Introduction to Library and Information

Science

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Contents

1 Contextualizing Libraries: Their History and Place in the Wider In-

formation Infrastructure 3
1.1 Defining libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Libraries of the past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Libraries in the information age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 Ethics and Values in the Information Professions 19

2.1 The Values of librarianship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Professional Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3 Information Policy 31
3.1 Collection development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 Confidentiality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 Control of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4 Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.5 Digital Rights Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.6 Fines and fine waiving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.7 Government information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.8 International information policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.9 Outsourcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.10 Web content filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4 Information Organization 41
4.1 Why organize information? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3 Bibliographic metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4 Information architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.5 Information retrieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.6 The Semantic Web, RDF, and linked data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.7 Knowledge management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.8 General issues in information organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5 Information Seeking 55
5.1 Reference services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2 Scientific and academic research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

III
 Contents

5.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

6 Re-contextualizing Libraries: Considering Libraries within Their Com-

munities 57
6.1 The library as community space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.2 Library service to specific communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.3 Library-community relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

7 Technology and Libraries: Impacts and Implications 63

7.1 Technology and LIS: a historical perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.2 Implementing information technologies in libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.3 Digital libraries and services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.4 Access to technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.5 Physical libraries in a cyber world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.6 Cost of adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.7 Conclusion: Rutenbeck’s ”Five great challenges” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

8 Transcending Boundaries: Global Issues and Trends 71

9 Learning More: Free LIS Resources 73

9.1 Professional development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.2 Open access LIS resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.3 Reference sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.4 Peer-reviewed Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

10 List of Contributors 77

11 Contributors 79

List of Figures 81

12 Licenses 85
12.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
12.2 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12.3 GNU Lesser General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

1
1 Contextualizing Libraries: Their
History and Place in the Wider
Information Infrastructure

This chapter will draw on two important fields to define roles and contexts for librarianship
and other information work. First, we will explore the many diverse roles libraries have
played throughout history, exploring the different motivations for libraries and services
library workers have provided towards these motivations. We will then look at how different
individuals and fields conceive of information in today’s world, and how these conceptions
inform their practice. We will conclude by drawing on historical LIS practice and lessons
learned from related disciplines to establish roles and a scope for contemporary LIS practice
and scholarship.
After reading this chapter, a student should be able to articulate:
1. what a library is
2. the value of critically examining library history to inform current library practice
3. the missions and practices of libraries in ancient and medieval European libraries
4. the contributions of pre-modern East Asian, Middle Eastern, and African libraries to
contemporary library practice
5. exclusionary practices and policies in 19th- and 20th-century libraries in the United
States
6. the concepts of ahistoricism and tunnel vision
7. definitions of information from several different fields, and how they inform LIS prac-
tice
8. how the following fields relate to LIS
• Computer science
• Education
• Information theory
• Social work

1.1 Defining libraries

1.2 Libraries of the past

This section will introduce characteristics and purposes of libraries throughout time, and
then introduce some critical issues and methods of library history.

3
Contextualizing Libraries: Their History and Place in the Wider Information
Infrastructure

1.2.1 A brief history of libraries

Early libraries (2600 BC – 800 BC)

Figure 1 Tablet from the Library of Ashurbanipal containing part of the Epic of
Gilgamesh

The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing - the clay tablets in
cuneiform script discovered in temple rooms in Sumer1 .

1 Libraries in the Ancient World . Yale University Press, ,

4
 Libraries of the past

The earliest discovered private archives were kept at Ugarit (in present-day Syria); besides
correspondence and inventories, texts of myths may have been standardized practice-texts
for teaching new scribes. There is also evidence of libraries at Nippur about 1900 BC and
those at Nineveh about 700 BC showing a library classification system.2
Over 30,000 clay tablets from the Library of Ashurbanipal have been discovered at Nineveh,3
providing modern scholars with an amazing wealth of Mesopotamian literary, religious and
administrative work. Among the findings were the Enuma Elish, also known as the Epic of
Creation, 4 which depicts a traditional Babylonian view of creation, the Epic of Gilgamesh,5
a large selection of ”omen texts” including Enuma Anu Enlil which ”contained omens dealing
with the moon, its visibility, eclipses, and conjunction with planets and fixed stars, the sun,
its corona, spots, and eclipses, the weather, namely lightning, thunder, and clouds, and the
planets and their visibility, appearance, and stations”,6 and astronomic/astrological texts, as
well as standard lists used by scribes and scholars such as word lists, bilingual vocabularies,
lists of signs and synonyms, and lists of medical diagnoses.
Philosopher Laozi was keeper of books in the earliest library in China, which belonged to
the Imperial Zhou dynasty.7 Also, evidence of catalogues found in some destroyed ancient
libraries illustrates the presence of librarians.8

2 The American International Encyclopedia , New York: J. J. Little & Ives, 1954; Volume IX
3 Britishmuseum.org ˆ{http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/research_projects/ashurbanipal_
library_phase_1.aspx} ”Assurbanipal Library Phase 1”, British Museum One
4 ”Epic of Creation”, in Dalley, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia. Oxford, 1989; pp. 233-81
5 ”Epic of Gilgamesh”, in Dalley, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia. Oxford, 1989; pp. 50–135
6 Van De Mieroop, Marc. A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000–323 BC . Oxford, UK: Blackwell
Publishing, 2007: pg. 263
7 Mukherjee, A. K. Librarianship: Its Philosophy and History. Asia Publishing House (1966) p. 86
8 Mukherjee, A. K. Librarianship: Its Philosophy and History. Asia Publishing House (1966) p. 86

5
Contextualizing Libraries: Their History and Place in the Wider Information
Infrastructure

Classical period (800 BC – 500 AD)

Figure 2 Artistic rendering of the Library of Alexandria, based on some archaeological

evidence

The Library of Alexandria

The Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most significant great library
of the ancient world. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and
functioned as a major center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC
until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was conceived and opened either

6
 Libraries of the past

during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter (323–283 BC) or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II
(283–246 BC).9 An early organization system was in effect at Alexandria.10
Much of what we know about the Alexandrian library is not based on verifiable fact, but
rather a collection of stories, many of which we should forego according to Jochum’s re-
search. There are no physical remnants of the library left, only written allusions from
classical writers, but he believes that the great library did not exist merely as single build-
ing. The Alexandrian library claimed to have contained every book on every subject in
every language. The methods for acquiring these books varied. One reported method
was to employ traders to buy books wherever they could be found. Another claimed that
books were confiscated from ships in the Alexandrian harbor, then copied for the library
and returned to their owners. Catalogs were made of the collection’s books, including the
metadata on the original owners and where the copy was copied or written.
Today, the thought of a library containing every book on every subject in every known is
impossible, especially as technology advances. As long ago as 1976, having the information
available digitally was proposed as the way to emulate the ideal of the Alexandrian library.
The economies offered by digitalization can get us access to the type of knowledge sought
by the Greeks. Jochum offers that the Alexandrian may not have existed as the ultimate
facility. Once we can weed out the lore from fact, we can then begin to move forward with
the library as a learning center instead of a just physical repository for books.11

Other Classical libraries

Private or personal libraries made up of written books (as opposed to the state or insti-
tutional records kept in archives) appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. The
celebrated book collectors of Hellenistic Antiquity were listed in the late 2nd century in
Deipnosophistae . All these libraries were Greek; the cultivated Hellenized diners in Deip-
nosophistae pass over the libraries of Rome in silence. By the time of Augustus there were
public libraries near the forums of Rome: there were libraries in the Porticus Octaviae near
the Theatre of Marcellus, in the temple of Apollo Palatinus, and in the Bibliotheca Ulpiana
in the Forum of Trajan. The state archives were kept in a structure on the slope between
the Roman Forum and the Capitoline Hill.
Private libraries appeared during the late republic: Seneca the Younger inveighed against
libraries fitted out for show by illiterate owners who scarcely read their titles in the course
of a lifetime, but displayed the scrolls in bookcases (armaria ) of citrus wood inlaid with
ivory that ran right to the ceiling: ”by now, like bathrooms and hot water, a library is got
up as standard equipment for a fine house (domus ).12 Libraries were amenities suited to
a villa, such as Cicero’s at Tusculum, Maecenas’s several villas, or Pliny the Younger’s, all
described in surviving letters. At the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, apparently the
villa of Caesar’s father-in-law, the Greek library has been partly preserved in volcanic ash;

9 Phillips, Heather A., ”The Great Library of Alexandria?”. Library Philosophy and Practice, August 2010
ˆ{http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/phillips.htm}
10 Phillips, Heather A., ”The Great Library of Alexandria?”. Library Philosophy and Practice, August 2010
ˆ{http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/phillips.htm}
11 Jochum, Uwe. “The Alexandrian Library and Its Aftermath.” Library History 15 (May 1999): 5-12.
12 Seneca, De tranquillitate animi ix.4–7.

7
Contextualizing Libraries: Their History and Place in the Wider Information
Infrastructure

archaeologists speculate that a Latin library, kept separate from the Greek one, may await
discovery at the site.
In the West, the first public libraries were established under the Roman Empire as each
succeeding emperor strove to open one or many which outshone that of his predecessor.
Unlike the Greek libraries, readers had direct access to the scrolls, which were kept on
shelves built into the walls of a large room. Reading or copying was normally done in the
room itself. The surviving records give only a few instances of lending features. As a rule,
Roman public libraries were bilingual: they had a Latin room and a Greek room. Most of
the large Roman baths were also cultural centres, built from the start with a library, a two
room arrangement with one room for Greek and one for Latin texts.
Libraries were filled with parchment scrolls as at Library of Pergamum and on papyrus
scrolls as at Alexandria: the export of prepared writing materials was a staple of commerce.
There were a few institutional or royal libraries which were open to an educated public (such
as the Serapeum collection of the Library of Alexandria, once the largest Great library in
the ancient world),13 but on the whole collections were private. In those rare cases where it
was possible for a scholar to consult library books there seems to have been no direct access
to the stacks. In all recorded cases the books were kept in a relatively small room where
the staff went to get them for the readers, who had to consult them in an adjoining hall or
covered walkway.
Han Chinese scholar Liu Xiang established the first library classification system during the
Han Dynasty,14 and the first book notation system. At this time the library catalogue was
written on scrolls of fine silk and stored in silk bags.

Middle Ages (501 AD – 1400 AD)

In the 6th century, at the very close of the Classical period, the great libraries of the
Mediterranean world remained those of Constantinople and Alexandria.
Cassiodorus, minister to Theodoric, established a monastery at Vivarium in the heel of
Italy with a library where he attempted to bring Greek learning to Latin readers and
preserve texts both sacred and secular for future generations. As its unofficial librarian,
Cassiodorus not only collected as many manuscripts as he could, he also wrote treatises
aimed at instructing his monks in the proper uses of reading and methods for copying texts
accurately. In the end, however, the library at Vivarium was dispersed and lost within a
century.
Through Origen and especially the scholarly presbyter Pamphilus of Caesarea, an avid
collector of books of Scripture, the theological school of Caesarea won a reputation for
having the most extensive ecclesiastical library of the time, containing more than 30,000
manuscripts: Gregory Nazianzus, Basil the Great, Jerome and others came and studied
there.
By the 8th century first Iranians and then Arabs had imported the craft of papermaking
from China, with a paper mill already at work in Baghdad in 794. By the 9th century

13 Phillips, Heather A., ”The Great Library of Alexandria?”. Library Philosophy and Practice, August 2010
ˆ{http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/phillips.htm}
14 China bibliography: a research guide ... – Google Books. , , 1995

8
 Libraries of the past

public libraries started to appear in many Islamic cities. They were called ”halls of Science”
or dar al-’ilm . They were each endowed by Islamic sects with the purpose of representing
their tenets as well as promoting the dissemination of secular knowledge. The 9th century
Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil of Iraq, ordered the construction of a ”zawiyat qurra” – an
enclosure for readers which was ”lavishly furnished and equipped”.
In Shiraz, Adhud al-Daula (d. 983) set up a library, described by the medieval historian
al-Muqaddasi as ”a complex of buildings surrounded by gardens with lakes and waterways.
The buildings were topped with domes, and comprised an upper and a lower story with
a total, according to the chief official, of 360 rooms.... In each department, catalogs were
placed on a shelf... the rooms were furnished with carpets”.15
The libraries often employed translators and copyists in large numbers, in order to render
into Arabic the bulk of the available Persian, Greek, Roman and Sanskrit non-fiction and
the classics of literature.
This flowering of Islamic learning ceased centuries later, after many of these libraries were
destroyed by Mongol invasions. Others were victim of wars and religious strife in the
Islamic world. However, a few examples of these medieval libraries, such as the libraries of
Chinguetti in West Africa, remain intact and relatively unchanged. Another ancient library
from this period which is still operational and expanding is the Central Library of Astan
Quds Razavi in the Iranian city of Mashhad, which has been operating for more than six
centuries.
The contents of these Islamic libraries were copied by Christian monks in Muslim/Christian
border areas, particularly Spain and Sicily. From there they eventually made their way into
other parts of Christian Europe. These copies joined works that had been preserved directly
by Christian monks from Greek and Roman originals, as well as copies Western Christian
monks made of Byzantine works.
Buddhist scriptures, educational materials, and histories were stored in libraries in pre-
modern Southeast Asia. In Burma, a royal library called the Pitaka Taik was legendarily
founded by King Anawrahta;16 in the 18th century, British envoy Michael Symes, upon
visiting this library, wrote that ”it is not improbable that his Birman majesty may possess
a more numerous library than any potentate, from the banks of the Danube to the borders
of China”. In Thailand libraries called ho trai were built throughout the country, usually
on stilts above a pond to prevent bugs from eating at the books.
In the Early Middle Ages, monastery libraries developed, such as the important one at
the Abbey of Montecassino. Books were usually chained to the shelves, and these chained
libraries reflected the fact that manuscripts, created via the labour-intensive process of hand
copying, were valuable possessions.17 Despite this protectiveness, many libraries loaned
books if provided with security deposits (usually money or a book of equal value). Lending
was a means by which books could be copied and spread. In 1212 the council of Paris

15
UNKNOWN TEMPLATE cite encyclopedia
Goeje, M. J. deBibliotheca geographorum ArabicorumArabic Leiden 449E. J. BrillAl-Muqaddasi: Ahsan
al-TaqasimIII1906

16 International dictionary of library histories ˆ{http://books.google.com/books?id=Zoq_TtEN54IC&pg=

PA29} , 29
17 The Chained Library. Cambridge University Press , ,

9
Contextualizing Libraries: Their History and Place in the Wider Information
Infrastructure

condemned those monasteries that still forbade loaning books, reminding them that lending
is ”one of the chief works of mercy.”18 The early libraries located in monastic cloisters and
associated with scriptoria were collections of lecterns with books chained to them. Shelves
built above and between back-to-back lecterns were the beginning of bookpresses. The
chain was attached at the fore-edge of a book rather than to its spine. Book presses
came to be arranged in carrels (perpendicular to the walls and therefore to the windows)
in order to maximize lighting, with low bookcases in front of the windows. This ”stall
system” (fixed bookcases perpendicular to exterior walls pierced by closely spaced windows)
was characteristic of English institutional libraries. In European libraries, bookcases were
arranged parallel to and against the walls. This ”wall system” was first introduced on a
large scale in Spain’s El Escorial.

