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SK 1
 Who am I
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SK 2
For SSB & Written Test— All
Security Agencies & their Mandate

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Crash Course— The Top International
Organisations

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 AFCAT 2019—Guaranteed
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Most Important
1000 One-
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 CDS 2019 (I) Answer Key &
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Course Available for
Fastest, Detailed Key
and Explanation for
3rd February 2019
Exam!!

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SK 7
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 Top & Most-Trending Questions
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 The Complete Modern
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& MHA) 9
 Understanding Missile
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 All Defence/Military
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 Latest Defence Technology
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 Top & Most-Trending Questions
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Crack CDS (II) 2018: Top & Most-
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SK (Ex-Indian Army & MHA) 14
 Historical Background of Indian
Constitution
 Regulating Act of 1773
 The Amending Act 1781
 Pitt’s India Act of 1784
 Act of 1786
 Charter Act of 1793
 Charter Act of 1797
 Act of 1800
 Charter Act of 1813
 Charter Act of 1833
 Charter Act of 1853
 Government of India Act of 1858
 Indian Councils Act of 1861
 India Council Act of 1892
 Indian Councils Act of 1909
 Government of India Act of 1919
 Government of India Act of 1935
 Indian Independence Act of 1947
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 Understanding the BRI Project & its
Consequences

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 Understanding Social Media &
Cyber-Militancy

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Understanding Simultaneous
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Understanding US-China Trade Wars &
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 Ancient History

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SK 20
 INDIA- GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES AND THEIR IMPACT ON HISTORY
• The Indian subcontinent is a well-defined geographical unit.
• It may be divided into three major regions: the Himalayan Mountains,
the Indo-Gangetic Plains and the Southern Peninsula.
• There are five countries in the subcontinent – India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan.
• India is the largest among them and it comprises 29 states and six
Union Territories.
• According to the 2001 Census, the population of India is over one
twenty one crores
• The current population of India is 1,362,615,845 as of January 31, 2019,
based on the latest United Nations estimates.
 India – A Land of Unity in Diversity
• The history of ancient India is interesting because India proved to be a melting
pot of numerous races.
• The pre-Aryans, the Indo- Aryans, the Greeks, the Scythians, the Hunas, the
Turks, etc., made India their home.
• Each ethnic group contributed its might to the making of Indian culture. All
these peoples mixed up so inextricably with one another that at present none
of them can be identified in their original form.
• Different cultures mingled with one another through the ages. Many pre-Aryan
or Dravidian terms occur in the Vedic texts.
• Similarly, many Pali and Sanskritic terms appear in the Sangam literature.
• Since ancient times, India has been the land of several religions. Ancient India
witnessed the birth of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.
• But all these cultures and religions intermingled with one another. Although
Indians people speak different languages, practice different religions, and
observe different social customs, they follow certain common styles of life
throughout the country.
• Therefore, our country shows a deep underlying unity in spite of great
diversity. In fact, the ancients strove for unity. They looked upon this vast
subcontinent as one land.
• The name Bharatavarsha or the land of Bharata was given to the whole
country, after the name of an ancient tribe called the Bharatas. Our ancient
poets, philosophers and writers viewed the country as an integral unit.
• This kind of political unity was attained at least twice during the Mauryan and
Gupta Empires. The unity of India was also recognized by foreigners.
• They first came into contact with the people living on the Sindhu or the Indus,
and so they named the whole country after this river.
• The word Hind is derived from the Sanskrit term Sindhu, and in course of time
the country came to be known as ‘India’ in Greek, and ‘Hind’ in Persian and
Arabic languages.
• Efforts for the linguistic and cultural unity of the country were made through
the ages.
• In the third century B.C., Prakrit language served as the lingua franca of the
country. Throughout the major portion of India, Asoka’s inscriptions were
written in the Prakrit language.
• Also, the ancient epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were studied
with the same zeal and devotion throughout the country.
• Originally composed in Sanskrit, these epics came to be presented in different
local languages.
• Although the Indian cultural values and ideas were expressed in different
forms, the substance remained the same throughout the country.
• Hence, India has emerged a multi-religious and multi-cultural society.
• However, the underlying unity and integrity and the plural character of Indian
society remain the real strength for the development of the country.
Photo Credit: YouTube
 PRE-HISTORIC INDIA AND THE HARAPPAN CULTURE
• In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age),
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New Stone Age) and the Metal Age.

