larly used . ·Loose leaves are available in
e i ther si ngle or double sheets.
In some t e chni ca l ~chools students are asked to use
bond paper in stead of field notebooks when preparing and
subm itting · their field no tes . The use of bond paper has
bee n popular because it is more readi ly availahle than ·
fiel d ~otebooks asid e from i ts being cheaper.

3 -~. TYPES OF NOTES .

The fo l lowing are the fiv e co mmon types of notes kept in

practice .
 1 . S~etc~es. A . good sketch wili help to convey ·a ·
.corre c t 1mpres~.i o.n . Sketches are r .are l. y made to ·. e·i~c:t ,
scale, - bu t i n ,, most c ase s t h~y ar e made app·r o x1mat el y : . ·1::0 ·
· s c:ale . They are d r awn ~reehand and of libe r al si ~e . H~'n:y
· fea tur e s may b~ readrl y fiho wn by co nventional · s y mbo l s.
Spe c i a l symbols may b e cidapt e d . f or t he· pa:rticula·r . o rgah i :.:_ ·
za t i on o r . j ob .· The stude n t sh~u ld n ote· t hat a : sket~h
crowde d· with u nnecess ar y d ata is ofte n . co nfusi' n g . .
.. . '

. 2 . · Tabu lat ions·. A . ser ie s o f · numer i c a l val u es· o bser -

ved in.the f ie ld are be s t sh own in a \ t a b ul at ed forma t. Ta-
bulate·d f or m o·f rio t e ke e piqg -c o nve ys 'the· r e qui re d •i nf o rm~-
· tion 'i n a s i mp l e a nd d.efi n i t e ma nner,. TabµI ar .for ms should
be use d ~her e v·er possib le ,,. This f or ma t . preve nt;~ mistak~s ~
a llows ea sy che c ki n g , ~ave~ time,~ake~ · the c i~~ulatio n l ~-
g ib le to~ ot her's , and'simpli,f ies.the ·wor·k o-f th e p e r ·s on c heck -
ing t he fiel d note~ . . However, ·in -other typ~s of s u rveys,
t h e data may be _of such varying characte r tha t t h ey canri°-t
b e a~ v antageotisl1 tabulated, ~ut mgst b e sh own on ~ ske tch
or sk e tches. . ·
· _~ 3 . llxpJanatory _Notes. E__
xpl-a nat~ry note_s _ p ro v i 4 e a
wr i t _t en description of what has been dorie in t h e _fie ld:-
These are empto·yed to make· clear -'what the , nurne,r ica l da t -a
a nd sketches ..£ a i 1 ' to .do . . Us ua 11 y they are p 1 aced on t h e -
ri g ht :.. hand page of the field notebook . in the: same li n e with
t h~ nu meiical data that they explain, If sketches. ar~· q s ~d,
t he exp l anatory not e s are· placed where they- will not i nte t ~
fere with other-,· data and a s close . as -possible t o th at whic.b
the y exp la in .--:
4. Computat.1o ns. · Ca lc u la t i ons or· one kind or ano -
. th e r f orm a large part of t~e wor k of surve~ifiq. Most s u r -
ve yi ng"'"'.type computation s are mad e algebraica lly by tn e u se
of s i mple _ arithmeti ca l ·steps . and trigo n ometric f unct ion s .
In s ome instances ,, · gfaphical s o l utions using i a c c u rat,el y
scaled dra~ings are rlsed . Ei ec tr onic hafid-held ~al cul at o~s ,
d e s k . calc ulators , or di gita l compufers are n ow tis ed for .
c a lcu l an:lng v~lues . The portrayal of ca l cu l ations s h oul d be
· clea r · ·and •.orderl y · in a r ·rangement in o~der that · t h es e wi •l l
e asily 'b e .. underst ood by p ers·o ns. ot,her. t ha n t h e one · who mad e
. . . .

