ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

MUHAMMAD JAMAL
LECTURER
MLT UOH
 What is Endocrinology & Endocrine
system?

What is endocrinology ? What is endocrine system ?

 Endocrinology is a branch  The endocrine system
of biology and medicine consists of several glands,
which deals with the all in different parts of
study of endocrine the body, that secrete
system, its diseases, and hormones directly into the
its specific secretions blood rather than into a
known as hormones duct system.
 Cell-cell communication
 Human beings possess a diversity of cells, tissues, organs and
systems for specialized functions They require mechanisms by
which different cells can communicate with each other
 Intercellular communication occurs through endocrine and nervous
system
 Both systems communicate with each other
 Four methods of cell-to-cell communication are found in the
human body
1. Direct. E.g., ions, small molecules
2. Synaptic E.g., neurotransmitters
3. Paracrine E.g. local hormones
4. Endocrine E.g., Hormones
 Nervous System and Endocrine Systems
(Neuroendocrine system) act together to coordinate
functions of all body systems
The general functions controlled by
the endocrine system
 Maintains homeostasis of blood composition and
volume by regulating concentration of specific
substances
 Regulates development, growth, and metabolism
 Controls homeostasis in the body
 Controls digestive processes
 Controls reproductive activities
 What is Gland?
A gland is a group of cells (ingrowth from an epithelial surface)
that synthesizes substances (such as hormones) for release into
the bloodstream or into cavities inside the body or its outer
surface. There are two types of glands.
Exocrine gland Endocrine gland
 These glands release their  These glands have no duct and
cellular secretions through a release their secretions directly
duct which empties to the into the intercellular fluid or into
outside or into the lumen of an the blood. The collection of
organ. These include sweat endocrine glands makes up the
glands, salivary, pancreatic endocrine system.
glands, and mammary glands.
They are not considered a part
of the endocrine system.
 Types of Exocrine glands

 Apocrine glands – a portion of the secreting cell's

body is lost during secretion. E.g.. Sweat gland
 Holocrine glands – the entire cell disintegrates to
secrete its substances, e.g. sebaceous glands
 Merocrine glands – cells secrete their substances
by exocytosis, e.g. mucous and serous glands;
salivary glands, tear glands, intestinal cells
The major glands of the endocrine system are:
 Hypothalamus
 Pituitary
 Thyroid
 Parathyroid
 Adrenal
 Thymus
 Pineal
 Reproductive Organs (Ovaries, Testes)
 Pancreas
 Hormone
 A hormone is a chemical substance produced by glands , that are
transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to
regulate physiology and behavior.
OR
 Secretion of an endocrine organ that travels via the bloodstream or
lymphatics to induce a response in target cells or tissues in another part
of the body
 Hormones serve to communicate between organs and tissues for
physiological regulation and behavioral activities such as digestion,
metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep,
excretion, lactation, stress induction, growth and development,
movement, reproduction, and mood manipulation.
 General Characteristics of Hormone
1. Needed in very small amounts (potent)
2. Produce long-lasting effects in the cells (their targets)
3. Regulate metabolic processes (maintain homeostasis)
4. May be steroid (produced from cholesterol = fat-soluble) or non-
steroid (water-soluble).
5. They have specific rates and patterns of secretion (diurnal, pulsatile,
cyclic patterns)
6. They operate within feedback systems, either positive(rare) or
negative, to maintain an optimal internal environment
7. They affect only cells with appropriate receptors
8. They are excreted by the kidney, deactivated by the liver or by other
mechanisms
 General Characteristics of Hormone
9. Hormones only affect specific target cells that have receptors to
recognize a given hormone which may be present outside or inside the cell
depend on the type of hormone.
10. Receptors, like other cellular proteins are constantly synthesized and
broken down.
11. When a hormone (or neurotransmitter) is present in excess, the number
of receptors may decrease (down regulation) thereby decreasing the
responsiveness of target cells to the hormone.
12. When a hormone (or neurotransmitter) is deficient, the number of
receptors may increase (upregulation), making the target tissue more
sensitive to the stimulating effect of the hormone.
 Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly
of the following classes:
1. Amino acid-derived: Hormones that are modified amino acids
(catecholamines, thyroid hormones, dopamine, serotonin, GABA,
melatonin)
2. Polypeptide and proteins: Hormones that are formed of chains of
amino acids of less than or more than about 100 amino acids,
respectively. Some protein hormones are actually glycoproteins,
containing glucose or other carbohydrate groups. (insulin, GH, Leptin...)
3. Steroids: Hormones that are lipids synthesized from cholesterol. a)
Corticoids (cortisol, aldosterone, b) sex hormones (androgen, estrogen,
progesterone),
4. Eicosanoids: Are lipids synthesized from the fatty acid chains of
phospholipids found in plasma membrane.
 Hormone Signaling and its types
 The process of transferring the signal into the cell or When a
hormone binds to the receptor is called signal transduction.
 There are two types of cells in signal transduction—the sender
cell where the signal originates and the target cell that
receives the signal.
 The signal alters or modulates the activity/function of the cell.
 However, there are four modes of cell signaling,
 The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is
ENDOCRINE SIGNALING, that is, using the circulatory system to
reach distant target organs.
 Hormone Signaling and its types
 AUTOCRINE SIGNALING occurs when same cell acts as sender
and recipient, e.g. growth, differentiation, immune and
inflammatory response.
 PARACRINE SIGNALING is effected by local mediators which
have their effect near the site of secretion without entering the
circulation. The effect is rapid and transient.
 JUXTACRINE SIGNALING occurs when the two type of cells are
adjacent to each other -gap junctions or through protein
molecules on the surface of the two cells.
Hormonal signaling involves the following steps
1.Biosynthesis-particular tissue
2.Storage and Secretion (exocytosis)
3.Transport
4.Recognition by target cell (cell membrane or intracellular
receptor).
5.Relay and Amplification of signal (by signal transduction)-
cellular response.
6.Breakdown
 Hormones and Receptors