Paleolithic or Old Stone Age

• The Old Stone Age sites are widely found in various parts of the Indian
subcontinent.
• These sites are generally located near water sources.
• Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic people are scattered
across the subcontinent.
• They also lived rarely in huts made of leaves
Photo Credit: iupui
Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age in India are:
 a. The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India.
 b. The Siwalik hills on the north India.
 c. Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh.
 d. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.
 e. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and
 f. Attirampakkam near Chennai.

• In the Old Stone Age, food was obtained by hunting animals and gathering
edible plants and tubers. Therefore, these people are called as hunter-
gatherers.
• They used stone tools, hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for hunting
animals. Stone implements are made of a hard rock known as quartzite. Large
pebbles are often found in river terraces.
Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age
• The next stage of human life is called Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age which
falls roughly from 10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C.
• It was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age.
Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in Madhya
Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, Utter Pradesh and Bihar.
• The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters give an idea about the
social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people.
• In the sites of Mesolithic Age, a different type of stone tools is found. These are
tiny stone artifacts, often not more than five centimeters in size, and therefore
called microliths.
Photo Credit:Historical Honey
• The hunting-gathering pattern of life continued during this period. However,
there seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting to small animal
hunting and fishing.
• The use of bow and arrow also began during this period. Also, there began a
tendency to settle for longer periods in an area.
• Therefore, domestication of animals, horticulture and primitive cultivation
started. Animal bones are found in these sites and these include dog, deer,
boar and ostrich.
• Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and shells seem to
have been practiced.
Neolithic Age
• A remarkable progress is noticed in human civilization in the Neolithic Age. It is
approximately dated from 6000 B.C to 4000 B.C.
• Neolithic remains are found in various parts of India. These include the
Kashmir valley, Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh and in several
places of the Deccan.
• The important Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski, Brahmagiri,
Hallur and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in
Andhra Pradesh.
• The chief characteristic features of the Neolithic culture are the practice of
agriculture, domestication of animals, polishing of stone tools and the
manufacture of pottery.
• In fact, the cultivation of plants and domestication of animals led to the
emergence of village communities based on sedentary life.
Photo Credit: india-a2z.com
Photo Credit: MCQ Test
Metal Age
• The Neolithic period is followed by Chalcolithic (copper-stone) period when
copper and bronze came to be used.
• The new technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts is an
important development in human civilization.
• But the use of stone tools was not given up. Some of the micro-lithic tools
continued to be essential items.
• People began to travel for a long distance to obtain metal ores. This led to a
network of Chalcolithic cultures and the Chalcolithic cultures were found in
many parts of India.
• Generally, Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys. Most importantly,
the Harappan culture is considered as a part of Chalcolithic culture.
• In South India the river valleys of the Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar
and Kaveri were settled by farming communities during this period.
• Although they were not using metals in the beginning of the Metal Age, there
is evidence of copper and bronze artifacts by the end of second millennium B.C.
• Several bronze and copper objects, beads, terracotta figurines and pottery
were found at Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu.
• The Chalcolithic age is followed by Iron Age. Iron is frequently referred to in the
Vedas. The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is often related to Megalithic
Burials. Megalith means Large Stone.
• The burial pits were covered with these stones. Such graves are extensively
found in South India.
• Some of the important megalithic sites are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka,
Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu.
• Black and red pottery, iron artifacts such as hoes and sickles and small
weapons were found in the burial pits.
The Harappan Civilization
• The earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at Harappa in the West
Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sind.
• Both places are now in Pakistan. The findings in these two cities brought to light a
civilization. It was first called the ‘The Indus Valley Civilization’.
• But this civilization was later named as the ‘Indus Civilization’ due to the discovery
of more and more sites far away from the Indus valley.
• Also, it has come to be called the ‘Harappan Civilization’ after the name of its first
discovered site.