the ,comp uta ti o ris r . ·. . · _

· s ~ Coaib i nation f.. Of. The- . Above • . Th e _pract ice ·u se d . in
m~st e x t e nsiv e su r v~s i s a combina t i o n ·o r t h e a bove ty_pe$
o f not es . The sucveyor sh o ul d 'be a ble t ~ de ter,mi ne f o r h im-
se l f which type o f combina tio n· would b e . mo st l o·g i c a l / t o u·se
in p o rt ray ing t h e typ e o 'f data g a t he·r e d ~in th e _~ i'e 1a·. ·
In a • ? imp le survey, such as one · for rne a s-0r lng t he
d i s t a nces b €ftween points i a sketch sho wi ng t h e leng t hs -is
s u ff ici e nt. On eitensive sur ve ys a combina ti on of tabulated
n umer ical valu~ s and sketc he"S ar e - used. · Whe re v e r t h-ere ma y
be · a ny d o ubt c o ncern in g . f i .e ld co nd i t i o n s , a s xetch a c c om-
1

pa nies th e nume r ital a value s. I n me as ur i ng the len gth. of a

l ine fo r ward a nd ba ~k"(ar d , a t aQ·ulati on pr o per l y a r ranged
i n c olumns i s ade g uat'e•. The· no,te s for most l eve ling opera-
 . . . -~- . . .\ \ ' . . ' . .

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· tions ar.e· reco\;d ed in tabular· foi:m . The location o f a re -f e -'
.· nce p oi n t may be d if fi c u l t
. re to ident i fy '· with
. ou t. a sk·etcti:
,, , .

bu~ o ft~ n a few l ine s o f ex pl~na tion are enough . Be ~cb

. ma rks and · .other re f erenc e p oints a # usua lly d es c.r i b~ d · i n
no t es.- Wher e ma ny a ngles a nd d ista nces a r e meas ured f r Qm
1
t he s ame pQi~~, a ~~etch showi~g a ll obs e rved va lu es wo uld
be hopel e ssly compli'cated . For th is r ea son the angle s and
distances ar ~ recorded in tabular form. Using the s e -e-
thods, · note~ for any surv~yirt~ : Qperatio~ are _gr~atly sim-
plified and the 'Jf ield. work underta k en become s perfectly
a ppa~e nt ~o on~ who has~ knowledge, of-surveyihg.

J -5. i HtORHATION FOUND IN FIELD NOTEBOOKS .

... . . '
It is d e s i r a b le t hat t h e follo wing ba sic informa tiq n -be
incl ude d in t h e . f ield notebook · as a requirement_· fqr
documentati on. It should b~ noted ~ hpwever , that any othe~
· unpor ta nt _o r infor·mative data relevant. to t he pat ticular
surveying operqtion · may ci-lso be inclqded .
0 .
,· .

1. · Title of ·the Field Work or Haaae of Pr oj ect . The

of f ic ia l name of tbe project or titleof, the field work
-s h o ul d always be identifi~d. The locaticin of the surve y and
p re f erably it~ nature or _·purpose shou~d a,lways · b~ s t a t ed .
2. Ti,me of Day and ~te ._ These entries· a·te. nec.ess,a - _
ry to documen. t th~ notes and furnish .a timetab'le-, as·, we l 1
as · to correlate di ££erent surveys. _ from the .- ass·igned _ s ·ur-.
1

v ey timetable; precision, problems encountered., _and other

factors a£ f e ct in g • the . survey ·may be · re fer en ced from . • · ·
· 3 • Vea ther Conditions • Temper at u re , .wind ve 1 o city,
t yphoons, storms, an~ o-her _we~ther co~ditio~s, such· • s
f og, sunshine, and rain have a ·decided effect ._u1ion ac c ur·a cy
in surveying operat i on s .' An i nstr'umentmah making pre cis e
o bservations ts unlikely to perform the b,est 'possible "(ork
during extremes _in temp~r~fure conditions. · lt i~ fo r t h~se
r easons that the detai1 ls related to _~he wea'" tlier p la y- - a n.
i mportant part when rev i ewing fie}d notes.
· 4 . NAaes .. of Group Members . and Their Desigtta-t ion~ .
The c h .ie f -,f party, instrumentman, tapeman, and - other: me m-
_b ers of the survey party must b~ identified . This - infor·ma -
t i on w.i l l be necessary for documentation purpose~ and-- o t he·r
future reference. From· this informati~n; du fi ei a nd r~sprin-
· si~ i J i ~ips can easily be pinpointed among t he ·s ur ~~Y paftY
· 'Jiembers . 1 . ,. -. " . - · ,· ·
,. · s__. List · of • Equi_pment • . Al 1 ·sur v ey eg ui p ment us:ed tnus t
be l is t e d, inc l uding its make, brand , ·- a nd seri a ~ numpef .
The t yp~ o_f ins t rume n t used; anct ,its a dj ustme h~, . a_ l1 _: hav~ -~
def i n ite -ef fe ct on the accuracy of a sur v ey. Pr ope~ i.d _e -~::-
ti f ication of t he. part i cular equipment used:· aios in,-
. . .