PEPTIDE HORMONES STEROID HORMONES

 Peptide hormones bind to  Steroid hormones enter through
receptor proteins in the the cell membrane and bind to
cell membrane. a receptors inside of the target cell.
secondary messenger These hormones may directly
molecule initiates the stimulate transcription of genes to
cell response. Because make certain proteins. Because
peptide hormones are steroids work by triggering gene
water soluble, they often activity, the response is slower
produce fast responses. than peptide hormones
 Cellular Receptors for hormones

•Cell membrane
Receptors
•Intracellular

•Cytoplasmic
Intracellular
•Nucleic receptors
Receptor comprise of two functional
domains

• Recognition domain: it binds the

hormone
Receptors • Coupling domain: it generates a
signal that couples the hormone
Functional recognition to some intracellular
Domains: function.
• Coupling means signal
transduction.
Classification of hormonal receptors

Receptor kinase Receptor linked kinase

Classification
of receptors
G-protein coupled
Ligand gated ion channel
receptor
 On the basis of solubility, hormones can be
divided into:

On the basis of solubility, hormones can be

divided into:
Hydrophobic
Hydrophilic
hormones e.g.
hormones e.g.
steroid hormones
proteins, peptides
and thyroid
and catecholamines
hormones
 Second Messengers:
 The small molecule generated inside cells in response to binding of hormone or
other mediator to cell surface receptors
 Calcium (Ca2+)
 Target: calmodulin
 Ca2+-Calmodulin → protein kinases
 Cyclic nucleotides
 cAMP & cGMP
 Target: protein kinases
 Diacylglycerol (DAG) & IP3
 Phosphoipase C act on the Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate(PIP2 )From
membrane lipids
DAG → Protein Kinase C (membrane)
IP3 → triggers the release of Ca2+from the endoplasmic reticulum, which
then activates enzymes that generate cellular changes.)
 Mechanisms of hormone release/stimulation