Important Sites
• Among the many other sites excavated, the most important are Kot Diji in Sind,
Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the Punjab, Banawali in Haryana, Lothal,
Surkotada and Dholavira, all the three in Gujarat.
• The larger cities are approximately a hundred hectares in size. Mohenjodara is the
largest of all the Indus cities and it is estimated to have spread over an area of 200
hectares.
Photo Credit: Maps of India
Photo Credit: Wikipedia
Origin and Evolution
• The archaeological findings excavated for the last eight decades reveal the
gradual development of the Harappan culture.
• There are four important stages or phases of evolution and they are named as
pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan and late Harappan.
• The pre-Harappan stage is located in eastern Baluchistan. The excavations at
Mehrgarh 150 miles to the northwest of Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of
pre-Harappan culture.
• In this stage, the nomadic people began to lead a settled agricultural life. In
the early-Harappan stage, the people lived in large villages in the plains.
• There was a gradual growth of towns in the Indus valley. Also, the transition
from rural to urban life took place during this period.
• The sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence for early-Harappan stage. In
the mature-Harappan stage, great cities emerged.
• The excavations at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning and urban
features prove this phase of evolution.
• In the late-Harappan stage, the decline of the Indus culture started. The
excavations at Lothal reveal this stage of evolution.
• Lothal with its port was founded much later. It was surrounded by a massive
brick wall as flood protection.
• Lothal remained an emporium of trade between the Harappan civilization and
the emaining part of India as well as Mesopotamia.
Date of the Harappan Culture
• In 1931, Sir John Marshall estimated the duration of the occupation of
Mohenjodaro between 3250 and 2750 B.C.
• Subsequently, as and when new sites were discovered, the dating of the
Harappan culture is modified. The advent of the radiocarbon method paves
way for fixing almost accurate dates.
• By 1956, Fairservis brought down the dating of the Harappan culture to
between 2000 and 1500 B.C. on the basis of radiocarbon dates of his findings.
• In 1964, D.P. Agarwal came to the conclusion that the total span of this culture
should be between 2300 and 1750 B.C. Yet, there is further scope of
modification of these dates.
 Salient Features of the Harappan Culture
Town Planning
• The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning on the
lines of the grid system – that is streets and lanes cutting across one another
almost at right angles thus dividing the city into several rectangular blocks.
• Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a
high podium of mud brick.
• Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which
were inhabited by the common people.
• The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions and the
absence of stone buildings are the important characteristics of the Harappan
culture.
Photo Credit: imp.center
• Another remarkable feature was the underground drainage system connecting
all houses to the street drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks.
• The most important public place of Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath measuring
39 feet length, 23 feet breadth and 8 feet depth. Flights of steps at either end
lead to the surface.
• There are side rooms for changing clothes. The floor of the Bath was made of
burnt bricks. Water was drawn from a large well in an adjacent room, and an
outlet from one corner of the Bath led to a drain.
• It must have served as a ritual bathing site. The largest building in
Mohenjodaro is a granary measuring 150 feet length and 50 feet breadth. But
in the citadel of Harappa we find as many as six granaries.
Photo Credit: gkexperts.in
Economic life
• There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity such as
agriculture, industry and crafts and trade. Wheat and barley were the main
crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton.
• Surplus grain is stored in granaries. Animals like sheep, goats and buffalo were
domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly established. A number of other
animals were hunted for food including deer.
• Specialized groups of artisans include goldsmiths, brick makers, stone cutters,
weavers, boat-builders and terracotta manufacturers. Bronze and copper
vessels are the outstanding examples of the Harappan metal craft.
• Gold and silver ornaments are found in many places. Pottery remains plain and
in some places red and black painted pottery is found. Beads were
manufactured from a wide variety of semi-precious stones.
• Internal trade was extensive with other parts of India. Foreign trade was
mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran Gold, copper, tin
and everal semi-precious stones were imported.
• Main exports were several agricultural products such as wheat, barely, peas,
oil seeds and a variety of finished products including cotton goods, pottery,
beads, terracotta figures and ivory products.
• There is much evidence to prove the trade links between the Indus and
Sumerian people. Many seals of Indus valley have been found in Mesopotamia.
Trade was of the barter type.
• The seals and the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use of
bullock carts and oxen for land transport and boats and ships for river and sea
transport.
Photo Credit: Ancient Origins / fossbytes
Social Life
• Much evidence is available to understand the social life of the Harappans. The
dress of both men and women consisted of two pieces of cloth, one upper garment
and the other lower garment.
• Beads were worn by men and women. Jewelleries such as bangles, bracelets,
fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings and fingerrings were worn by women.
• These ornaments were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze and semi precious
stones. The use of cosmetics was common.
• Various household articles made of pottery, stone, shells, ivory and metal have
been found at Mohenjodaro. Spindles, needles, combs, fishhooks, knives are made
of copper. Children’s toys include little clay carts. Marbles, balls and dice were used
for games.
• Fishing was a regular occupation while hunting and bull fighting were other
pastimes. There were numerous specimens of weapons of war such as axes,
spearheads, daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and bronze.
Arts