l at ing e rrorS 'in so ~e c ast! s · .

.. .
-,.,3\$.
't.'°~-
. If all .· t:he aoove li sted i 11f oimatfon are known , mi s•t crl(e&::--
\committed · 'in the f-ield aria· which are not discovered until ;,
• •, C '
 th'e ,·' ·~1 eld · work is· c o·~pleted ·c;~~1.e ·be _ ea·11·1ei determined.
Often I t t.·e '·m istake ca·n be t'raLcecf to weather . cond i tic>'ns . or
eq.uipment Whi ch ·a te out 6£ ad j u·:st:me nt, and· a corre~tlon ~an
easily be made witho ut .having t 9 r ed o t he whol e field work
or s.orne por ti on of i t . . . _
As . an aqoe d re quir eme nt, it is i ~ porta nt t o have a ta -
ble o f c ont ~nt ~ at the be g inning bf the field . notebook · to
ailow easy r efe r ~nc l ng of ~e sir e d da ta . _ This is a dvi sabl e
when . t he _n otebook.,,.conta ins . o bse-r ved and c alcu l ated da-ta
cove ripg dif fer ent survey proj e cts .

3- 6 . THE FIELD S URVEY PARTY .

The ·following is a 1 i st o f pe r sons · who may compose a f i e l d

sur v e y pa rty. The i r dutie s and responsibili t i e~ are g ive n
oppos it e the ir r e spe c tive designat i ons . The given compos i-
tion is prima rily designed for l ,a •r :ge s.cale sur veys whi ch is
~xpe ct~d: t o ~ndettake field s~rVeys t6vering days o r weeks
u~ing e ithe r conventional or sophisticated surveyi ng ins-
itr ume n t~ s uch as - those for survey~ using electron ic, i ner -
1ti a l ~ a nd position systems.
· 1n ~ oming· up ~ith an organization for a field aurve y
par_ty , the principle of flexibility must be ~dapted . The
d ut i e~ and . res pons ibi 1 i ties of .members of a _s urvey par ty
s hould n ot always be fixed but s ;hould be mo-dified so·-a s . t o
s uit prev a-iling work req u i r ements and conditions , pr oble ms
in f J e ld operations ; and t he ava i lability a~d usage of s ur -
v e y_yn-g equipment . Hence , _for s ma l ler scale surveys a nd
where convention.a l s urveying e q ui pment are· utilized, t he
g ive~ co~poiition s ho uld be r ed tic ed t~ what is deemed pre-
feni bl e or suitable . Tpe compos i tio n, duties . and respons i -
bili t i es given in t he followin.g l ist should serve as.· a
refere nce for one wh o int e nds to organiz~ a field sur v e y
par t y .
1 . Chief of Party t he per so n wh o i s respons ib l e
for- the · o.verall - direction , s uperv 1s 1" on, and operat io•na1
~ont rol of the survey party . He is also responsible· for its
log i s t i c a l . a nd technical requirements, and_ pro·blems of a
f i eld s urvey opeiat·ion. Prior to the executi~n bf a s ur v~y
pr oj e ct, he consu lt s or confe r s with superiors re~a rd ing
the proj e ct t o be unde~taken. He is responsible for ·s ubmit-
t ing surve y re po r t s a rid records, and sees t o it that t he s e
a'r e c omp·let e , a c cu ra t e and adheres to prescr'il;>ed tec hni ca l
s t a nda rd s and spec i f i c a t ions . He ptepares c os t estimates
of su r vey pr o je c t s, a nd r e t e i ve s and diiburse s . ~ 11 c a sh e x-
pe nses of the s urvey par t y . He may be c a l le d upon to act as_
an expert witness in c our t o n ma t t e rs r e l at ing to· techni -
ca l d escr ip ti on of la nd and othe r s urveyi ng ma t ter 3.
2 . ~s is_t a nt Ch i ef of Par t y the pe ~so n who s e