Renaissance

Figure 3 Reading room of the Laurentian Library

18 Geo. Haven Putnam Books and Their Makers in the Middle Ages. Hillary, , 1962

10
 Libraries of the past

In Rome, the papal collections were brought together by Pope Nicholas V, in separate Greek
and Latin libraries, and housed by Pope Sixtus IV, who consigned the Bibliotheca Apostolica
Vaticana to the care of his librarian, the humanist Bartolomeo Platina in February 1475.19
The 16th and 17th centuries saw other privately endowed libraries assembled in Rome:
the Vallicelliana, formed from the books of Saint Filippo Neri, with other distinguished
libraries such as that of Cesare Baronio, the Biblioteca Angelica founded by the Augustinian
Angelo Rocca, which was the only truly public library in Counter-Reformation Rome; the
Biblioteca Alessandrina with which Pope Alexander VII endowed the University of Rome;
the Biblioteca Casanatense of the Cardinal Girolamo Casanate; and finally the Biblioteca
Corsiniana founded by the bibliophile Clement XII Corsini and his nephew Cardinal Neri
Corsini, still housed in Palazzo Corsini in via della Lungara.
The Republic of Venice patronized the foundation of the Biblioteca Marciana, based on
the library of Cardinal Basilios Bessarion. In Milan, Cardinal Federico Borromeo founded
the Biblioteca Ambrosiana. This trend soon spread outside of Italy, for example Louis III,
Elector Palatine founded the Bibliotheca Palatina of Heidelberg. These libraries don’t have
so many volumes as the modern libraries. However, they keep many valuable manuscripts
of Greek, Latin and Biblical works.
Tianyi Chamber, founded in 1561 by Fan Qin during the Ming Dynasty, is the oldest
surviving library in China. In its heyday it boasted a collection of 70,000 volumes of
antique books.

19 This section on Roman Renaissance libraries follows Kenneth M. Setton, ”From Medieval to Modern
Library” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 104 .4, Dedication of the APS Library Hall,
Autumn General Meeting, November, 1959 (August 1960:371–390) p. 372 ff.

11
Contextualizing Libraries: Their History and Place in the Wider Information
Infrastructure

17th and 18th centuries

Figure 4 Załuski Library, Warsaw

During the 17th and 18th centuries, some of the more important European libraries were
founded, such as the Bodleian Library at Oxford, the British Museum Library in London,
the Mazarine Library and the Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, the Austrian National
Library in Vienna, the National Central Library in Florence, the Prussian State Library
in Berlin, the Załuski Library in Warsaw and the M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin State Public
Library of St Petersburg.20
The 18th century is when we see the beginning of the modern public library. In France, the
French Revolution saw the confiscation in 1789 of church libraries and rich nobles’ private
libraries, and their collections became state property. The confiscated stock became part of
a new national library – the Bibliothèque Nationale. Two famous librarians, Hubert-Pascal
Ameilhon and Joseph Van Praet, selected and identified over 300,000 books and manuscripts
that became the property of the people in the Bibliothèque Nationale .21 During the French
Revolution, librarians were solely responsible for the bibliographic planning of the nation.
Out of this came the implementation of the concept of library service – the democratic
extension of library services to the general public regardless of wealth or education.22

20 Stockwell, Foster A History of Information and Storage Retrieval. , , 2000

21 Mukherjee, A. K. (1966) Librarianship: its Philosophy and History . Asia Publishing House; p. 112
22 Mukherjee, A. K. (1966) Librarianship: its Philosophy and History . Asia Publishing House; p. 112

12
 Libraries of the past

19th century

20th century

Stephen Cresswell reviews literature concerning libraries, the civil rights movement and
the end of segregation in Southern libraries. The ALA did not actively support library
integration. As Rubin notes, until the 1960s, the ALA considered itself an association
representing only its constituency of librarians (Rubin, 294). Efforts by the ALA included:
1. The 1936 decision to boycott convention cities where hotels and restaurants were
segregated.
2. In the late 1950s and 1960s ALA denied membership to segregated state library as-
sociations and ruled a state could have only one state association.
3. The 1961 amendment to the Library Bill of Rights stated that the right of an individual
to the use of a library should not be abridged because of his race, religion, national
origins or political views.
4. In 1962 the organization undertook an “Access Study” to evaluate freedom of access
throughout the country.
The study revealed more segregation and inequities in libraries in northern cities than in
the South. Northern libraries were sometimes the focus of destructive demonstrations. In
the South they were often the first focus of civil rights demonstrations rather than schools,
because they evoked sympathy for the individual’s right to learn, rather than the more
emotional reactions to integrating public schools.
23

1.2.2 Issues in library history

Ahistoricism

Lancaster, F.W. (1978). Toward paperless information systems.

Harris and Hannah (1992). Why do we study the history of libraries?
Black, Alastair. ”Information and Modernity: The History of Information and the Eclipse
of Library History.” Library History 14 (May 1998): 39-45.

Gender

Garrison, writing in 1972, highlights a problem of the public image of librarianship: it has
not attained the status of the more scientific professions such as doctor, sociologist, etc.
One possible reason, the one central to this article, is the entrée of women into the field
during the Victorian era. Garrison examines three tenets that make a profession: service,
knowledge, and autonomy. Librarians, as professionals, serve their clients (community or
society); female librarians, on the other hand, were to be almost subservient. The knowledge

23 Cresswell, Stephen. “The Last Days of Jim Crow in Southern Libraries.” Libraries and Culture 31 (sum-
mer/fall 1996): 557-573.

13
Contextualizing Libraries: Their History and Place in the Wider Information
Infrastructure

required of a librarian, considered highly educated for a woman at the time, lacked the
standardized training for a doctor. Libraries were governed by boards populated by men,
not female librarians, who made key decisions. Garrison concludes that until library science
comes to terms with women’s early employment in libraries and the way it has shaped the
current assumptions, it will never attain the rank of other professions. Garrison provides a
lively essay on the history of female librarians and its manifestations today. Her perspective,
however, is colored by feminism’s second wave in the 1970s.
Perhaps the public image of librarianship today should not focus so much on doctors and
sociologists, but the more technology-based professions under the information science um-
brella. For instance, librarians are not seen as the driving force behind innovation like
software engineers and others in the IT field. Would an analysis of women in the early
stages of librarianship give insight into why some have trouble with the information science
moniker?24
Even though the profession of a librarian is considered ”women’s work” there are men who
have chosen this profession. However, they usually hold positions of upper management and
other higher paying areas. What exactly is ”women’s work” within the library environment?
Suzanne Hildenbrand argues that cataloging and services for children and youth are most
often seen in this way. There are statistics that show these two positions are the lowest paid
and are not held in high esteem within the library workplace. The author raises a great
point that what needs to be focused on is not the movement of women into management
positions and other high paying positions but one that focuses on the equality of salaries
and conditions within the most female concentrated specialties up to the standard of the
profession 25

Inclusions and exclusions

Before 1960, there were no public library services for ethnic minorities. During the 1960’s
and 1970’s, many attempts to design and develop library services for ethnic groups were put
into motion. The cultural programs that flourished were programs that had adequate federal
funding for services and experimentation. Other factors that contributed to successful
programs:
• Recruitment of appropriate staff to identify information needs and promote library pro-
grams
• Involvement by the community in planning and developing services
• Developed mechanisms that enable the community to identify its own needs
• Link the needs to the expertise of librarians
Ethnic library services have been dropping gradually since 1981; and libraries are still failing
to include: books, periodicals, films, recording, and archives that relate to various minority

24 Garrison, Dee. “The Tender Technicians: The Feminization of Public Librarianship, 1876-1905.” Journal
of Social History 6 (winter 1972-1973): 131-156.
25 Hildenbrand, Suzanne. ” ’Women’s Work’ within Librarianship.” Library Journal 114 (September 1, 1989):
153-155.

14
 Libraries of the past

groups. Rethinking ideas to meet different needs is required when there are demographic
changes, and libraries should take proper steps to appeal to everyone 26 .
It is important to have a diverse staff, particularly when a diverse clientele is involved.
There has been a decrease in college enrollment amongst minorities; and in 1991-1992, only
8.5% of the Library and Information Science graduates were minorities. There are five tasks
administrators and librarians should implement, so the number of graduates increase in the
library program:
• Cooperative efforts to hire minority graduates
• Additional monetary incentives ? scholarships, tuition waivers, and housing
• Recruitment activities aimed at students as early as the junior high school
• Recruitment of nontraditional students from military or community colleges
• Development of an academic and social environment on campus conducive to success
In 1993, a few efforts have been made to recruit minorities, but none had been particularly
successful. In order to make recruitment more successful, it must be considered a priority
27

Salvador Guerena and Edward Erazo have three recommendations for the future of Latinos
and libraries:
1. Increase recruitment, retention, and mentoring of bilingual/ bicultural Latino profes-
sional personnel.
2. Include members of the Latino community in the process of planning library services
for the community.
3. Foster networking among libraries providing service to the Latino community.
Hispanics represent the fastest growing demographic group in the United States, but Latino
librarianship has remained constant at 1.8% of librarians. Shortages of bilingual librarians
will continue to increase. Foreign language proficiency is not required of library schools so
graduates are not prepared to serve the needs of the Latino community. REFORMA, LSTA,
and ALA have been advocates for training, improving technology and curriculum in response
to changing multicultural, multiethnic and multilingual society. The article is informative
yet pessimistic. It recognizes the technological divide in the Hispanic community and the
need for education and availability of computers in libraries. The affordability of computers
has not increased ownership of computers in their homes. In West Chicago Middle School,
many Latino students use the computers in the classroom to complete their assignments.
For many of these students, high school will be the end of their formal education. At the
Olcott library, the greatest demand for Spanish titles comes from Miami and Los Angeles
not locally. A telling observation of the article is that Hispanics do not feel welcome in
libraries because Hispanics feel libraries are Anglo American institutions run by and for
Anglo Americans.28

26 Trujillo, Roberto G., and Yolanda J. Cuesta, 1989. Service to Diverse Populations. ALA Yearbook of
Library and Information Science. Vol. 14: 7-11.
27 McCook, Kathleen, and Geist, Paula, 1993. Diversity Deferred: Where are the Minority Librarians?
Library Journal. 118: 23-26.
28 Guerena, Salvador and Edward Erazo. ”Latinos and Librarianship.” Library Trends 49 (2000) : 138-181.

15
Contextualizing Libraries: Their History and Place in the Wider Information
Infrastructure

Tunnel vision

Wayne Weigand says that ”a constant re-examination of our past [...] can show the parame-
ters of tunnel vision and reveal many of the blind spots”. Librarians often act as ”stewards”
of the past, which may mean perpetuating many of the past’s close-minded views.29
Library collections, like the steward-librarians Weigand mentions are ”products of our pasts”.
Unless we have the luxury of throwing out our entire collection and starting anew, we are
stuck with including the tunnel vision of the past in our libraries.

1.3 Libraries in the information age

1.3.1 Defining information

There are many ways of defining and conceptualizing information . Definitions can focus
on the technical aspects of information, or the societal aspects.

Technical aspects

Information as a sequence of symbols

In its most restricted technical sense, is a sequence of symbols that can be interpreted as
a message. Information can be recorded as signs, or transmitted as signals.

Societal aspects

Information as a right
In an article written for the Bowker Annual in 1987, Kenneth Dowlin discusses the need
for the library profession to ensure that access to information remains available, as a basic
human right, to everyone in an age where we are moving from an industrial to an information
society. He argues that the mission of libraries should be to develop minimum standards
of access and “promote the compatibility of information systems”. Dowlin gives a brief
discussion of why information must be considered a human right, and identifies several
barriers to this, namely
1. Legislative barriers
2. Competitive barriers
3. Technological barriers
4. Perceptual barriers
5. Economic barriers
He then proposes some strategies to reduce these barriers and defines the role the library
profession should play in implementing them.

29 Wayne Wiegand, Tunnel Vision and Blind Spots: What the Past Tells Us about the present; reflections
on the twentieth-century history of American librarianship (Library Quarterly, 69:1, Jan. 1999)

16
 Libraries in the information age

I believe that he is correct in his assessment of the barriers that exist, and that libraries
should play a role in ensuring access for all to information, but disagree with most of his
proposed solutions, which in my mind are based on false assumptions, which time has borne
out. He asks the library profession to implement solutions they are not equipped to deal with
and have no control over. The library profession has no way to set standards of technology to
ensure access for all. Letting the private sector derive solutions to these barriers, has proven
the best way to overcome the barriers he has identified. Although Dowlin’s fundamental
statement is correct, it is questionable whether his solutions are practical or achievable in
the real world.30

Information as a commodity

1.3.2 Quantifying information

There is a plethora of ways to think about information, and those involved in information
and knowledge work have a number widely divergent agendas. This can make evaluation
of information services very difficult. Some groups attempt to make such evaluation math-
ematical and scientific, while others rely on tools from the social sciences, such as surveys
and studies. The mathematical and scientific groups often try to measure a service’s value
using calculations and monetary values.
While the United Kingdom conducted a survey that had people evaluate how much service
they received and how it contributed to their productivity. The article wasn’t necessarily
aimed at just the business world. The author did a great job at relating this to the library
field by talking about the amount of knowledge you poses and how useful that makes you.
It talked about the more knowledgeable you are, the more productive you will be, and the
more assistance you will be able to provide. From our discussion last week in class about
what makes a good librarian this was one of the major things that we all thought made a
good librarian. I feel the more informed and versatile you are in all different aspects, the
more you will have to draw upon and offer. All of that contributes to your ability to be
more productive for the patrons that you assist.31

1.3.3 Defining knowledge

Knowledge is a general understanding or familiarity with a subject, place, situation, etc.

Knowledge can be acquired through experience or education.

Information needs

An information need is a gap in a person’s knowledge. When a person identifies such a gap,
it may be expressed as a question or a search query.

30 Dowlin, Kenneth E. “Access to Information: A Human Right?” Bowker Annual 32 (1987): 64-68.
31 Koenig, Michael E. D. “Information Services and Downstream Productivity.” Annual Review of Information
Science and Technology 25 (1990): 55 – 86.