• The Harappan sculpture revealed a high degree of workmanship. Figures of
men and women, animals and birds made of terracotta and the carvings on the
seals show the degree of proficiency attained by the sculptor.
• The figure of a dancing girl from Mohenjodaro made of bronze is remarkable
for its workmanship. Its right hand rests on the hip, while the left arm, covered
with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed posture.
• Two stone statues from Harappa, one representing the back view of a man and
the other of a dancer are also specimens of their sculpture.
• The pottery from Harappa is another specimen of the fine arts of the Indus
people. The pots and jars were painted with various designs and colours.
• Painted pottery is of better quality. The pictorial motifs consisted of
geometrical patterns like horizontal lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees. On
some pottery pieces we find figures of fish or peacock.
Script
• The Harappan script has still to be fully deciphered. The number of signs is
between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are basic and the rest are their
variants.
• The script was mostly written from right to left. In a few long seals the
boustrophedon method – writing in the reverse direction in alternative lines –
was adopted.
• Parpola and his Scandinavian colleagues came to the conclusion that the
language of the Harappans was Dravidian. A group of Soviet scholars accepts
this view.
• Other scholars provide different view connecting the Harappan script with that
of Brahmi.
• The mystery of the Harappan script still exists and there is no doubt that the
decipherment of Harappan script will throw much light on this culture.
Photo Credit: Crystalinks
Religion
• From the seals, terracotta figurines and copper tablets we get an idea on the
religious life of the Harappans.
• The chief male deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting
in a yogic posture with three faces and two horns.
• He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each
facing a different direction). Two deer appear on his feet.
• The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta
figurines.
• In latter times, Linga worship was prevalent. Trees and animals were also
worshipped by the Harappans.
• They believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against
them.
Photo Credit: Pinterest
Photo Credit: Speaking Tree
Burial Methods
• The cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa,
Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar throw light on the burial practices of the
Harappans.
• Complete burial and post-cremation burial were popular at Mohenjodaro. At
Lothal the burial pit was lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins.
• Wooden coffins were also found at Harappa. The practice of pot burials is
found at Lothal sometimes with pairs of skeletons.
• However, there is no clear evidence for the practice of Sati.
Photo Credit: Harappa
Photo Credit: ASI
Decline of the Harappan Culture
• There is no unanimous view pertaining to the cause for the decline of the
Harappan culture. Various theories have been postulated.
• Natural calamities like recurring floods, drying up of rivers, decreasing fertility
of the soil due to excessive exploitation and occasional earthquakes might
have caused the decline of the Harappan cities.
• According to some scholars the final blow was delivered by the invasion of
Aryans. The destruction of forts is mentioned in the Rig Veda.
• Also, the discovery of human skeletons huddled together at Mohenjodaro
indicates that the city was invaded by foreigners.
• The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift horses which might have
enabled them to become masters of this region.
 THE VEDIC CULTURE
• The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C.
Consequently, their economic and administrative system had slowly
declined.
• Around this period, the speakers of Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit,
entered the north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region.
• Initially they would have come in small numbers through the passes in
the northwestern mountains.
• Their initial settlements were in the valleys of the north-west and the
plains of the Punjab.
• Later, they moved into Indo-Gangetic plains. As they were mainly a
cattlekeeping people, they were mainly in search of pastures.
• By 6th century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was
referred to as Aryavarta.
• This period between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C may be divided into the Early
Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later
Vedic Period (1000B.C - 600 B.C).
Original Home of the Aryans
• The original home of the Aryans is a debatable question and there are several
views.
• Different scholars have identified different regions as the original home of the
Aryans.
• They include the Arctic region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia.
Bala Gangadhara Tilak argues that the Aryans came from the Arctic region on
astronomical calculations.
• However, the theory of southern Russia appears to be more probable and
widely accepted by historians.
• From there, the Aryans moved to different parts of Asia and Europe. They
entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be known as Indo-Aryans. They
spoke the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit.
Vedic Literature
• The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, which means to know. In other
words, the term ‘Veda’ signifies ‘superior knowledge’.
• The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
• The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns.
The hymns were sung in praise of various gods.
• The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be observed at the time of
sacrifice.
• The Sama Veda is set to tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is
called the book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it.
• The Atharva Veda contains details of rituals.
• Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the Brahmanas,
the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana and
Mahabharata.
• The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer and sacrificial
ceremony.
• The Upanishads are philosophical texts dealing with topic like the soul,
the absolute, the origin of the world and the mysteries of nature.
• The Aranyakas are called forest books and they deal with mysticism,
rites, rituals and sacrifices. The author of Ramayana was Valmiki and
that of Mahabharata was Vedavyas.
Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500 - 1000 B.C.)