dut y i s t o as sist t he chief o f par t y i n the ac comp ll shme nt
of -t he ta sk qss i·g ned t o t he s urve y pa rty . He take s over the
duties o f the c hief of pa r t y duting the absen~e o f t he
 chief .. He condu cts groun~ re c;onna isaanc e and · i n~esti gat~s -_
•ltes of a propos ed p r o j ect t o gathe r n ecessa f y data prior ·
to the star t of a su r v ey wor k . He i s pr i ma r 1 l y res p o_n s ibl•
for the employ ment of survey ing . equ,ipm ent , : instru ments. and .
acc es ~orie s used in the survey oper a tion. He prepa r es !1ei ~-
and office report ~ a nd survey- plans for submi ssion t o t he.
ch i ef of party . · ·
3 •· Inst_r ument man - t he ,perso n wnose duty is to s e t
up, leve l , a nd o p.e r at e su r v eyin g instru men t s s uc h as the
tra nsit , engi nee r's leve l, theod olite, s extant ~ p l ane t ~bl e
a nd a li dad e, a n d et c. He s e e s to it tha t instru ment s t o be
used i n a s urvey o pera tion ar e in good · wor k i n g c o nd-i tion
a nd tn pro pe r ad j ustme nt. He a lso a s slsts th e t e chni c ian in
th• opera t ion of elect r onic s urve yi n g e quip~ e nt . ~ e works
ln coord inatio n a n d as a part of a n · i nstrume nt p a rty and
exe rci ses l i mit ed s upe·r vi s ion over pe rson n e l doing ~ n ua l
t asks .
4 . Te c hnicia n the person whb i s r ~s p on s ible for u s e
a nd ope r a t io n of a ll e l e ctr o nic i rts t r ument s req ui re d in a
{ ie ld·. wo r k ope £ at ion . I t .i s h is d u t y to s-ee ·t o it th a t
th e se eq ui pmen t s are func ti on in g p r a pe r l y , · a r .e . re gular
ly
c a li b r ate d, and a r e i'n pr oper adj ustme nt . He .i s a lso
_ r es,-
pon s ible for t h e e s t a bl i s hmen~ o f ~ two- way c ommu nicatio n
l ~nk b y rad i o betwe e n me mbers o f th e survey pa r ty a nd . t h e
h orn~ offic e an d, be twee n membe rg o~ t h e i u rve y par ~y wh e re
dist a n t s t at io n s or long s ur vey lin es ~re i n vol v e d .
5. Coapr::.;ter - th e p e rson wh ose duty is to p e r form a ll
c omp u tatio ns of su rvey d ata a n d wor ks ou t n e c es sa ry c ompu~
ta ti o na l chec ks re qui r e d in a fi e ld work opera t i o n. He is
res~on s i ble_ ; f o r t h ~ utlli z ~t i on of elect r on i c ca lcul a tors ,
pocke t or microc o mpu t er s¥ a nd a s si sts i n th e dpera t ion of
compu ter i zed s utve yin g s y s tems o r eq ui pment .
6 . -Recor der - t h e person wh o se duty is t o k eep a re-
co r d o f a l l ~ketch e s , drawi n gs , measu reme ri ts a nd dbser va -
t ions taken or ·neede d fo r a · fie ld w9rk opera t i-on . He keeps
ta·b l e of sched u l _e s of a l 1 p :1as es ·of work a ·n d t h e emplo y-
me ht o F th~ membe r s of the s urvei par_t y. He doe s cl er i c ~ l
t ask s rcl at~ d t o s ur v ~y i n g in t h e o f~ i c e a nd u nderta kes
li mit e d c ar t ograp hic jobs.
7. Head Tapem an the perso n resp onsib le for t he
a cc u ra ~ y a n d s peed of a l l lin ea r measur ement s wi th t ape . He
d e ter mi n e s and di re c t~ - t h e markin g of- sta t i on s to be o ccu-
p i e d b y th e s ur v ey in g i n str ume n t s and dir e cts the clear ing
out of obstru cti o ns a l o n g the lin e of si g h t . He 1nsp~ cts