17
Contextualizing Libraries: Their History and Place in the Wider Information
Infrastructure

Education

1.4 References

18
2 Ethics and Values in the Information
Professions

After reading this chapter, students should be able to articulate:

1. The importance of defining a profession’s values
2. The difference between professional, general, personal, and rival values
3. Ranganathan’s Five Laws of Library Science
4. ALA’s Library Bill of Rights
5. ALA’s Code of Ethics
6. A point of conflict between two different sets of value
7. Their personal values
8. How their personal and professional values will inform their LIS practice

2.1 The Values of librarianship

Values are essential to the success and future of librarianship: they highlight what is ”im-
portant and worthy in the long run,” and help to define our profession. In a literature review
on professional values in LIS, Lee Finks argues that these values fall into four categories:
1. Professional values are inherent in librarianship and include recognizing the impor-
tance of service and stewardship; maintaining philosophical values that reflect wis-
dom, truth, and neutrality; preserving democratic values; and being passionate about
reading and books.
2. General values are ”commonly shared by normal, healthy people, whatever their field.”
Librarians’ work, social, and satisfaction values express a commitment to lifelong
learning, the importance of tolerance and cooperation, and the need to feel accepted.
3. Personal values specifically belong to library workers and include humanistic, idealis-
tic, conservative, and aesthetic values.
4. Rival values threaten the mission of libraries with bureaucratic, anti-intellectual, and
nihilistic ideas. Librarians must have faith in the profession’s ability to do good. 1
This section will mainly discuss professional values, but we will touch on several general,
personal, and even rival values throughout the course of this book.

1 Finks, Lee W. “Values Without Shame.” American Libraries 20 (1989): 352–356.

19
Ethics and Values in the Information Professions

2.1.1 Defining professional values

In 1999, the ALA formed a task force to ”to clarify the core values (credo) of the profession”.
This task force believed ”that without common values, we are not a profession,” and proposed
the following definition of common goals for our field:
1. Connection of people to ideas
2. Assurance of free and open access to recorded knowledge, information and creative
works
3. Commitment to literacy and learning
4. Respect for the individuality and the diversity of all peoples
5. Freedom for all people to form, to hold, and to express their own beliefs
6. Preservation of the human record
7. Excellence in professional service to our communities
8. Formation of partnerships to advance these values 2
Despite the work of this task force, the ALA did not adopt a Core Value Statement until
June 2004. This statement represented a compromise between the task force and its critics,
and took its 11 core values from ALA policies that were already in effect. While the task
force’s document positioned these values in relation to our profession (for example, our
profession must provide ”assurance” that access to recorded knowledge is free and open),
the official ALA policy simply lists the values. The ALA’s wording also leaves its list open
to other values as well, and lists these as examples of core values:
1. Access
2. Confidentiality/privacy
3. Democracy
4. Diversity
5. Education and lifelong learning
6. Intellectual freedom
7. Preservation
8. The Public good
9. Professionalism
10. Service
11. Social responsibility 3

2.1.2 Ranganathan’s five laws

Establishing a core set of values is not the only way to define and provide direction for a
field. Many of the natural sciences are based not on values, but on scientific laws. This
led mathematician and librarian S.R. Ranganathan to propose Five laws of library science
in 1931. Ranganathan envisioned these laws as a set of fundamental laws, analogous to
the scientific laws that serve as fundamental principles for natural and some social sciences.
Ranganathan’s original laws were:

2 Sager, D. (2001). The Search for Librarianship’s Core Values. Public Libraries, 40(3), 149-53.
3 American Library Association. (2009). B.1 Core Values, Ethics, and Core Competencies. In Policy
Manual . American Library Association. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/aboutala/governance/
policymanual/updatedpolicymanual/section2/40corevalues

20
 Professional Ethics

• Books are for use.

• Every reader [their] book.
• Every book its reader.
• Save the time of the reader.
• A library is a growing organism. 4

Michael Gorman respectfully adjusted Ranganathan’s laws to better fit the future needs
and practices of libraries. Gorman’s revised laws are:
• Libraries serve humanity- They should serve the individual, community and society to a
higher quality. When making decisions, librarians should consider how the change will
better serve humanity.
• Respect all forms by which knowledge is communicated- If there is a new means of
communication of knowledge, and it is a better carrier, utilize it.
• Use technology intelligently to enhance service- Technology needs to be integrated so that
it is used intelligently in a cost-effective and beneficial way.
• Protect free access to knowledge- The library is central to freedom. It needs to preserve
all records so none are lost, and should be transmitted to all.
• Honor the past and create the future- Libraries need to combine the past and future in a
rational manner. Not clinging to the past but looking forward for the better. 5

2.2 Professional Ethics

Once we have defined goals for our profession, we need to make sure that we meet these
goals in ethical ways. Library and Information workers are expected to follow certain ethical
standards, typically codified in documents called Codes of Ethics. These codes offer a basis
for making ethical decisions and applying ethical solutions to problems in LIS.
In the United States, professional librarian ethics are codified in the ALA’s Code of Ethics,
which are discussed below. However, there are other codes of ethics that are important to
the LIS community, which are discussed later in this chapter.

2.2.1 The ALA’s Code of Ethics

Highest level of service to all users

Quote:
We provide the highest level of service to all library users through appropriate and
usefully organized resources; equitable service policies; equitable access; and accurate,
unbiased, and courteous responses to all requests.

4 Ranganathan, S. R. (1963). The five laws of library science. Bombay, New York: Asia Pub. House.
5 Gorman, Michael. ”Five New Laws of Librarianship.” American Libraries 26 (September 1995): 784-785.

21
Ethics and Values in the Information Professions

Intellectual freedom

Quote:
We uphold the principles of intellectual freedom and resist all efforts to censor library
resources.

Intellectual freedom is a major area of conflict within libraries. Intellectual freedom is a

goal that most library workers can agree on in theory, but situations in everyday library
work can complicate this seemingly simple rule.
Challenged materials.
Another issue, brought up by John Swan, is how libraries should represent points of view
that are completely wrong. Swan asks if ”Truth” should play the pivotal role as the raison
d’etre of libraries, or if libraries serve another cause entirely? His topics for discussion
include:
1. Are libraries committed to ”Truth” for legal purposes?
2. The role of ”Truth”, ”Untruth” and Libraries.
3. ”Truth” is necessary for the law, but ”Untruths” are a necessary function of libraries.
4. Intellectual freedom, not ”Truth” should be the driving force for libraries.
5. Libraries have a duty to present Untruths”.
His conclusions are that libraries exist, by their very nature, as forums for ideas. According
to Swan, both ”Truth” and ”Untruth” are necessary in providing information to the public
in these forums. The role of libraries is access to both, and in fact one cannot exist without
the other. Swan makes distinctions about the differing roles of the legal system, third
party groups, libraries and the role that censorship plays from pressure groups. These
distinctions are as real and pertinent today as they were 20 years ago, in fact more so,
as there is more ”conflicting” information available to the public today due to advances in
technology (internet, blogs, etc.).6

Privacy and confidentiality

Quote:
We protect each library user’s right to privacy and confidentiality with respect to infor-
mation sought or received and resources consulted, borrowed, acquired or transmitted.

Intellectual property rights

Quote:
We recognize and respect intellectual property rights

Intellectual property rights are a difficult issue. While most of the rest of the ALA’s Code of
Ethics talks about how libraries should provide unrestricted access to information, copyright

6 Swan, John. ”Untruth or Consequences.” Library Journal 111 (July 1, 1986): 44-52.

22
 Professional Ethics

and other intellectual property rights can sometimes provide restrictions on this flow of
information. Libraries have taken an active interest in open licensing, free software, and
new publication and distribution models that respect the rights of information creators
while allowing more widespread access to ideas.
David Dorman asserts that the Open Source Software movement is akin to librarians’ views
of information. That is, information is public property and as such anyone should have
access to it. OSS furthers this by emphasizing the software that holds the information:
if control of the software is eliminated, the information itself is more free and accessible.
Thus, the Information Control Wars is the battle between those who believe technology
should promote free access to information, and those who believe technology should control
it for their economic and political gain. Dorman presents a thoughtful treatise on the
philosophical, democratic, and tangible merits of OSS. His analysis sheds light on the legal
implications of patent and copyright legislation of which the casual supporter of OSS may
not be aware.
The discussion of OSS in context with information belonging to all brings to mind SCO
Group’s many lawsuits against companies who allegedly copied source code that, OSS ad-
vocates argue, was free to begin with. Little SCO taking on the big, bad corporation of
IBM, for example, seems on the surface to underscore democracy. But SCO’s claims run
against the intent of OSS, and their attempts to extract monies seem ill-founded at best.
The question arises nonetheless: how does one determine when intellectual property has
been violated in OSS? If there is a violation in the OSS world, what implications does that
have for its future? What are the implications for those who support free information and
access?7

Respecting fellow library workers

Quote:
We treat co-workers and other colleagues with respect, fairness and good faith, and
advocate conditions of employment that safeguard the rights and welfare of all employees
of our institutions.

Non-advancement of private interests

Quote:
We do not advance private interests at the expense of library users, colleagues, or our
employing institutions.

7 Dorman, David. “Open Source Software and the Intellectual Commons.” American Libraries 33, no. 11
(December 2002): 51-54.

23
Ethics and Values in the Information Professions

Distinguishing between personal convictions and professional duties

Quote:
We distinguish between our personal convictions and professional duties and do not allow
our personal beliefs to interfere with fair representation of the aims of our institutions
or the provision of access to their information resources.

Librarians have often taken a politically neutral stance as a way to gain professional sta-
tus. In this literature review, the author argues that by not defining their political values,
librarians will be influenced by those with economic and political power. This will threaten
the public’s access to information while corporations profit. The author disagrees with a
prediction by Thomas Suprenant and Claudia Perry-Holmes that libraries can enhance their
“institutional status” by charging patrons and offering “information stamps” to those who
cannot pay. They believe the profession can stay alive if librarians focus on “efficiency,
productivity, and quality control” and compete with the private sector. Librarians must
lose their neutral viewpoints and publicly fight for equal access to information.8
The author’s argument is made stronger with examples of how information traditionally
handled by the government was turned over to private vendors during the Reagan ad-
ministration. Library services based on ability to pay, which the author compares to this
country’s health care system, would greatly accelerate the digital divide. Since this article
was written, librarians have become more outspoken. Legislation following the September
11, 2001, terrorist attacks prompted the ALA to adopt resolutions opposing attempts to re-
strict access to government information on the basis of national security issues. Librarians’
concerns about the Patriot Act led to proposed legislation and several ALA policies urging
user privacy and open access. Librarians are fighting the government for the public’s sake,
but they must act before access is threatened, not after it is denied.

Excellence in the profession

Quote:
We strive for excellence in the profession by maintaining and enhancing our own knowl-
edge and skills, by encouraging the professional development of co-workers, and by fos-
tering the aspirations of potential members of the profession.

2.2.2 Other Codes of Ethics

Society of American Archivists Core Values Statement and Code of Ethics

http://www2.archivists.org/statements/saa-core-values-statement-and-code-of-ethics

8 Blanke, Henry T. ”Librarianship and Political Values: Neutrality or Commitment?” Library Journal (1989):
39-43.

24
 Professional Ethics

The Hacker Ethic

Hacker ethic is a term for the moral values and philosophy that are standard in the hacker
community. The early hacker culture and resulting philosophy originated at the Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the 1950s and 1960s. The term hacker ethic is
attributed to journalist Steven Levy as described in his 1984 book titled Hackers: Heroes
of the Computer Revolution. The key points within this ethic are access, freedom of infor-
mation, and improvement to quality of life.
As Levy summarized in the preface of Hackers , the general tenets or principles of hacker
ethic are:
• Sharing
• Openness
• Decentralization
• Free access to computers
• World Improvement
In addition to those principles, Levy also described more specific hacker ethics and beliefs
in chapter 2, The Hacker Ethic :

Access to computers

Quote:
Access to computers - and anything which might teach you something about the way the
world works - should be unlimited and total. Always yield to the Hands-On Imperative!

Information should be free

Quote:
All information should be free: Linking directly with the principle of access, information
needs to be free for hackers to fix, improve, and reinvent systems. A free exchange of
information allows for greater overall creativity.

In the hacker viewpoint, almost any system could benefit from an easy flow of information,
a concept known as transparency in the social sciences. This is only limited by a concern for
maintaining the privacy of certain information, such as medical information. This concept
can be seen as roughly analogous to the concept of Intellectual Freedom in the ALA’s
documents.
The Free Software Foundation notes that ”free” refers to unrestricted access; it does not
refer to price.9

9 Stallman, R. What is Free Software? (2011, November 29). www.gnu.org . Retrieved from http://www.
gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html

25
Ethics and Values in the Information Professions

Mistrust authority

Quote:
Mistrust authority - promote decentralization: The best way to promote the free ex-
change of information is to have an open system that presents no boundaries between
a hacker and a piece of information or an item of equipment that he needs in [their]
quest for knowledge, improvement, and time on-line. Hackers believe that bureaucra-
cies, whether corporate, government, or university, are flawed systems.

Meritocracy

Quote:
Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not criteria such as degrees, age, race, sex,
or position: Inherent in the hacker ethic is a meritocratic system where superficiality is
disregarded in esteem of skill.

While this is an admirable part of a code of ethics, there is a huge lack of diversity within
the hacker community and free culture. The Ada Initiative notes that ”[w]omen are one
of many groups currently under-represented in several areas of open technology and cul-
ture. Recent surveys have shown that around 2-5% of open source developers are women
(compared to 20-30% of the larger tech industry), and that women represent just 10-15% of
Wikipedia editors.”10 Even though the Hacker Ethic does not place any formal restrictions
on participation, it does foster environments in which women are targeted in very specific
ways, and attempts to address these issues are seen as censorship.11

Art and beauty

Quote:
You can create art and beauty on a computer: Hackers deeply appreciate innovative
techniques which allow programs to perform complicated tasks with few instructions.

Computers can change your life

Quote:
Computers can change your life for the better

Hackers felt that computers had enriched their lives, given their lives focus, and made their
lives adventurous.

10 FAQ. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://adainitiative.org/faq/

11 Reagle, Joseph. ”“Free as in sexist?” Free culture and the gender gap” First Monday [Online], Volume 18
Number 1 (30 December 2012)

26
 Professional Ethics

Sharing

According to Levy’s account, sharing was the norm and expected within the non-corporate
hacker culture. The principle of sharing stemmed from the open atmosphere and informal
access to resources at MIT. During the early days of computers and programming, the
hackers at MIT would develop a program and share it with other computer users.
If the hack was particularly good, then the program might be posted on a board somewhere
near one of the computers. Other programs that could be built upon it and improved it
were saved to tapes and added to a drawer of programs, readily accessible to all the other
hackers. At any time, a fellow hacker might reach into the drawer, pick out the program,
and begin adding to it or ”bumming” it to make it better. Bumming referred to the process
of making the code more concise so that more can be done in fewer instructions, saving
precious memory for further enhancements.
In the second generation of hackers, sharing was about sharing with the general public
in addition to sharing with other hackers. A particular organization of hackers that was
concerned with sharing computers with the general public was a group called Community
Memory. This group of hackers and idealists put computers in public places for anyone to
use. The first community computer was placed outside of Leopold’s Records in Berkeley,
California.
This second generation practice of sharing contributed to the battles of free and open
software. In fact, when Bill Gates12 ’ version of BASIC13 for the Altair was shared among
the hacker community, Gates claimed to have lost a considerable sum of money because few
users paid for the software. As a result, Gates wrote an Open Letter to Hobbyists14 .1516
This letter was published by several computer magazines and newsletters, most notably
that of the Homebrew Computer Club17 where much of the sharing occurred.