• During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were mostly confined to the Indus
region.
• The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land of seven rivers.
• This includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas
and Sutlej along with the Indus and Saraswathi.
• The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic people can be traced
from the hymns of the Rig Veda.
Political Organization
• The basic unit of political organization was kula or family. Several families
joined together on the basis of their kinship to form a village or grama.
• The leader of grama was known as gramani. A group of villages constituted a
larger unit called visu. It was headed by vishayapati.
• The highest political unit was called jana or tribe. There were several tribal
kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and
Purus.
• The head of the kingdom was called as rajan or king. The Rig Vedic polity was
normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary.
• The king was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of the
army in his administration.
• There were two popular bodies calledthe Sabha and Samiti. The former seems
to have been a council of elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire
people.
Social Life
• The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society was family or
graham. The head of the family was known as grahapathi.
• Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy was prevalent among the
royal and noble families. The wife took care of the household and participated
in all the major ceremonies.
• Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and
intellectual development.
• There were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during
the Rig Vedic period.
• Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no child
marriage and the practice of sati was absent.
• Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made of cotton
and wool. A variety of ornaments were used by both men and women.
• Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and ghee, vegetables
and fruits were the chief articles of food.
• The eating of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal.
• Chariot racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favourite
pastimes.
• The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic period as it was
in the later Vedic period.
Economic Condition
• The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main occupation was
cattle rearing. Their wealth was estimated in terms of their cattle.
• When they permanently settled in North India they began to practice
agriculture.
• With the knowledge and use of iron they were able to clean forests and bring
more lands under cultivation.
• Carpentry was another important profession and the availability of wood from
the forests cleared made the profession profitable. Carpenters produced
chariots and ploughs.
• Workers in metal made a variety of articles with copper, bronze and
iron.
• Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woolen
fabrics were made. Goldsmiths were active in making ornaments.
• The potters made various kinds of vessels for domestic use. Trade was
another important economic activity and rivers served as important
means of transport.
• Trade was conducted on barter system. In the later times, gold coins
called nishka were used as media of exchange in large transactions.
Religion
• The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain
and thunder. They personified these natural forces into many gods and
worshipped them.
• The important Rig Vedic gods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind),
Varuna (Rain) and Indra (Thunder). Indra was the most popular among them
during the early Vedic period.
• Next in importance to Indra was Agni who was regarded as an intermediary
between the gods and people. Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of the
natural order.
• There were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas. There were no temples and
no idol worship during the early Vedic period. Prayers were offered to the gods
in the expectation of rewards.
• Ghee, milk and grain were given as offerings. Elaborate rituals were followed
during the worship.
Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.)