There are three mechanisms of hormone release

Humoral: in
Hormonal:
response to
Neural: stimulation
changing levels
stimulation by received from
of ions or
nerves other
nutrients in
hormones
the blood
 Interactions between hormones
1. SYNERGISTIC EFFECTS
When two or more hormones work together to produce particular
result their effects are said to be synergistic.
• These effects may be additive or complementary.
• Additive: Same effect of the hormones on one target organ, for
example, epinephrine and norepinephrine on heart rate
• Complementary: Work on different stages of a physiological
procedure, for example, FSH (initiation) and testosterone
(maintenance) on spermatogenesis
 Interactions between hormones
2. PERMISSIVE EFFECT
A hormone is said to have a permissive effect on the action of a second
hormone when it enhances the responsiveness of a target organ to the
second hormone or when it increases the activity of the second
hormone.
• Estrogen – Expression of progesterone receptors on uterus –
progesterone effect on the uterus.
• Glucocorticoids – effects of catecholamines on cardiovascular system
• Thyroid hormones- effects of catecholamines on cardiovascular
system
 Interactions between hormones
3. ANTAGONISTIC EFFECT
In some situations the actions of one hormone antagonize the effects
of another. Lactation during pregnancy is prevented because the
high concentration of estrogen in the blood inhibits the action of
prolactin and hence milk secretion.
 Hormonal Regulation OR Feedback
Mechanism/loop
 Most hormones are regulated by feedback
mechanisms. A feedback mechanism is a loop in which
a product feeds back to control its own production
 There are two types of feedback mechanisms
 1.Positive feedback mechanism
 2. Negative feedback mechanism
 The Positive feedback stimulates the secretion or
production of the hormone
 The Negative feedback inhibits the secretion or
production of the hormone.
A tropic hormone regulates the function of another
endocrine cells or glands
The four strictly tropic hormones are
Tropic
hormones
Thyroid stimulating Follicle stimulating
hormone hormone

Luteinizing hormone Adrenocorticotropic

hormone
Nontropic hormones target nonendocrine
tissues Nontropic hormones produced by the
anterior pituitary are the following

Prolactin

Melanocyte
stimulating
hormone
 Hormonal abnormalities/Endocrine
diseases. There are three categories of
endocrine diseases.

Endocrine diseases

Hormone excess Hormone deficiency Hormone resistance

 Causes of hormonal abnormalities
 Failure of feedback mechanisms
 Dysfunction of endocrine gland or cells
 Degradation of hormones by antibodies
 Hormone resistance
 Receptor associated disorders
 Primary & secondary endocrine diseases
Based on site of hormone defect (either increase or
decreased secretion), Endocrine disorders are classified into
groups:

Primary disease Secondary disease

 If defect is in the target  If defect is in the Anterior
gland from which hormone Pituitary or Hypothalamus
has originated
Lab Investigations for Endocrine Disorder

1. Basal plasma levels (one-time examination)

2. Diurnal dynamics of hormone concentrations (e.g. cortisol,growth H)
3. Other hormonal cycles (e.g. menstrual phase dynamics: cyclic changes of
LH, FSH, estrogens and progesterone)
4. Urinary output: 24 hr Is alternative method for hormones with diurnal
dynamics (cortisol, aldosterone) or pulsate secretion (catecholamines),
5. Hormonal metabolites - plasma, urine (e.g. C-peptide), 5- HIAA
(hydroxyindole acetic acid), Vinylmandelic acid (VMA) for catecholamines.
6. Indirect evaluation - measurement of a metabolic response (ADH ...
Diuresis ,sp. gravity. ,volume ,osmolarity; insulin ... Glycemic control, etc.)
 Functional tests
Basal hormonal concentration very often doesn´t allow to
establish a diagnosis of hypo- or hyperfunction.
Functional tests:-
1. Stimulatory tests
2. Inhibitory tests

Suspect hypofunction → Stimulatory tests

= quantification of functional reserve of endocrine gland, Insulin
hypoglycemia test, Arginine infusion test, TRH test, GnRH test, CRH
test

Suspect hyperfunction → Inhibitory tests

= quantification of response of endocrine gland to inhibitory factors,
e.g. Dexamethazone suppression test, Dopaminergic drugs test
Tumor markers in endocrinology

 Thyroglobulin (Tg), anti-Tg antibodies

 Markers of non-medullar thyroid carcinoma.

 CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen)

 Marker of non-medullar thyroid carcinoma (and other malignancy –
e.g. colorectal ca)

 Calcitonin, procalcitonin
 Hormonal product and diagnostic marker of medullary thyroid
carcinoma (lower sensitivity than Tg for non-medullar thyroid ca)
 Newborn Screening

 1. Congenital hypothyroidism - incidence 1 : 5000

screening based on elevation of TSH
 2. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) - incidence
1 : 10-14000
screening based on elevation of 17-OH-
progesterone
Radiological investigations for hormonal
disorders
 Therapeutic uses of Hormones

Hormones Conditions
 Estrogen  Contraception
 Progesterone  Contraception
 Insulin  Diabetes
 Thyroxin  Thyroid hormone
 Adrenaline disorders
 Steroids  Dermatological
conditions
 THANK YOU

 Each hormone will be separately discussed in

coming lectures
 Read also recommended books