Hands-On Imperative

Many of the principles and tenets of hacker ethic contribute to a common goal: the Hands-
On Imperative. As Levy described in Chapter 2, ”Hackers believe that essential lessons can
be learned about the systems—about the world—from taking things apart, seeing how they
work, and using this knowledge to create new and more interesting things.”
Employing the Hands-On Imperative requires free access, open information, and the sharing
of knowledge. To a true hacker, if the Hands-On Imperative is restricted, then the ends
justify the means to make it unrestricted so that improvements can be made . When these
principles are not present, hackers tend to work around them. For example, when the
computers at MIT were protected either by physical locks or login programs, the hackers

12 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Gates
13 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/BASIC
14 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Letter%20to%20Hobbyists
15 Charles Leadbetter We-Think . Profile Books , , 2008
16 Fiona Macdonald . Get a fair share of creativity Get a fair share of creativity . , ( Metro )
17 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homebrew%20Computer%20Club

27
Ethics and Values in the Information Professions

there systematically worked around them in order to have access to the machines. Hackers
assumed a ”willful blindness” in the pursuit of perfection.
This behavior was not malicious in nature: the MIT hackers did not seek to harm the
systems or their users (although occasional practical jokes were played using the computer
systems). This deeply contrasts with the modern, media-encouraged image of hackers who
crack secure systems in order to steal information or complete an act of cyber-vandalism.
Dorothy Denning notes that even hackers who crack secure systems illegally are often mo-
tivated by personal morals and beliefs, rather than by malice. 18

Community and collaboration

Throughout writings about hackers and their work processes, a common value of community
and collaboration is present. For example, in Levy’s Hackers , each generation of hackers
had geographically based communities where collaboration and sharing occurred. For the
hackers at MIT, it was the labs where the computers were running. For the hardware
hackers (second generation) and the game hackers (third generation) the geographic area
was centered in Silicon Valley where the Homebrew Computer Club19 and the People’s
Computer Company20 helped hackers network, collaborate, and share their work.
The concept of community and collaboration is still relevant today, although hackers are
no longer limited to collaboration in geographic regions. Now collaboration takes place via
the Internet.21

Protocols for Native American Archival Materials

The Protocols for Native American Archival Materials is a list of best practices for non-
tribal institutions that hold Native American archival materials. The protocols have been
pretty controversial, partly because of the cost involved; the archivist at the University of
Washington said that he would need to hire at least one full-time staff member whose sole
job would be ensuring compliance with the protocols.22 But the main reason is that it goes
against a lot of traditional (European) LIS values, such as Universal Access.
Most of the document is about opportunities to collaborate and consult with tribal lead-
ers about the care of materials in archives. However, the short sections on ”Accessibility
and Use” and ”Culturally Sensitive Materials” state that ”For Native American communities
the public release of or access to specialized information or knowledge—gathered with and
without informed consent—can cause irreparable harm. Instances abound of misrepresen-
tation and exploitation of sacred and secret information.” As such, the protocols establish

18 Denning, D. Concerning Hackers Who Break into Computer Systems. (1990, October). Retrieved from
http://www.cs.georgetown.edu/~denning/hackers/Hackers-NCSC.txt
19 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homebrew%20Computer%20Club
20 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s%20Computer%20Company
21 Levy, Steven. (1984, 2001). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution (updated edition). Penguin.
ISBN 0-14-100051-1
22 Bolcer, John. The Protocols for Native American Archival Materials: Considerations and Concerns from
the Perspective of a Non-Tribal Archivist. Easy Access, January 2009, p.3.

28
 References

expectations of repatriation of certain materials, and allow Native American communities

to restrict access to formerly open collections, stating that ”[a]ccess to some knowledge may
be restricted as a privilege rather than a right.”
Another part that bothered some was in the context section, which suggests cataloging
practices for describing materials containing pejorative content. I really liked a lot of the
suggestions (e.g. one of their sample notes: ”The [tribal name] finds information in this work
inaccurate or disrespectful. To learn more contact ....”), which I felt added more information
for catalog users. At the same time, I felt challenged by other suggestions that involved
removing certain content (i.e. their suggestion that librarians ”remove offensive terms from
original titles and provide substitute language” in catalog records). I understand where this
is coming from -- I wouldn’t want to look up a book about a community I belong to, only to
find words ridiculing that community and challenging its right to exist -- but it also totally
challenges my ”accept no censorship! Provide lots of access points!” mindset. 23

2.3 References

23 http://www2.nau.edu/libnap-p/protocols.html

29
3 Information Policy

Librarians are far from the only players in today’s Information Age. A huge number of
people and organizations have a say in how information is created, used, stored, accessed,
and disseminated. Each of these parties is influenced by widely divergent goals, world views,
and professional ethics.
These divergent viewpoints often come to the fore in debates over Information Policy
. An information policy is a public law, regulation or policy that encourages, discourages,
or regulates the creation, use, storage, access, and communication and dissemination of
information. 1
Librarians and other information workers are often involved in creating and transforming
information policy, and invariably feel the effects of these policies. This chapter will discuss
a number of Information Policy debates of particular interest to the LIS community.
After reading this chapter, students should be able to articulate how libraries
1. are governed and funded
2. establish and uphold policies
3. develop collection development policies
4. defend access to information in both physical and electronic media
5. navigate restrictions from copyright law
6. protect patron confidentiality
7. navigate policy exceptions
8. establish fine and fee structures
9. make decisions regarding staff tasks and responsibilities

3.1 Collection development

Collection development is the process of planning and building a useful and balanced collec-
tion of library materials 2 . Collection development policies provide guidelines for people who
select materials for library collections, and can also be used to evaluate selectors’ choices,
to see if they were indeed appropriate for the library’s collection.
Public libraries particularly face a ”quality vs. demand” problem. Librarians are experts
in book selection, and have tools, such as professional reviews, to guide them in choosing

1 Information policy. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved September 11, 2012, from http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Information_policy
2 Reitz, J. M. (n.d.). Collection development. In ODLIS: Online dictionary for library and information
science. ABC-CLIO. Retrieved from http://www.abc-clio.com/ODLIS/odlis c.aspx#collecdevel

31
Information Policy

good books for their collections. However, this does not always mean that their selections
are popular with their patrons.
The tension between ”quality” and ”demand” is often discussed in reference to the case of
the Baltimore County Public Library’s approach to collection development from the 1980s.
When the library considered the fees they were paying to convert to online records, they
began to wonder if every item was earning its keep. They checked circulation statistics for
each item. Material that didn’t circulate frequently enough was withdrawn. More attention
was paid to areas of the collection that circulated well. More copies of bestsellers were
purchased.
This approach was criticized as not being actual collection development, but just mindless
reading of statistics. In an article for Library Journal, Nora Rawlinson, then head of
materials selection at Baltimore County Public Library, admitted that it is easy to select
popular items, but other material is carefully considered before being purchased for the
collection. Esoteric material is rejected and fair service to patrons is considered when
selecting. The diverse interests of their patrons can be met because they reduced staff and
increased the book budget. The approach was successful: surveys showed that patrons were
satisfied, and the library received a significant number more interlibrary loan requests than
it made. The fears that the library would devolve into a collection stuffed with bestsellers
and little material of real value were unfounded.
Although these collection practices were originally controversial for some libraries, Baltimore
County’s choice to use a combination of popularity (as represented by circulation statistics)
and professional judgement has been widely adopted by many public libraries 3 .

3.2 Confidentiality

The 2001 USA PATRIOT Act has changed how the United States Federal Government
can obtain information. The Federal Bureau of Investigation has used the act to ask li-
braries which books patrons checked out, what databases patrons used, and what reference
questions they asked. Ultimately, it requires a court order for libraries to turn over such
records and information about patrons. A court decision in Colorado ruled that an adver-
sarial hearing was allowed before a search warrant could be enacted. The PATRIOT ACT
permits surveillance, allows for searches without probable cause, and enforces secrecy. All
the FBI has to assert in its investigation is that terrorism is involved.
Library staff members should keep in mind that they should not turn over records to anyone
without a warrant. In an article for Library Journal , Mary Minow suggests that all libraries
have a plan involving staff training, supervising, having a lawyer present if a warrant has
been issued, and procedures for handling the requests for information. Is library patron
record privacy trivial compared to stopping terrorism? Several organizations asked for an
account by the Department of Justice of the investigations carried out by the FBI since the
passing of the Patriot Act. At the time of Minow’s article, the information requested was
termed ”classified” and not available to the public 4 .

3 Rawlinson, Nora. ”Give ’Em What They Want!” Library Journal (November 15, 1981): 77-79.
4 Minow, Mary, 2002. “The USA Patriot Act.” Library Journal 127: 52-54.

32
 Control of information

3.3 Control of information

This editorial states the situation of three specific libraries in Ohio whose hazardous ma-
terials emergency plans were removed without notice and without due cause by agents of
the Department of Homeland Security. The pretense given by the agents in viewing the
plans was that they were there to update it; instead, they took the plans to be stored at a
Homeland Security office, where “proper ID may be required” for viewing. Since the areas
affected were at risk for terrorist activities in that there was an oil refinery and a tank man-
ufacturing plant in the area, the affected librarians did not necessarily take offense to the
removal of these documents given the political climate, but rather the way the information
was unceremoniously taken from them.
To remove information that could be vital to some, yet be used as a dangerous tool by others
walks a fine line between looking out for the public good and censorship. The Department
of Homeland Security manhandled this situation by treating the librarians, and indirectly
their patrons, as bothersome pests because of a need to possess information. In the class
discussions, the topic of information as a commodity always comes to the issue of who
should control information. All parties involved have their own agenda, and in this case the
government may have cloaked their desire to remove potentially damaging environmental
data under the guise of preventing another terrorist attack.5

3.4 Copyright

How does copyright apply to libraries?

• Libraries are often the only entities that provide access to the vast majority of copyrighted
works before the expiration of the copyright, and to works that lose commercial vitality
before the copyright expires (i.e. go out of print but are still legally protected).
• First sale doctrine (1908) enables libraries to lend books and other resource
• Except software gets dicier, because of End-user license agreements (EULAs)
• Fair use allows for the use of (usually tiny snippets of) copyrighted works for purposes of
criticism, comment, news reporting, scholarship, or research.
• Libraries are permitted to make reproductions of copyrighted works for preservation and
replacement purposes.
• Libraries can aid in the transformation and reproduction of copyrighted works for users
with disabilities.
• Libraries often play an archival function with print works. Can they do this in the highly
copyrighted, license-agreemented world of electronic information? Electronic resources
tend to have a very short shelf life, and may not be archived properly for future use.
• Digital Rights Management technologies often don’t recognize any limitations to copy-
right, and just go ahead and restrict access.
The Teach Act helps redefine the terms and conditions of copyright laws, focusing on copy-
right protected materials in distance education. The act puts more pressure on the educa-
tional institution, rather than the educator; but there are several benefits because of the

5 American Library Association. ”Homeland Security Agents Pull Ohio Libraries Haz-Mat Documents.”

33
Information Policy

Teach Act: expanded range of allowed works, expansion of receiving locations, storage of
transmitted content, and digitizing of analog works. It is important for educators to be
aware of copyright information, the number of students enrolled in class, and the amount
of time allotted to view the material. If they are cognizant of them, they will not have to
worry about breaking the law. Since distance education is growing, librarians are expected
to deal with interlibrary loans more often, amongst other new opportunities, and need to
understand the Teach Act too. Kenneth brings up several points that are essential to re-
member about the Teach Act. Distance learning is growing rather quickly, and is becoming
more popular amongst the student population. Because of this rapid growth, librarians
are asked to perform several new tasks that coincide with the act. Librarians need to be
familiar with the Teach Act, so no laws are broken, and all materials remain protected.6

3.5 Digital Rights Management

In this editorial the authors propose that libraries must be involved in the development
of digital rights management policies and the selection and implementation of appropriate
technologies, because the interests of libraries are different from the interests of commercial
information providers. The core mission of libraries is to offer free access to information
rather than on a pay-per-use basis as many commercial entities do. Digital rights man-
agement for libraries requires identifying and authenticating rights holders and users, while
protecting their privacy and confidentiality. The principles of first sale and fair use must be
maintained in the digital environment while preserving authors’ rights, as well. As libraries
begin to publish more on the web, their interest in digital rights management will increase.
Libraries already offer many products in a digital form accessible to patrons by remote
access after identification and authentication. While the library bears the expense of the
product, access is open to anyone who has a valid card. In my opinion, the user identifies
this service with the library. I agree that libraries need to be involved in digital rights
management so information does not become a commodity that can be accessed only by
those who can afford it.7

3.6 Fines and fine waiving

3.7 Government information

3.8 International information policy

This article provides a historical perspective on the development of international policies

and sanctions regarding the fair and safe trade of information between countries. During

6 Crews, Kenneth D., 2004. New Copyright Law for Distance Education: The Meaning and Importance of
the TEACH Act. http://www.ala.org/advocacy/copyright/teachact.
7 Agnew, Grace, and Mairead Martin. “Digital Rights Management: Why Libraries Should Be Major
Players.” In The Bowker Annual: Library and Book Trade Almanac. 48th edition. Edited by Dave
Bogart. Medford, N.J.: Information Today, 2003, 267-278.

34
 Outsourcing

the internet’s infancy, the issues regarding keeping privileged information confidential and
regulation the economic aspects of electronic information were still being worked out. One
of the bodies involved in these issues was called the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD). When this editorial article was written in 1985 ways to control
and regulate the international flow of information were still being worked out. This article
only provides a small glimpse of the issue from a modern vantage point. One would assume
that today, more than twenty years later that regulations would now be firmly in place. In
order to get a better idea of the evolution of international information policy it would be
necessary to read several articles that span the past two decades.8

3.9 Outsourcing

Figure 5 alt=The Hawaii State Library, a historic building surrounded by trees

In recent years, many libraries have explored outsourcing ”behind-the-scenes” activities, such
as cataloging and book selection, to private companies. A classic example of this was a 1996
decision by Bartholomew Kane, the Hawaii State Librarian, to outsource all cataloging and
selection for the libraries in the state to the private company Baker and Taylor. Kane’s

8 Bortnick, Jane. ”National and International Information Policy.” Journal of the American Society of
Information Science 36 (1985): 164-168.