• The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic Period. The
Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern
Gangetic plains.
• Several tribal groups and kingdoms are mentioned in the later Vedic
literature.
• One important development during this period is the growth of large
kingdoms.
• Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning. Parikshat and
Janamejaya were the famous rulers of Kuru kingdom.
• Pravahana Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas.
• He was a patron of learning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas,
other kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence.
• The famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha
with its capital at Mithila.
• His court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya. Magadha, Anga and
Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal kingdoms.
• The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of India –
Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and
Dakshinapatha (southern India).
Political Organization
• Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period. Many jana or
tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or rashtras in the later Vedic
period.
• Hence the royal power had increased along with the increase in the size of
kingdom.
• The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position.
• They include Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice)
and Vajpeya (chariot race).
• The kings also assumed titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of
all earth), Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler).
• In the later Vedic period, a large number of new officials were involved
in the administration in addition to the existing purohita, senani and
gramani.
• They include the treasury officer, tax collector and royal messenger.
• At the lower levels, the administration was carried on by the village
assemblies.
• The importance of the Samiti and the Sabha had diminished during the
later Vedic period.
Economic Condition
• Iron was used extensively in this period and this enabled the people to clear
forests and to bring more land under cultivation. Agriculture became the chief
occupation.
• Improved types of implements were used for cultivation. Besides barley, rice
and wheat were grown. Knowledge of manure was another improvement.
• Industrial activity became more varied and there was greater specialization.
Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery made great progress.
• In addition to internal trade, foreign trade became extensive. The Later Vedic
people were familiar with the sea and they traded with countries like Babylon.
• A class of hereditary merchants (vaniya) came into existence. Vaisyas also
carried on trade and commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known
as ganas.
• Besides nishka of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver coins like satamana and
krishnala were used as media of exchange.
Social Life
• The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras)
or the Varna system was thoroughly established during the Later Vedic
period.
• The two higher classes - Brahmana, and Kshatriya enjoyed privileges
that were denied to the Vaisya and Sudra.
• A Brahmin occupied a higher position than a Kshatriya but sometimes
Kshatriyas claimed a higher status over the Brahmins.
• Many sub-castes on the basis of their occupation appeared in this
period.
• In the family, the power of the father increased during the Later Vedic
period.
• There was no improvement in the status of women. They were still
considered inferior and subordinate to men.
• Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child
marriages had become common.
• According the Aitreya Brahmana a daughter has been described as a
source of misery. However, the women in the royal household enjoyed
certain privileges.
Religion
• Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their importance.
Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the
destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic period.
• Sacrifices were still important and the rituals connected with them
became more elaborate.
• The importance of prayers declined and that of sacrifices increased.
Priesthood became a profession and a hereditary one.
• The formulae for sacrifices were invented and elaborated by the priestly
class.
• Therefore, towards the end of this period there was a strong reaction
against priestly domination and against sacrifices and rituals.
• The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result of these
elaborate sacrifices.
• Also, the authors of the Upanishads, which is the essence of Hindu
philosophy, turned away from the useless rituals and insisted on true
knowledge (jnana) for peace and salvation.
Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism
• The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious
unrest in India in the 6th century B.C.
• The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were not
acceptable to the common people.
• The sacrificial ceremonies were also found to be too expensive. The
superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people.
• The teachings of Upanishads, an alternative to the system of sacrifices, were
highly philosophical in nature and therefore not easily understood by all.
• Therefore, what was needed in the larger interests of the people was a simple,
short and intelligible way to salvation for all people.
• Such religious teaching should also be in a language known to them. This need
was fulfilled by the teachings of Buddha and Mahavira.
• Other than the religious factor, social and economic factors also contributed to
the rise of these two religions. The rigid caste system prevalent in India
generated tensions in the society.
• Higher classes enjoyed certain privileges which were denied to the lower
classes. Also, the Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the priestly class.
• It should also to be noted that both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to
Kshatriya origin. The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic
conditions of the Vaisyas.
• As a result, they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna
system did not allow this.
• Therefore, they began to extend support to Buddhism and Jainism. It was this
merchant class that extended the chief support to these new religions.
 Jainism
Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539- 467 B.C.)
• Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. He was
born at Kundagrama near Vaisali to Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and Trisala.
• He married Yasoda and gave birth to a daughter. At the age of thirty he
became an ascetic and wandered for twelve years.
• In the 13th year of his penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge
called Kevala Gnana. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira and Jina.
• His followers were called Jains and his religion Jainism. He preached his
doctrines for 30 years and died at the age of 72 at Pava near Rajagriha.
Teachings of Mahavira
• The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three gems), are:
 - right faith
 - right knowledge
 - right conduct.
• Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of Mahavira.
• Right Knowledge is the acceptance of the theory that there is no God and
that the world has been existing without a creator and that all objects
possess a soul.
• Right conduct refers to the observance of the five great vows:
 - not to injure life
 - not to lie
 - not to steal
 - not to acquire property
 - not to lead immoral life.