a nd compar e s tapes f o r s ta nd a ~d length prlo r to t h ei r pse
in taping ope ra,ti ons and i s resp onsib l e for e l i ini n at i ng o r
-reduc ing. pos sible erro r s · a.n d · mi_s ta k es in tapin g .
8 . Rear . Tape aa n - •t he · person · whos e duty is t o as~
sis t t he h ea d tapema n duri~g t~ ping oper at ion s and I n o t her
r elated wo r~ .
9 . fla gaan t he - pe r son wh o se d ut y is to hold th e
fl a gpole or r an g e p ol e at se l e c ted, po inos a s direc t e d ~y
the instr ume n tma n . He he l ps th e ta p ema n in making measu ~e-
 ' (
- nt s. and assists the axeman in cu t ting down·branches a nd
l n c l ea ri n g other obstructions t o line . of sight. Where
ele c troni c dis t ance mea sur ing •i n s trume n ts ~ r e used , . he i's
rea pons ible for sett ing u p reflectors or ta r gets . '
lQ . ROC,.an - the per s on whose p r iID? rY ,dut y i s to h o l d
t he s t ad i -a or -l _e-ve l _i n9 r od when- s i ghts are t o be • ta k e n on
1t .
1 1 . Pa cex .- , t he pe rso{l wh ose duty i s to che ck all
l lnear meas ur.ements ma de. b y the tape ma n ~ He assists t he
t apema n i n se ei ng ' t o i t t{lat mi st~ k es and_ bl.u ~d~rs in li-
n ear mea s u re ment~ a re eitlte~ r e duc ed or el1 m1nated . In
a ddi t i on .t h e pac·e :: ma y a l s o perf9r m th e job of a . r odma n.
• 1 2. Axeman/J., i ne ma n - t h e 'pe ~s·on · whos e d u t y · is to
c l e a r th e, line of s i g ht o f t re e s, br u sh , a nd'o t h er obs t ruc-
' i ons in wooded coun try . He i s ~lso : re spo n ~ i ble for the
•~ curit y a nd safety· of t h e membe rs of t h e su r vey party at
th e s u r v e y site . Th e axema n is usuall y pr ov i d e d no t only
with a n a x but a r ifle or a si d earm as well . If t h i s me mber
i s .t o carr y any -fi r earm , • it should • be see n t o i t tha t h e is
l a wf ul ly a u t h or i zed to do so . I n some instances i t would be
advi sabl e t o request mi li ~ary or police · au th o~ jties fo r
neede d s~curit y or hire aut h or i zed security guard s.
13. Aidman - the perso n whose duty is to . rend e r f irs t
4 ld · treatme nt to members of . t he s u rvey party who are
involve d i n s nake and ins ect s bit es , accidents , and o the r
c a s es i •nv ol ving their h ealt h , safety , and. well be in g . In
a d d iti on , · he may be des ignated as an ·assista n t i nst ru me nt- ·
ma n .
. 14 . Uti l ityme n - t he persons wnos e d u t ie s ar e to ren -
der o ther forms o f a ssistance ne e ded b y t he surve y pa rt y or
as di rected by the ch ief o f pa r ty . Wh e r e a sur v ey ve hic l e
is u sed , a utility~a n is designat e d a s d ri ver . If t he
s u rve y party has to camp o u t fo r · days in th e f i eld, u t ili -
tyme n cire responsible for se t t in g up t h e camp site a nd it s
r equi red facilities . They prepare and ser v e meals, a nd a ls o
l o o k after the security of the· camp ' site . They are l ih~wise
res p o ns·ible for the handling am;:1 t r ansporting of s ur v e y -
in g eq u ipment, accessories , and supplies . Try e lay ing of
co n crete mo nu ments, marke r s and s i gnals . at des ig nat e d
poi nts ~r e a l so their respons i bilit :1 .

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