35
Information Policy

philosophy in this decision was guided by public surveys which showed a public desire for
increased library assistance and longer hours of operation. By outsourcing cataloging and
selection, Kane was able to meet both of these public demands.
However, this approach also has its drawbacks. For instance, by outsourcing selection and
cataloging, the library loses its autonomy in making differentiated selections to suit their
individual populations. Although the State Library argued that it would be in Baker and
Taylor’s best financial interst to select the appropriate materials, the issue is not entirely
resolved. For instance, will the selectors at Baker and Taylor have the same interactions
with and knowledge of the public that the librarians would have? Additionally, the state of
Hawaii is in a unique situation, as the only state with a state-wide library system, and in a
state of geographic semi-isolation from the rest of the country. Applying a blanket solution
such as outsourcing some of the traditional roles of the public library is not a catch-all
solution for all libraries that need to increase their hours and personnel without increasing
their bottom line.9

9 Oldon, Renee. 1996. Hawaii hands collection development to Baker & Taylor. School Library Journal
42:10-11.

36
 Web content filters

3.10 Web content filters

Figure 6 A screenshot of filtering software DansGuardian blocking whitehouse.coma .

a https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/whitehouse.com

Libraries are one of the primary providers of public Internet access within the United States.
American librarians are also ethically bound by the ALA’s code of ethics to ”resist all ef-
forts to censor library resources.” Therefore, when the 2000 Children’s Internet Protection
Act (CIPA) required libraries and schools to filter web content as a condition for receiv-
ing certain federal funding, many in the library community strongly objected. The ALA
challenged the act as unconstitutionally blocking access to constitutionally protected in-
formation on the Internet. The ALA also noted that E-rate funding, one of the federal
funding programs contingent on web filter use, was created to provide Internet access to all
communities, including historically underfunded communities. Mandating filters imposes

37
Information Policy

additional financial burdens on the same schools and libraries that the e-rate program was
meant to help. Finally, the ALA stated that web filters are notoriously unreliable, with ”no
filtering software successfully differentiat[ing] constitutionally protected speech from illegal
speech on the Internet.” The case made it to the Supreme Court, which in 2003, ruled that
CIPA was in fact constitutional.
The debate over filtering in the library community is far from over, however. Writing in
2004, Nancy Kranich notes seven reasons filters do not succeed in protecting patrons from
offensive Internet material:
1. Filters underblock sites that are banned by CIPA
2. Filters overblock sites that are legal
3. Filter providers cannot review every site
4. Filters do not distinguish between users of different ages
5. Overriding or disabling filters is time-consuming and costly
6. Some users find ways around filters or find access elsewhere
7. Filters do not block email, chat rooms or videos
Kranich argues that the best ways to protect consumers are through education, Internet
access policies, links to approved, quality sites, and reference assistance. Requiring parental
consent for minors to use the Internet, public monitoring, and the use of privacy screens
also help protect consumers.10
Many in the library community also worried that federal laws such as CIPA could lead the
way to even more restrictive laws on the state level. Some libraries filter because violating
certain state laws could lead to criminal charges. Most libraries depend on community
support and money, so resisting the public’s requests puts libraries’ futures at risk. Would
libraries choose filtering if there were no threats of legal action and eliminated funding? If
so, what does this say about the ALA’s mission?
However, Hampton Auld takes a different view of filtering. In Auld’s article, the Chester-
field County (Virginia) Public Library began filtering all public Internet-access computers
after complaints that adults and children were viewing pornographic images. The library
observed a reduction in the number of times pornography had to be cleared from screens,
a reduction in the number of reported complaints, and an improved library environment,
despite mistakes made by the filtering software. Auld argues that filters work in blocking
pornography while only slightly affecting access to protected speech. According to Auld, the
ALA should revise its anti-filtering policy because filters are more effective than any other
ALA-recommended method and the policy is undermining and dividing the profession.11
The following table represents arguments for and against filtering requirements from an
earlier supreme court case, Reno v. ACLU. In this case, the supreme court sided with the
ACLU, unanimously striking down a portion of the 1996 Communications Decency Act
(CDA).
Argument Defense
Filters use keywords. True, but good filters can turn off keyword blocking and rely
on site-selected blocking.

10 Kranich, Nancy. “Why Filters Won’t Protect Children or Adults.” Library Administration and Manage-
ment 18 (Winter 2004): 14-18.
11 Auld, Hampton. “Filters Work: Get Over It.” American Libraries 34 (2003): 38-41.

38
 References

Filters block sex education, AIDS info, etc. Can be set up so only pornographic sites are blocked.
Outsiders select material. Librarians have vendors preselect books.
The lists of sites that are banned cannot be viewed or They are all different. Some have viewable lists, main thing is
changed. that it is editable and accurate.
Libraries look like ”publishers” and can be responsible for its ”Good Samaritan” blocking amendment protects libraries if
content. blocking offensive material.
Internet is too big and changes too fast to be 100% accurate. Libraries have to try to be consistent, not ensure appropriate-
ness.
Let the users decide appropriateness, not the librarian. Libraries have always had global judgment (ex.- not to carry
Huster).
Libraries have limited budgets which is why they don’t carry Wrong- remember appropriateness! (and offensiveness)
everything.
Violates the Constitution. Uses discretion, not removing from one thing, selecting from
several.
Selection is addition, censorship is removal. Restricts the potential access.

12

Edwards’ commentary focuses on the questionable success of filters meant to block access
by young people to websites with pornographic content in libraries and schools. While
allowing schools and libraries to maintain access to federal funding under the Children’s
Internet Protection Act of 2000 (CIPA), the use of these filters may also be blocking access
to sensitive health information. The most frequently blocked sites included the following
words:
• Gay or lesbian
• Condoms
• Safe Sex
• Abortion
The more the restrictive filters prevented the twelve testers from finding health information
on topics such as pregnancy, abortion and drug use, while only marginally improving pro-
tection against pornographic sites. Both sides of the filtering debate claim victory. Those
for filters advocate their use by applauding the success of the study in blocking between
87-91% of pornography in the study. Those against the use of filters cite the potential 24%
of health information sites blocked as the failure inherent in the system. The perplexing
portion of CIPA is that the government mandates the use of filtering to remain eligible for
federal funding; yet they make no policy as to what should be filtered. The recurring theme
with library policy is the information as a commodity, again leaving the question of what
information should be available to whom to be an arbitrary decision. One can infer that the
debate regarding this topic will remain controversial since there is no way to standardize to
a general agreement what issues should be blocked.13

3.11 References

12 Burt, David. “In Defense of Filtering.” American Libraries 28 (August 1997): 46-48.
13 Edward, Ellen. ”Web Filters Block Health Information.” Washington Post, December 11, 2002, p. A02

39
4 Information Organization

After reading this chapter, a student should be able to articulate:

1. how to build an effective bibliography
2. how libraries share catalog records
3. the purpose and structure of MARC records
4. the FRBR conceptual model
5. the concepts that inform the field of Information Architecture
6. the strengths of several major classification strategies
7. the concepts of the semantic web and linked data
8. major critiques of information organization practice

4.1 Why organize information?

The sheer abundance of information available on the Internet leads to limited user attention
and a high reliance on gatekeeping services, such as search engines. These gatekeeping
services capitalize on user attention scarcity by channeling users’ attention toward certain
documents and away from others.1

4.2 Bibliography

Marcia Bates attempts to define and standardize the systematic bibliography in a way that
makes it clear to the end user what is covered in such a bibliography, how to make research
easier and bibliographies more valuable as a tool in search strategies. The author never loses
sight of the end user and the real world applications of bibliographic use. The concept of
the ”defining purpose” of a bibliography is a theme that runs throughout the entire article,
and the major specifications of a bibliography discussed at length and in detail, are:
1. Scope
2. Selection Principles
3. Organization
4. Domain
5. Information fields
6. Bibliographic units
Special consideration is given to the Principles of Selection, or the manner in which articles
are chosen for a particular bibliography. These are:

1 Hargittai, E. (2000). Open portals or closed gates? Channeling content on the World Wide Web. Poetics,
27 (4), 233-253.

41
Information Organization

1. Expert Judgment
2. Random Samples
3. Representative Sample
4. Functional Equivalence Sets
I agree with the concepts stated in the paper, and the necessity for some type of systematic
structure when building bibliographies, so that users get the information they need and have
confidence that the material presented in the bibliography is comprehensive, pertinent and
complete, as defined by the purpose statement of the bibliography. I thought this was an
excellent article, as it laid out step by step, in detail, how to build a systematic bibliography
that keeps the end user’s search strategies in mind at all times.
Reading this article makes me question whether the use of digital resources has altered the
way bibliographies are compiled.2

4.2.1 Subject guides

4.3 Bibliographic metadata

Figure 7 A handwritten subject card from the Library’s old card catalog recalls the
precomputer days when information had to be created, classified, and sorted by hand.

2 Bates, Marcia. “Rigorous Systematic Bibliography.” RQ 16 (Fall 1976): 2-26.

42
 Bibliographic metadata

Cataloging is the process of adding an item to a catalog, a process typically including

bibliographic description, subject analysis, and classification.

4.3.1 Cataloging

Authority control

MARC formats

The MARC formats are digital formats for the description of bibliographic items developed
by the US Library of Congress during the 1960s to facilitate the creation and dissemination
of cataloging between libraries. While the formats were originally created to facilitate
printing of paper catalog cards, they are still in use today as the basis for most computerized
library catalogs.
Jackie Radebaugh argues that the MARC format will survive in an era of global digital
communication. She describes the modifications made to MARC to accommodate different
types of materials, to make web addresses accessible from MARC, and to access an online
table of contents from the MARC record. MARC 21 is used in many countries of the
world today. MARC documentation has been translated into several languages. Current
modifications include mapping MARC to a variety of languages including Dublin Core,
SGML, and XML to adapt MARC to web-based environments. After it has been modified
for web use will it still be MARC? Radebaugh quotes one presenter at the 2000 ALA
conference who stated that MARC is very much alive. At the same conference Fred Kilgour,
the man who championed MARC and is responsible for much of its success, speculated that
in the next 30 years Marc will be replaced. In my opinion MARC has been a resilient
format, but may be superseded by formats more adaptive to digital environments.3

Bibliographic framework (BIBFRAME)

Several expert groups, including the Working Group on the Future of Bibliographic Con-
trol and the U.S. RDA Test Coordinating Committee have recommended that the library
community implement a new carrier for bibliographic data that replaces the MARC stan-
dards. The RDA Test Committee’s Final Report suggested that new ways of cataloging are
unlikely to yield significant benefits unless they are implemented on top of a new means for
capturing and sharing bibliographic data. In other words, many experts believe that the
MARC format is holding back the development of better cataloging practices.
The general plan for the new Bibliographic Framework enumerates a list of requirements
for the new carrier, which is described as an “environment” rather than a simple “format”.
Some of the most noteworthy requirements are that the new environment will support bib-
liographic description expressed as both textual data and linked data URIs; accommodate
RDA, AACR2, DACS, VRA Core, and CCO descriptive rules; and provision for data that
support or accompany bibliographic data, such as authority data, holdings data, preser-
vation data, and technical data. The plan also notes that catalogers are likely to interact

3 Radebaugh, Jackie. “MARC Goes Global -- and Lite.” American Libraries 34 (February 2003): 43-44.

43
Information Organization

with the new data carrier on a more abstract level than they currently interact with MARC.
BIBFRAME’s approach is based on the RDF data model from the Linked Data community,
for which a number of query and storage tools have already been developed.4

Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records

Figure 8 The FRBR Group One Entities and their relationships with each other.

Historically, cataloging practice has been devoted to describing ”books”. Early attempts
to standardize cataloging practice internationally, such as the 1961 Paris Principles, only

4 ”A Bibliographic Framework for the Digital Age” Library of Congress Bibliographic Framework Transi-
tion Initiative. http://www.loc.gov/marc/transition/news/framework-103111.html (accessed Mar
12, 2013).

44
 Bibliographic metadata

addressed the cataloging of printed books. The Paris Principles describe themselves as
only being applicable to ”catalogues of printed books in which entries under authors’ names
and, where these are inappropriate or insufficient, under the titles of works are combined
in one alphabetical sequence.”[1]5 Even in 1961, libraries offered their patrons materials
other than print books, such as periodicals and musical recordings, and the number of
formats that library catalogers have been called on to describe has only grown since that
time. Contemporary library catalogs may include reference databases, e-books, DVDs,
computer software, websites, blogs, audiobooks, digitized archival materials, and countless
other resources.
As the number of formats described in library catalogs has grown, the meaning of the term
book has become less clear. As Barbara Tillett notes:

Figure 9 The Group One Entities and their connections to Group Two entities

5 International Conference on Cataloguing Principles (Paris : 1961). Report. – London : International

Federation of Library Associations, 1963, p. 91-96.

45
Information Organization

Quote:
When we say the word book in everyday language, we may actually mean several things.
For example, when we say book to describe a physical object that has paper pages and
a binding and can sometimes be used to prop open a door or hold up a table leg, FRBR
calls this an ”item.” When we say book we also may mean a ”publication” as when we go
to a bookstore to purchase a book. We may know its ISBN but the particular copy does
not matter as long as it’s in good condition and not missing pages. FRBR calls this
a ”manifestation.” When we say book as in ”who translated that book,” we may have a
particular text in mind and a specific language. FRBR calls this an ”expression.” When
we say book as in ”who wrote that book,” we could mean a higher level of abstraction,
the conceptual content that underlies all of the linguistic versions, the story being told
in the book, the ideas in a person’s head for the book. FRBR calls this a ”work.”a

a Tillett, B. (2004). What is FRBR: A conceptual model for the bibliographic universe . Washington,
DC: Library of Congress Cataloging Distribution Service. Retrieved from http://www.loc.gov/cds/
downloads/FRBR.PDF

Because of these issues, the cataloging community felt that it was necessary to have a
new conceptual model for cataloging that didn’t center around the ambiguous book . The
Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records, or FRBR, was an attempt to clarify
this hazy terminology, and to provide a model that was independent of particular cataloging
codes and material formats.
FRBR starts with four ”Group One Entities”: the Work , the Expression , the Mani-
festation , and the Item . A traditional catalog record combines description at each of
these levels, but generally centers around a description at the manifestation level. After
defining these Group One Entities, FRBR then continues to define relationships between
these entities and each other, as well as with other entities, such as authors, publishers, and
other people and corporate bodies (Group Two entities), and topics (Group Three entities).
Like the earlier Paris Principles, FRBR is seperate from specific cataloging standards such as
AACR2 or International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD). However, the FRBR
model has been used to inform new cataloging standards, such as Resource Description and
Access (RDA), as well as changes in automated systems and user interfaces.