• Both the clergy and laymen had to strictly follow the doctrine of ahimsa.
• Mahavira regarded all objects, both animate and inanimate, have souls and
various degrees of consciousness.
• They possess life and feel pain when they are injured.
• Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected to the Vedic
rituals. He advocated a very holy and ethical code of life.
• Even the practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it causes injury
to the earth, worms and animals.
• Similarly the doctrine of asceticism and renunciation was also carried to
extreme lengths by the practice of starvation, nudity and other forms of
self-torture.
Spread of Jainism
• Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He admitted both
men and women in the Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay
followers.
• The rapid spread of Jainism was due to the dedicated work of the members of
the Sangha. It spread rapidly in Western India and Karnataka.
• Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south
India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas
patronized Jainism.
• By the end of the fourth century B.C., there was a serious famine in the Ganges
valley. Many Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu and Chandragupta Maurya came
to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka.
• Those who stayed back in north India were led by a monk named
Sthulabahu who changed the code of conduct for the monks.
• This led to the division of Jainism into two sects Svetambaras (whiteclad)
and Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked).
• The first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the
leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3rd century B.C.
• The second Jain Council was held at Valabhi in 5th century A.D. The final
compilation of Jain literature called Twelve Angas was completed in this
council.
 Buddhism
Life of Gautama Buddha (567- 487 B.C.)
• Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 567 B.C. in
Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu.
• His father was Suddodhana of the Sakya clan and mother Mayadevi. As his
mother died at child birth, he was brought up by his aunt Prajapati Gautami.
• At the age of sixteen he married Yasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahula.
The sight of an old man, a diseased man, a corpse and an ascetic turned him
away from worldly life.
• He left home at the age of twenty nine in search of Truth. He wandered for
seven years and met several teachers but could not get enlightenment.
• At last, he sat under a bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and did intense penance, after
which he got Enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of thirty five. Since then he
became known as the Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’.
• He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benares and for the next forty
five years he led the life of a preacher. He died at the age of eighty at
Kusinagara.
• The most important disciples of Buddha were Sariputta, Moggallanna,
Ananda, Kassapa and Upali. Kings like Prasenajit of Kosala and Bimbisara and
Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his doctrines and became his disciples.
• Buddha in his lifetime spread his message far and wide in north India and
visited places like Benares, Rajagriha, Sravasti, Vaisali, Nalanda and
Pataligrama.
• It should be noted that he did not involve himself in fruitless controversies
regarding metaphysical questions like god, soul, karma, rebirth, etc., and
concerned himself with the practical problems confronting man.
Teachings of Buddha
• The Four Noble Truths of Buddha are:
• - The world is full of suffering.
• - The cause of suffering is desire.
• - If desires are get rid off, suffering can be removed.
• - This can be done by following the Eightfold Path.
• The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right resolve, right speech, right
conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right
concentration. Buddha neither accepts god nor rejects the existence of god.
• He laid great emphasis on the law of karma. He argued that the condition of
man in this life depends upon his own deeds.
• He taught that the soul does not exist. However, he emphasized Ahimsa. By his