46
 Bibliographic metadata

4.3.2 Classification

Figure 10 Books about the Java programming language, sorted by Library of Congress
Classification.

To make a Classification system, you need four things:

• classes, or ways to group objects based on similar characteristics
• labels for the classes, or ways of expressing these conceptual classes in human language
• notation, another way to express these classes. Notation helps with automated processes,
as well as making things easier for humans. For example, Dewey Decimal Classification
system notates the subject of ”Jewish people in Ukraine” as 305.89240477. This is much
easier to shelve and retrieve than the non-notated version, shown below.

Class notation: 305.89240477

''vs.''
Class labels: Social sciences > Groups of people > Jews > Subdivided
geographically > Europe > Russia and Eastern Europe > Ukraine

• relationships between classes (these are usually taxonomic, i.e. heirarchical). For example
in the example above, Europe stands in a heirarchical relationship with Russia and Eastern
Europe

47
Information Organization

Dewey Decimal Classification

The DDC is in its 23rd edition and is the ”world’s most widely used classification system.”
It can be ordered in a four-volume print version, as full WebDewey or an abridged print or
web version which is better for smaller collections. Membership includes updates on its web
versions quarterly, and a semiannual DDC newsletter, offers to conferences and workshops,
OCLC articles and case studies. This website is very simple to use. It is not too complicated
and gets to the point if your library has a need for it. It doesn’t have a lot of “bells and
whistles” but has what is necessary and is simple to follow. As it pertains to the chapter
the information this site provides is a basic source to use when learning about DDC. The
Dewey Decimal system is such a huge part of so many libraries it is hard to think of not
having such a well structure organizational tool to use.6

Taxonomies vs. folksonomies

4.4 Information architecture

Information Architecture is a field that started in the 1990’s with the high-tech boom in full
force. They are similar to a building architect except they do their designing for a website.
An IA (Information Architect) makes up the logical structure of a website. They look at
the needs of the users and design the visual and interaction design according to the user
experience, making it easier to find information and to work around a site. This also will
make it easier to manage the site.
The key concepts that an IA looks at are:
• organization
• navigation
• search
• labeling
• controlling
The IA then draws up blueprints and works closely with the technical, graphic, and editorial
team members to finish the site. IA Chris Farnum is very knowledgeable and informative in
their profession and goes on to explain that there are several ways to find out more about
his field through books, seminars and college courses. I like the way that the information
has been presented very clearly and explained in detail, and I see a strong need for this type
of profession in today’s world of technology. With all of the options and choices of sites out
in the World Wide Web, in this day and age, I can see a large need to make your site the
most marketable and user-friendly as possible.7

6 “Dewey Services.” [Online] Available at www.oclc.org//dewey. (Accessed January 15, 2004.)

7 Farnum, Chris. “Information Architecture: Five Things Information Managers Need to Know.” The Infor-
mation Management Journal (September/October 2002): 33-40.

48
 Information retrieval

4.5 Information retrieval

Artificial intelligence has two main applications in information retrieval: organization of

application methods, and the design of classification methods. There is no shared terminol-
ogy between the fields, making it difficult for the two areas to collaborate initially. Linda C.
Smith, in her 1976 article ”Artificial Intelligence and Information Retrieval,” predicts that
as artificial intelligence and information retrieval continue to expand there will still need
to be an increase in the cognitive ability of the users to discern what has been retrieved
from the original search. The other concern for users was the anticipation that in order to
use the system, a user would need to be experts to get the desired results. At the time of
the article, there was a growing interest in the ability of these retrieval systems to answer
questions and retrieve facts, both items we see have come to fruition today in modern search
engines used every day. Artificial intelligence was seen to have both short term and long
term effects on information retrieval. In the short term, it would modify the results of a
current search during a query to meet the user’s current needs. In the long term, it would
modify the document representations to improve responses. This article was a follow up to
the author’s initial research in 1980. Little had changed in that time as far as attitudes and
outlook for the feasibility of using artificial intelligence techniques as practical applications
in library science and information retrieval. With hindsight on my side, it is interesting to
see that common search engines use the kind of aided searches to find related topics that
the author thought only the experts would be able to complete.8
The World Wide Web (WWW) is common in school libraries because of its value as an
educational tool. Previous research indicates that domain expertise improves online search
performance. Other research shows that WWW browsing experience does not play a signif-
icant role in achieving a higher efficiency or accuracy level in a search. The authors’ study
tests fourth-graders’ online search performance in relation to how proficient they were in
WWW use; the level of domain expertise (Dutch literature) was consistent. The results
showed that WWW experts were better than novices at locating Web sites but that WWW
experience does not substantially affect how well information is located on a specific Web
site. The authors argue that locating Web sites involves more use of search engines, a skill
in which the experts are more proficient, but finding information on a Web site generally
involves browsing, in which WWW experience is not as important. Although the novices
were not true beginners and the experts not professionals, the novices would greatly benefit
from courses teaching search skills, such as how to use search engines and Boolean opera-
tors. I think that instruction in determining the relevance and validity of search results is
just as important as search skills, but the article does not address this. However, judging
relevance depends on the user’s knowledge of a subject that school librarians are not often
responsible for teaching. A good relationship among teachers, school librarians, and the
WWW must emerge for students to receive the best possible education.9
Information science has at its core the concept of “Relevance”, which is a subjective notion.
Relevance is defined broadly as a measurement of the effectiveness of an exchange or con-

8 Smith, Linda C. ”Artificial Intelligence and Information Retrieval.” Annual Review of Information Science
and Technology (ARIST) 22 (1987): 41-77.
9 Lazonder, Ard W., Harm J.A. Biemans, and Iwan G.J.H. Wopereis. ”Differences Between Novice and
Experienced Users in Searching Information on the World Wide Web.” Journal of the American Society
for Information Science 51 (2000): 576-581.

49
Information Organization

tact of information between a source and a user, all based on the differing views of what
constitutes effective communication. This concept is the basis for how entire information
retrieval systems are designed and utilized. There are many differing views on what this
means, but all of them are somewhat related and interconnected regardless of how they are
defined or utilized. The author describes in great detail, the framework for these differing
views and the underlying philosophies behind each concept of what constitutes effective
communication. He argues that all of these differing constructs are incomplete, (yet cor-
rect); depending on where one starts their examination of the communication process. He
ends his paper with an appropriate call for more study on the subject. His paper is a recap
of the opposing arguments of three decades ago, but in fact is more important now than
ever before, as new information systems come on line and into being (the internet, the elec-
tronic database, funding for collections, etc.), and are all based on an incomplete definition
of “effective communication”.10

4.6 The Semantic Web, RDF, and linked data

Figure 11 An RDF graph describes Semantic Web innovator Eric Miller through a
combination of literal strings and URIs.

10 Saracevic,T. “Relevance: A Review of and a Framework for the Thinking on the Notion in Information
Science.” Journal of the American Society or Information Science 26 (1975): 321-343.

50
 The Semantic Web, RDF, and linked data

Eric Miller and Ralph Swick describe the Semantic Web as ”an extension of the current Web
in which the meaning of information is clearly and explicitly linked from the information
itself, better enabling computers and people to work in cooperation.”
The Semantic Web is a stack of technologies that seeks to convert the current Web, which is
full of unstructured and semi-structured documents, into a ”web of data” where documents
are all available in machine-readable formats as well as human-readable ones. Semantic Web
enthusiasts argue that this abundance of machine-readable formats will allow both human
users and automated technologies to find, share, and combine information more easily.

Quote:
The Semantic Web fosters and encourages greater data reuse by making it available for
purposes not planned or conceived by the data provider. Suppose you want, for example,
to locate news articles published in the previous month about companies headquartered
in cities with populations under 500,000 or to compare the stock price of a company
with the weather at its home base or to search online product catalogs for an equivalent
replacement part for something. The information may be there in the Web, but currently
only in a form that requires intensive human processing.

11

A key resource for current work with RDF is DBpedia12 , an effort to extract RDF data
from the Wikipedia project. An example of a typical DBpedia record can be seen at
http://dbpedia.org/page/Audre_Lorde, a human-language description of Audre Lord,
a ”black lesbian feminist mother poet warrior,” who also worked as a librarian. This exact
same information is available in a machine readable format at the URI http://dbpedia.
org/data/Audre_Lorde. For every URI for humans in the format http://dbpedia.org/
page/Topic, there is a URI for machines in the format http://dbpedia.org/data/Topic,
which expresses the exact same data. Notice also that all of the properties and many of
their values are links that you can click on. Most of these links are also available in
machine-readable formats, which means that a machine could follow these links repeatedly
to integrate information about Audre Lorde from numerous sources.
Miller and Hillmann, in order to make sense of the semantic (contextual) web, describe
the makeup of the web: semantics, structure, and syntax. Semantics refers to the context
of information and its meaning. The structure encompasses how the information is orga-
nized, and the syntax is how the semantics and structure are communicated. EXtensible
Markup Language (XML) deals with the syntax, and Resource Description Format (RDF)
is what enables the structure. Libraries are best equipped to embrace XML and RDF to
address cataloging and web-based interfaces to share information. It is their responsibil-
ity to utilize traditional models (MARC) and current developments (XML and RDF) to
control their information and provide usable interfaces for patrons. The article is succinct
and straightforward, and the authors’ attempts to decode these swirling acronyms should
be commended. However, from a layperson’s perspective, these are still difficult concepts

11 Miller, E., & Swick, R. (2003). An overview of W3C semantic web activity. Bulletin of the American
Society for Information Science and Technology , 29(4), Retrieved from http://www.asis.org/Bulletin/
Apr-03/millerswick.html
12 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DBpedia

51
Information Organization

to wrap one’s head around. Miller and Hillmann are concerned that libraries’ focus is too
narrow to meet the needs of patrons. Now that the semantic web has greater possibilities,
libraries should include items usually forgotten such as older journals or sound files. This is
very postmodern indeed. As exciting as this is (to see the inclusion of items generally left
out of a library’s domain), I wonder at this feasibility in a public library. How prepared are
public librarians to learn these new languages? Patrons are ready to see their public library
as a resource not just for books and internet access, but are libraries ready to deliver?13

4.7 Knowledge management

Knowledge Management is an outgrowth of data and information management. Increased

competition and a mobile workforce with analytical skills and reduced loyalty to the organi-
zation make the concept of knowledge management and retention, appealing to managers.
Knowledge Management (KM), once the sole domain of the corporate world, is now neces-
sary to many information disciplines. Information professionals need an understanding of
what makes KM effective. This understanding begins with knowledge as an ever-changing
entity, made up of human experiences, emotions, and senses. Scholars have identified
knowledge to include the tacit (internal) and the explicit (manifestations of the internal).
Organizations have developed KM systems to facilitate both tacit and explicit knowledge,
and the sharing of the two, through discussion, training, team-building, etc. The author
contends that (despite critics’ assessment that KM is incapable of a process so subjective and
human) examples abound from the corporate world where KM has maximized profitability,
innovation, etc. Based on these examples, the author stresses principles to guide effective
KM. These include an environment dedicated to valuing individual experience and open
communication as a means to share and learn; using technology to accommodate knowl-
edge (emphasizing currency, accessibility, etc.); and an understanding that KM requires
a rooting in both the tacit and explicit forms of knowledge. The fluidity of knowledge is
well-developed. However, how this evolving knowledge affects KM is illustrated by exam-
ples solely from the realm of corporate organizations. If KM is increasing in scope beyond
the traditional organizations, there is a surprising lack of even anecdotal evidence in new,
information-based environments. The implications given for information professionals are a
rehashing of the models that have served corporations. It is unclear how KM, armed with a
sense of the dynamic and human nature of knowledge, will look different in an information-
based environment. This article would be better served if it distinguished how effective
KM would look, feel, and operate under the expanding information professions versus the
traditional corporate model.14
David Blair contends that early attempts to manage knowledge failed because they at-
tempted to improve or replace human decision making. Knowledge management does not
replace human decision making but facilitates it. Experts are part of the system. The

13 Miller, Eric, and Diane Hillmann. “Libraries and the Future of the Semantic Web: RDF, XML, and
Alphabet Soup.” In Cataloging the Web: Metadata, AACR, and MARC21: ALCTS Papers on Library
Technical Services and Collections. Edited by Wayne Jones, Judith R. Ahronheim, and Josephine Craw-
ford. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2002, 57-64.
14 McInerney, Claire. ”Knowledge Management and the Dynamic Nature of Knowledge.” Journal of the
American Society for Information Science and Technology 53 (2002): 1009:1018.

52
 General issues in information organization

author persuasively argues that data and information management offer limited returns to
an organization and that artificial intelligence projects and systems without human experts
have not proven successful. The author contends that knowledge management requires
“communities of practice,” a culture in which experts share knowledge with novices. Ad-
ditionally, a wide variety of informative media must be available through technology to
support Knowledge Management. Knowledge workers require strong critical thinking skills
and the ability to find and evaluate information from a variety of sources.
The greatest challenges to implementing knowledge management are creating an organiza-
tional culture that facilitates the sharing of knowledge, the treatment of tacit knowledge
and the legal issues concerning the nature of intellectual property. The author contends
that though tacit knowledge may be inexpressible, rules-of-thumb and “best practices,” case
studies of problems and methods of resolution can provide experts with the knowledge to
make informed decisions.
Some aspects of Knowledge Management have already been implemented. The Knowledge
management is one of many emerging information technologies that organizations employ
to remain competitive.15

4.8 General issues in information organization

4.8.1 The politics of information organization

Sanford Berman’s Prejudices and Antipathies

Hope Olson’s The Power to Name

4.9 Notes

1.[1]The principles half-heartedly say in a footnote that ”the word book should be taken to
include other library materials having similar characteristics,” and ”serials and periodicals”
are mentioned once in the document.

4.10 References

15 Blair, David C. “Knowledge Management: Hype, Hope or Help?” Journal of the American Society for
Information Science and Technology 53 (2002): 1019-1028.

53
5 Information Seeking

5.1 Reference services

5.2 Scientific and academic research

Antwerp State University Centre conducted a survey of 3545 scientists which confirmed that
the scientists first consult references at the end of articles in journals and books when staying
informed about their field. Ranked second, Current Contents and the library operated
SDI service were reviewed for paper titles. Abstracting and indexing journals, followed
by personal recommendations, computerized information services, library browsing, theses
and catalogues ranked next. The Antwerp survey was compared to Hakulinen’s findings
which also conclude that for scientific research abstracting and indexing journals are less
important. The so-called information explosion poses the challenge of keeping aware of
new publications and what has been published on a given subject. With the increase in
information, scientists do not read more, but are finding relevancy to their subject area in
a set number of core journals.
The use of computer data bases to scan titles and subjects in a scientist’s field is more
pertinent today than when the article was published. A search across multiple listings
of journals through computer data bases saves time previously spent reading the table of
contents of journals and having to physically retrieve those journals. Academic libraries
are maintaining fewer periodicals in print each year. The findings of the article remain
important in its contribution to bibliometrics specifically regarding where scientists can
find current information in their field.1

5.3 References

1 Van Styvendaele, B.J.H, 1977. University Scientists as Seekers of Information Sources of References to
Periodical Literature. Journal of Librarianship 9:270-277.

55
6 Re-contextualizing Libraries:
Considering Libraries within Their
Communities

After reading this chapter, students should be able to articulate

1. how the concept of third place applies to libraries
2. the difference between information insiders and outsiders
3. how libraries reproduce and combat racism
4. how library policies affect poor people
5. typical outreach services
6. limitations and strengths of rural library services
7. best practices for providing library services to diverse patron groups
8. library advocacy concepts and techniques

6.1 The library as community space

6.1.1 The library as third place

6.2 Library service to specific communities

6.2.1 Economically poor

Berman, S. (2005). Classism in the stacks: libraries and poor people. Counterpoise, 9(3),
51-55.

6.2.2 Information poor

There are two groups when it comes to learning and sharing information: insiders and
outsiders. Insiders are people who are comfortable with society. Outsiders are people who
are more withdrawn from society, and often feel removed from everyone else. Outsiders may
be secretive, deceitful, and/or afraid to take risks. Insiders and outsiders rarely exchange
ideas with each other, because they may be suspicious of each other, and have a difficult
time with trust.
Chatman implemented three studies focusing on three theories (gratification, alienation,
and diffusion). She wanted to figure out why the insiders and outsiders were so different.
She concluded that race and socioeconomic standings played a role. If an individual is forced

57
Re-contextualizing Libraries: Considering Libraries within Their Communities

to not trust others, they will also have a difficult time with trusting information (giving or
receiving).
If people are forced to survive on their own, how can they be expected to embrace ”outside
ideas”? Embarrassment may be a factor for the outsiders too. The last thing they want to
admit is that they may not be as knowledgeable as others. There may be obstacles they
need to focus on that are much more crucial than learning new information.
Many barriers, including physical, economic, and social barriers, prevent or hinder people
from finding the information they need. Many outsiders face a combination of these barriers,
and do not want to try to overcome them just to obtain more information.1

6.2.3 People with disabilities

Imagine having a disability and having no idea what to do. A library can be a wealth
of information. They can connect the disabled person with organizations that can assist
them. The library can also provide books, magazines, videos, products, and other resources
to help the individual live independently. However, not many libraries are equipped with the
information or the knowledge to be effective. A few suggestions to become better informed
are to get on as many mailing lists of as many organizations for people with disabilities
as possible and to use the Internet. Having the information is great, but it needs to be
accessible. Libraries need to have assistive technology, like electronic magnifiers, machines
that read aloud, modified keyboards, page turning devices, and assistive listening devices
in order to serve this population. On top of having the accessible information, outreach
services need to be used to bring people with disabilities into their community’s library.
How could you disagree with this article? After many years working with children with
physical and mental disabilities it is very evident that many libraries don’t offer programs
and services to this population. It is very discouraging. Libraries are willing to bring in
book collections for their culturally diverse populations but not for people with disabilities.
Why doesn’t Dominican offer a course for providing services to people with disabilities?
We offer courses for children and adults. Maybe this topic should be integrated into the
curriculum of existing courses?2

6.2.4 Rural communities

Fulfilling the informational and recreational needs of rural Americans is an important but
challenging task for libraries. Staff creativity has helped counter the effects of budget con-
straints and lack of resources. Librarians can reach many people by meeting with local
clubs and adult education classes. Librarians have an obligation to speak out in the com-
munity and communicate with city government to ask for and offer support. Linda Johnson
wrote a literature review that provides examples of rural library programs that benefit this
underserved population. Outreach services include Books by Mail, bookmobiles, deposit

1 Chatman, E. A. (1996). The impoverished life-world of outsiders. Journal of the American Society for
Information Science, 47(3), 193-206.
2 Klauber, Julie. ”Living Well with a Disability: How Libraries Can Help.” American Libraries 29 (November
1998): 52.

58
 Library service to specific communities

collections, and services to nursing homes, shelters, schools, and to the homebound. Pro-
grams for children offer social interaction and learning and frequently involve parents. There
is also a need to serve youths who receive homeschooling.3
Anne Nelson shared her experiences of growing up in a small town and using its even smaller
library. The library went above and beyond in purposely trying to keep things “safe” and
not controversial to “protect” its community. Anne was looking for her library to challenge
her not shield her from the world and its history. She also believed her library didn’t reach
out to the minority citizens of the community. She was convinced her library needed to
establish itself as a “democratic institution” in order to be able to serve everyone in the
community. As the title of this article states, Anne’s library failed her. 4

6.2.5 Youth services

School and public libraries need to work together in order to provide the most effective
services to the children/young adults of our nation. They are the future of this country and
librarians can and should support their needs for growth and achievement. Libraries and
librarians can help meet those needs in many ways. A few examples are:
1. Provide a positive sense of self worth.
2. Prepare them to use present day technology and to adapt to a changing technological
world.
3. Teach them to think critically in order to solve problems.
4. Guide them in the process in becoming lifelong learners.
5. Prepare them to communicate effectively – to listen, to speak, to read, and to write.
Even though this editorial article was written 16 years ago, it is still something that is
relevant to the current times. It was an eye opener, and extremely helpful to read about all
that is expected and what little assistance you sometimes receive. You would think librarians
would have the resources, staffing, and facilities to effectively carry out this responsibility.
It all comes back to library policies. As a future librarian, it is scary to see all that comes
with the job but not see the support that is needed to perform it. Unfortunately politics
are not something that all librarians want to get involved in. However, it is sometimes
necessary to become an advocate in order to see the children/young adults, the future of
this country, succeed.5
Whether you agree or not with the No Child Left Behind Act, it is here for the duration.
This doesn’t just impact schoolteachers. School librarians play an important role in a
child’s achievements, but it isn’t written out in concrete terms like it is for teachers. It
is the librarian’s job to figure out their role in all of this. They have to become active,
supportive, and a leader. They need to initiate special projects and collaborate with the
schoolteachers and school specialists. They need to become an advocate for the school

3 Johnson, Linda. “The Rural Library: Programs, Services, and Community Coalitions and Networks.”
Rural Libraries 20 (2000): 38-62.
4 Nelson, Anne. “How My Hometown Library Failed Me.” Library Journal 103 (February 1, 1978): 317-319.
5 Matthews, Virginia H., Judith G. Flum, and Karen A. Whitney. ”Kids Need Libraries: School and Public
Libraries Preparing the Youth of Today for the World of Tomorrow,” School Library Journal 36 (April
1990): 33 – 37.

59
Re-contextualizing Libraries: Considering Libraries within Their Communities

library and show everyone that it will assist in improving student achievement and NCLB
scores.
This editorial article brings up a great point that hasn’t been brought up before in the
GSLIS program. The No Child Left Behind Act has an affect on both school libraries
and public libraries. Everyone needs to support all children and their efforts to achieve
greatness. As an early childhood educator and future school librarian, the importance and
necessity of school libraries and children’s/youth departments in public libraries is clearly
evident. It will be part of the job, as a school librarian, to convince everyone else of this
while maintaining effectiveness.6
The relationship between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior by the viewer
has been a major debate for almost 20 years. It is more likely for a child to be aggressive
if he or she is reinforced for his or her aggression or if he or she is the object of aggression.
In many cases, exposure to media violence increases the chance that a child will respond
to frustration with aggression. The following variables may also play a part in the child’s
aggression:
• Intellectual achievement
• Social popularity
• Identification with television characters
• Belief in the realism of television
• Fantasizing about aggression
Parents should intervene when children are watching something too violent on the television
because they provide critical input. Also, it is essential for parents to monitor children
during the pre-adolescent years because that is when the media violence begins to stimulate
the aggressive behavior.
Many individuals may agree with Huesmann’s statements, but it is important to remember
that there are several other factors that can lead to aggression also. Parents should be aware
of their child’s actions, and monitor the aggression. They should model proper behavior too.
There is no concrete evidence that media violence is the main variable for an individual’s
negative behavior, so why aren’t other variables analyzed and discussed regularly too?7

Who has the authority to determine what children read?

Libraries? The ALA and Supreme Court agree that libraries do not act in loco parentis .
Parents?
ALA Supreme Court

6 Whelan, Debra Lau. “A Golden Opportunity.” School Library Journal (January 2004): 40 – 42.
7 Huesmann, L. Rowell, 1986. Psychological Processes Promoting the Relation Between Exposure to Media
Violence and Aggressive Behavior by the Viewer. Journal of Social Issues. 42: 238-243.

60
 Library-community relations

This is one of the ALA’s stances. This is not the supreme court’s idea:*Primary caretakers are entitled to help
of government bodies in fulfilling their duties as caretakers*Supervision of
Quote: children’s materials is best left to parents, but it’s also in the interest of society
Librarians and library governing bodies cannot assume the role of parents (and hence the responsibility of librarians and others) not to have kids reading
or the functions of parental authority in the private relationship between certain things.
parent and child. Librarians and governing bodies should maintain that
only parents and guardians have the right and the responsibility to de-
termine their children’s—and only their children’s—access to library
resources.

The ALA also says that kids have the same privacy rights as adults; what
materials they use cannot be shown to parents. So if the kid doesn’t want to say
what books they’ve been reading, then the parent does not have a right to that
information. This makes it tricky for parents to exercise their responsibility to
determine their children’s access to library resources.

Children?
ALA Supreme Court
This seems to be the ALA’s real stance:* Kids are responsible for selecting The supreme court likes this too, but...* Children’s right to select such materials
which materials they can or cannot read.* Parents can advise (and even advise should be limited, both for the sake of the kid, and for the sake of society.*
with incentives/punishments), but so can anyone else. You can’t remove books from libraries just because you don’t agree with the
views expressed in them. However, you can remove items if they’re obscene, or
otherwise not suitable for kids. School libraries can remove items if they are
”educationally unsound.”

Avoidance of harm argument Restrictions on what kids can read may be harmful, as
might the parent’s knowledge of what the kid is reading (e.g. access to information for
queer teens in rural areas, information about pregnancy for teens).

6.3 Library-community relations

6.3.1 Outreach services

6.3.2 Library advocacy work

6.4 References

61
7 Technology and Libraries: Impacts and
Implications

7.1 Technology and LIS: a historical perspective

Figure 12 A portrait of Vannevar Bush

In his prophetic 1945 article As We May Think , Vannevar Bush envisioned a machine
called a memex , a collective memory machine that would make knowledge more accessible.
The author begins his argument by discussing the growing amount of information in the
world. The increasing amount and complexity of information along with the time gap
between creation and dissemination requires a new technology. Bush’s technology would
focus on greater usability in information retrieval, allowing users to create their own ”sort of
mechanized private file and library”. Through the miniaturization of data using photocells or

63
Technology and Libraries: Impacts and Implications

microfilm, great amounts of information could be stored in very little space. Traditionally
information is stored in index or hierarchical form, but this is not how the brain stores
information. The memex would arrange things associatively, mimicking the way the human
brain stores and contextualizes information.
This memex is remarkably similar to a modern day computer, in that it would be a new
technology designed for personal use that would allow for the creation, storage, and or-
ganization of different materials and data. This is a fascinating article as it explains how
the need of a new way to store, organize and retrieve increasing amounts of data led to
the idea of modern day computers. It is a particularly interesting article in the modern
context, where information and data continue to expand at an exponential rate. What new
technologies and changes in data organization will the future hold? How will libraries adapt
to these changes?1
Technology began to transform libraries in the 1950s with microfilm and in the mid-1960s
with the Xerox machine. Computerized databases were developed in the 1970s and offered
more information and better ways to search and obtain it. Networks such as OCLC and
RLIN made it easier to share resources. Although this article predates widespread use of
the Internet, it is correct in predicting that technology will continue to change the future of
libraries. Technology has allowed greater access to information for more people, but it was
too early for the author to accurately predict the digital divide. He argues that libraries
must innovate to stay alive and that change is happening so quickly that it often appears
”chaotic.” The World Wide Web, however, is often described as chaotic, unorganized, and
confusing, but its benefits greatly outweigh its risks. Because new technology often helps
libraries keep people connected to information, libraries must strive to make sense out of
the technological chaos. The author makes a strong case for businesses’ need to compete
but states that libraries’ structure and rules ”inhibit us from making the kind of innovation
that is needed to compete and survive.” The challenge, he concludes, is not in introducing
new technology but in creating new management structures for libraries. This plan seems
to push libraries toward behaving like businesses, but I think this would restrict access and
introduce new economic, cultural, and political problems.2

7.2 Implementing information technologies in libraries

According to John Bushman, the implementation of information technology requires librar-

ians to ask two basic questions:
• Why is the technology good for libraries, librarians, or the public?
• Where will the technology lead us?
It is the librarian’s duty to ask these questions and become involved in finding the answers.
All technological advances need to be approached critically, with the knowledge that they
may have both social and political consequences. Librarians need to be able to evaluate
technologies to determine whether a given technology will harm or help the library and

1 Bush, Vannevar. “As We May Think.” Atlantic Monthly 176 (July 1945): 101-108.
2 De Gennaro, Richard. ”Technology and Access in an Enterprise Society.” Library Journal 114:6 (1989):
40-43.

64
 Digital libraries and services

its community. Funding, getting the public involved with the change in technology, getting
them to deal with the positive and negative effects of change, and making sure the librarians
are able to handle the pressures are all ways of becoming involved with finding the answers
about information technology and the future of libraries.3

7.3 Digital libraries and services

7.3.1 Digital libraries

The Digital Library Federation looked at what it sees as the major issues regarding digital
libraries in the future. These are the five challenges the organization have outlined: ar-
chitectural and systems in libraries, standards and practices, collection development, how
communities will use a digital library, and long-term access to digital libraries. In terms
of designing and implementing new technology, information sharing about new technology
is vital because few employees in libraries actually manage technological change. Libraries
need to have a plan so adopting technology and training employees and users is a smooth
transition. The library is simultaneously a consumer and supplier of information and needs
to have standards to critique itself. Issues involved in collection development include costs,
copyright and licensing, all facets of computerizing, support services, and the impact on
the rest of the library. How information is presented online can determine whether and to
what extent it is used by the public. The sources of digital information are coming from
all kinds of places and shared resources can help defray costs. Making the decision about
what information to digitize and anticipating the costs of preserving the information is the
last of these challenges.
The digital library service environment is defined as a network online information space in
which users can discover, locate, acquire access to, and increasingly use information. There
is no distinction about the information format. The identity of a digital library is the way
the library discloses, provides access to, and supports the use of its increasingly virtual
collection. Managing, administering, monitoring and ensuring fair use of its collection are
a part of the mix, as well as keeping up with new technologies to support education and
cultural engagement so that the library can evolve and sustain itself. The prospect of a
completely virtual library still seems in the future, but we seem headed in that direction.4
The National Digital Library Program was created by the Library of Congress so libraries,
schools and homes will have access to original documents of American history and culture.
The goal by the year 2000 was to digitize over 5 million items. The challenge is selecting
from over 110 million items and converting to a technological format that will last. Some
funding is coming from private donations. The article is descriptive, informative, but at the
same time unclear about how the selection of information to be digitized was made. The
Library of Congress is a leading repository of information. Is their selection of information
for this digitizing project representative of the body of knowledge that Americans and
world scholars can look to understand what has shaped American history? Should we be

3 Bushman, John. “Asking the Right Questions about Information Technology.” American Libraries 21
(December 1990): 1026 – 1030.
4 Greenstein, Daniel, Fall 2000. “Digital Libraries and Their Challenges.” Library Trends 49: 290-303.