love for human beings and all living creatures, he endeared himself to all.
• Even under the gravest provocation he did not show the least anger or hatred
and instead conquered everyone by his love and compassion.
• His religion was identical with morality and it emphasized purity of thought,
word and deed. He was a rationalist who tried to explain things in the light of
reason and not on the basis of blind faith.
• Though he did not make a direct attack on the caste system, he was against
any social distinctions and threw open his order to all.
• Therefore, Buddhism was more a social than religious revolution. It taught the
code of practical ethics and laid down the principle of social equality.
Spread of Buddhism
• Buddha had two kinds of disciples – monks (bhikshus) and lay worshippers
(upasikas).
• The monks were organized into the Sangha for the purpose of spreading his
teachings.
• The membership was open to all persons, male or female and without any
caste restrictions.
• There was a special code for nuns restricting their residence and movement.
Sariputta, Moggallana and Ananda were some of the famous monks.
• The Sangha was governed on democratic lines and was empowered to enforce
discipline among its members.
• Owing to the organised efforts made by the Sangha, Buddhism made rapid
progress in North India even during Buddha’s life time.
• Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi and several republican states of North India
embraced this religion.
• About two hundred years after the death of Buddha, the famous Mauryan
Emperor Asoka embraced Buddhism.
• Through his missionary effort Asoka spread Buddhism into West Asia and
Ceylon.
• Thus a local religious sect was transformed into a world religion.
Buddhist Councils
• The first Buddhist Council was held at Rajagraha under the chairmanship of
Mahakasapa immediately after the death of Buddha.
• Its purpose was to maintain the purity of the teachings of the Buddha. The
second Buddhist Council was convened at Vaisali around 383 B.C.
• The third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra under the patronage of
Asoka. Moggaliputta Tissa presided over it.
• The final version of Tripitakas was completed in this council.
• The fourth Buddhist Council was convened in Kashmir by Kanishka under the
chairmanship of Vasumitra. Asvagosha participated in this council.
• The new school of Buddhism called Mahayana Buddhism came into
existence during this council.
• The Buddhism preached by the Buddha and propagated by Asoka was
known as Hinayana.
• The Buddhist texts were collected and compiled some five hundred
years after the death of the Buddha.
• They are known as the Tripitakas, namely the Sutta, the Vinaya and the
Abhidhamma Pitakas. They are written in the Pali language.
Causes for the Decline of Buddhism in India
• The revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism led to the fall of
popularity of Buddhism.
• The use of Pali, the language of the masses as the language of Buddhism was
given up from the 1st century A.D.
• The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite. After the
birth of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of idol worship and making
offerings led to the deterioration of moral standards.
• Moreover, the attack of the Huns in 5th and 6th centuries and the Turkish
invaders in 12th century destroyed the monasteries. All these factors
contributed to the decline of Buddhism in India.
Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture
• Buddhism has made a remarkable contribution to the development of Indian
culture.
 - The concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution. Later, it became one of the
cherished values of our nation.
 - Its contribution to the art and architecture of India was notable. The stupas at
Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya are wonderful pieces of architecture. Buddhism
takes the credit for the chaityas and viharas in different parts of India.
 - It promoted education through residential universities like those at Taxila,
Nalanda and Vikramasila.
 - The language of Pali and other local languages developed through the
teachings of Buddhism.
 - It had also promoted the spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.
Thank You

By: Sanjay Kumar (Ex-Indian

Army/MHA)
SK 102