65
Technology and Libraries: Impacts and Implications

questioning whether American history is more important than other cultures that have been
influential in world history? For instance, the book, In Search of the Cradle of Civilization,
(Frawley, et al) places east Indian settlements earlier than Sumerian, Mesopotamian, and
Babylonian societies. India, the largest democracy in the world today, has been ignored by
the rest of the world. Books like In Search of the Cradle can be found at The Theosophical
Society which has been a part of Wheaton’s local history for over 100 years. A part of my
role in the Olcott Library is to apply for a state grant that will digitize important elements
of the collection that contribute to Illinois history.5

7.3.2 Virtual reference

In an effort to reach patrons accessing the library via computers, many libraries and library
consortia offer virtual reference services. These services can be either real-time or offset,
and are offered via email, instant messaging, web form interfaces, SMS, and even virtual
reality games. According to the Reference and User Services Association, ”Virtual reference
is responsive to patrons’ need for convenient access to reference service.” 6
Though virtual reference is a great convenience for library patrons, its implementation
introduces several challenges for traditional libraries. Most individual institutions don’t
have the staffing levels necessary to monitor an IM service regularly enough for the service
be attractive to users. For real-time virtual reference, many libraries are part of chat co-
operatives or consortia, some of which are able to offer reference services 24 hours a day.
However, this does mean that reference workers from other institutions, who may not be as
familiar with the patrons’ home institution’s resources, may not be able to provide services
of as high a quality as the home institution might.
In his introduction to Digital Reference Service in the New Millennium: Planning, Manage-
ment, and Evaluation , R. David Lankes examines the emerging field of digital reference,
how it affects the traditional reference staff and service, and addresses two key issues, ”scal-
ability” and ”ambiguity”.
Lankes makes the argument that the availability and use of digital resources are fundamen-
tally re-defining the role of reference services. According to Lankes, library reference staff
are now becoming ”information brokers”, because of the nature of the digital environment
and changing user expectations. He discusses two issues, scalability (the ability to service
growth), and ambiguity (identifying resources needed to meet user’s needs). He describes
several differing initiatives that have been or could be brought into play to address these is-
sues, both alterations of existing reference practices, and new methods of providing relevant
reference services in a digital age.
His arguments are sound, and pose fundamental questions as to what defines a “Library”
and “Reference Services”, as one would expect in the introductory chapter of a book on
the changing role the digital world plays in the reference field. Some of the questions
and possible solutions, however, seem very radical and unrealistic given the fragmented
standard reference environment based on local libraries, both from a funding and staffing

5 Lamolinara, Guy. “Metamorphosis of a National Treasure.” American Libraries 27 (1996) : 31-33.

6 Reference and User Services Association. ”Guidelines for implementing and maintaining virtual reference
services.” http://www.ala.org/rusa/resources/guidelines/virtrefguidelines

66
 Access to technology

perspective, and assumes that some “entity” (modeled on the private sector) will provide a
more centralized construct more appropriate for the digital age.7

7.4 Access to technology

Gordon Flagg explains how the FCC unanimously passed a new rule on May 7, 1997 that
decreased the charges of telecommunication services to schools and libraries throughout the
nation. The discounts range from 20-90% (the highest percent going to libraries and schools
in low-income, rural, and high-cost communities). In order to raise the $2.25 billion needed
for this plan they increased fees ($1.50 for residential and $3.00 for business) and taxes on
second phone lines.
This decision was praised by the ALA because it allows more schools and libraries to access
the internet where in the based it was too costly to do so. That way everyone has the
opportunity to use this service even if they cannot afford it in their homes. Some experts
feared that this reduction would be difficult to sustain in the long run, because it is such a
big undertaking and that there may be legal challenges they might have to deal with.8

7.5 Physical libraries in a cyber world

Rapidly-deteriorating materials create an urgent need to focus on preservation, particularly

in research libraries. Preservation decisions often fall into two major categories: selection
and medium .
• Problems of selection are best answered by a team of both librarians and scholars, who
employ criteria that is three-fold: collection-, subject-, and usage-based.
• Problems of medium , on the other hand, are more subjective. Microfilm is quite sta-
ble and durable, but access is somewhat limited. Digitization, while alleviating access
problems, poses concerns about cost, instability, and hardware and software change.
Abby Smith advocates a preservation strategy that includes a combination of microfilm
and digital storage. To be sure, funding for this multi-pronged approach is unanswered,
but Smith’s ideas in action will help ensure the selection of a broad scope of scholarly
works for preservation in forms that meet researchers’ needs of integrity and accessibility.
Since the publication of Smith’s article, however, digital storage has gained more potential.
For instance, some problems of cost and changing technology can be mitigated by storing
documents on, say, a one-terabyte hard drive. Drive size has certainly come down in cost
since 1999, and a hard drive will not become obsolete as quickly as many removable formats.
Moreover, accessibility may be benefited by the sheer amount of works that can fit on a

7 Lankes, R. David. “The Foundations of Digital Reference.” In Digital Reference Service in the New
Millennium: Planning, Management, and Evaluation, edited by R. David Lankes, John W. Collins, III,
and Abby S. Kasowitz. New York: Neal-Schuman, 2000.
8 Flagg, Gordon. ”FCC Approves Telecom Subsidies for Libraries, Schools”. American Libraries 28 (Jun/Jul
97); 12.

67
Technology and Libraries: Impacts and Implications

terabyte hard drive. Nonetheless, it is clear that the mediums used for preservation should
be reevaluated as digitization expands.9

7.6 Cost of adoption

Libraries have been transformed and modernized by the application of information technol-
ogy. Users do not have to go to libraries, and have the opportunity to retrieve information
via Internet. Because of all the new technology being introduced to libraries, library ad-
ministrators are forced to break down the budget, in order to make wise decisions when it
comes to long-term benefits for the library. If a library administrator follows a cost struc-
ture model, he/she will have more success determining the direct and indirect costs. Also,
the library administrator will be able to understand the initial and recurring costs within
the life cycle of implied information technologies. It is common for administrators to forget
to include training and other necessary costs, which may hurt their long-term budget. It is
essential for library administrators to analyze each part of the budget, so he/she does not
end up wasting any money.
I agree with the author’s statement about the “bigger picture” when it comes to a budget, and
remembering the significance of keeping up with new technology offered. Chapter five brings
up several great points about the importance of the growth of technology, and the awareness
of people’s right to privacy. Much of society is getting comfortable with technology, and
requires the programs offered. It is the library’s job to provide the programs to the public,
and not go over the budget, while remembering the importance of an individual’s privacy.10
Monetary costs are not the only costs to adopting new technology. Author Nicholson Baker
is a firm believer that adopting new technologies can come at the expense of preserving his-
tory. Libraries around the country, including those at academic institutions, have replaced
many of their card catalogs with online access catalogs. They are throwing out their card
catalogs, sometimes with fanfare. Despite some attempts to preserve data by microfilming
the cards and proofing the new records, information is being lost because of errors and
omissions.
Librarians rapidly adapted to technology to cope with a cataloging crisis caused by growing
numbers of items to process. The author argues that they are overlooking their mission to
preserve books. Instead of being archetype librarians, they want to be seen as technology
specialists.
Author Nicholson Baker contended that disposing of the card catalog was akin to tossing
out history. The notations made on each card over decades, make the card catalog itself
an artifact worthy of preservation. It is ironic that while the goal of libraries is to preserve
information, they are keen to dispose of the catalog, which he sees as more than a finding
aid. With humor, wit and irony Baker described the evolution of the library catalog.
Accession dates, provenance and notes in some catalogs might be of value to scholars, but

9 Smith, Abby. The Future of the Past: Preservation in American Research Libraries. 1999. [Online]
Available at www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub82/pub82text.html. (Accessed January 29, 2006.)
10 Dugan, Robert E., 2002. Information Technology Budgets and Costs: Do You Know What Your Informa-
tion Technology Costs Each Year? Journal of Academic Librarianship. 28: 238-243.

68
 Conclusion: Rutenbeck’s ”Five great challenges”

the nostalgia for well-thumbed faded cards with carefully written notes seems to be Baker’s
primary object.11
Nicholson again critiqued libraries’ adoption of technologies in his 2001 book Double fold:
libraries and the assault on paper , Nicholson Baker presents a strongly-worded critique of
libraries’ digital reproduction of paper materials. In one of his most compelling case studies,
he examines the case of the Syracuse Daily Standard newspaper, which in 1858, claimed
to have been printed on paper ”said to be taken from Egyptian [sic] mummies.” When he
attempted to find the actual newspapers, he discovered that the local public library had
since discarded its paper copies of the newspaper, instead offering a microfilm copy to its
patrons.12
The book, which the New York Times described as a ”blistering and thoroughly idiosyncratic
attack”13 , was strongly criticized by the library community. A major argument against
Baker’s book was that libraries build their collections based on both current and anticipated
use, rather than strictly preserving anything they can. Not every item ever published can
be collected and preserved in its original format, nor will every item ever published be useful
to library patrons, especially if it has disintegrated extensively. A second major argument
against the book was the impracticality of maintaining print items, particularly acidic ones,
on a large scale. A third argument notes that digitization and microfilm tend to enable
more people access to a particular item, as microforms can be shared via Interlibrary Loan
much more feasibly than can decaying print resources, and since digitized materials can
often be shared with anyone who can access the Internet. For a bibliography of reactions
to Baker’s book, see the of Research Library’s exhaustive list14 .

7.7 Conclusion: Rutenbeck’s ”Five great challenges”

According to Jeff Rutenbeck, the continued growth of the digital world presents five major
challenges to its users: malleability, selectivity, exclusivity, vulnerability, and superficiality.

7.7.1 Malleability

Malleability refers to the total impermanence of digital information, from data to pictures
to even people’s identities. Unlike print, digital information can be reconfigured in ways
that print information cannot.

11 Baker, Nicholson. “Discards.” New Yorker (April 4, 1994): 64-86.

12 Baker, N. (2001). Double fold: libraries and the assault on paper. (1st ed.). New York: Random House.
13
UNKNOWN TEMPLATE cite news
Dwight Garner April 15, 2001The Collector http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/04/15/reviews/
010415.15garner.htmlThe New York Times
http://
14 http://www.arl.org/preserv/presresources/Nicolas_Baker.shtml

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Technology and Libraries: Impacts and Implications

7.7.2 Selectivity

Selectivity addresses the preference by users to only consider information available online,
dismissing information available only in print.

7.7.3 Exclusivity

The digital divide comes to the forefront with exclusivity, since new technology is being
introduced constantly, but there is no universal way to bring everyone to the same levels of
competence.

7.7.4 Vulnerability

Vulnerability highlights the inherent problems with our interconnectedness; while we enjoy
the easy and constant flow of information and ideas, at the same time, we leave ourselves
open to security breaches and systems failures.

7.7.5 Superficiality

What I feel is the greatest challenge in the digital age is superficiality. We have access to
so much information, but there is no guarantee that what we see is accurate.

7.7.6 Conclusion

The author identifies the issues clearly, and offers suggestions as to how we can battle these
challenges, but acknowledges that there is no clear cut answer to overcoming any of them.
Most users, including myself, butt against these issues in our personal and business life, and
struggle with how to reconcile them, since, as the author acknowledges, any answer leads
to compromises.15

7.8 References

15 Rutenbeck, Jeff. ”The Five Great Challenges of the Digital Age

70
8 Transcending Boundaries: Global
Issues and Trends

This book will close with a look at librarianship outside the context of the United States and
Canada, and will examine some emerging themes in the field of Librarian and Information
Science.

71
9 Learning More: Free LIS Resources

After reading this chapter, students should be able to articulate

1. the importance of professional development and continuing education
2. barriers to professional development and continuing education
3. a list of prominent open access professional development tools in their area of specialty

9.1 Professional development

9.2 Open access LIS resources

Many LIS resources have restrictive licenses and are only available to people affiliated with
libraries that subscribe to them. This includes many of our discipline’s most well-known
journals. However, there is an increasing number of LIS material available freely online.
Some are free of charge, others are freely licensed, and some, like the LIS Wiki, can be
edited by anyone.

9.3 Reference sources

• Online Dictionary for Library and Information Science1 , by Joan K. Reitz. This is a great
resource, but not freely licensed, so don’t copy it here.
• LIS Wiki2 , a Free compendium that anyone can edit -- licensed under the GNU FDL.
• Talking with other library workers, many of whom love answering questions and mentor-
ing.

9.4 Peer-reviewed Journals

While the major peer-reviewed journals in LIS tend to have some major barriers to access, an
increasing number of journals in our field are freely accessible online. Currently, open access
journals tend to have a more international focus, and also tend to emphasize technology
topics more than traditional U.S. indexes of library publications. You can search a number of
open-access peer-revied journals simultaneously using the http://www.doaj.org Directory
of Open Access Journals3 , which indexes dozens of LIS journals.

1 http://www.abc-clio.com/ODLIS/odlis_A.aspx
2 http://liswiki.org/wiki/Main_Page
3 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%20Directory%20of%20Open%20Access%20Journals

73
Learning More: Free LIS Resources

• code4lib4 is an excellent journal about library tech.

• DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology5
• D-Lib6 -- one of the most well-respected journals in the area of digital libraries.
• Evidence Based Library and Information Practice7
• First Monday8 ”is one of the first openly accessible, peer–reviewed journals on the Internet,
solely devoted to the Internet. Since its start in May 1996, First Monday has published
1,278 papers in 205 issues; these papers were written by 1,714 different authors.” Licensed
under the Creative Commons BY-NC-SA license.
• Information Technology and Libraries9
• In the Library with the Lead Pipe10 -- despite this blog’s humorous title, it provides a
number of peer-reviewed articles with footnoted citations, and is an awesome place to
learn about new ideas in librarianship.
• International Journal of Digital Library Services11
• International Research: Journal of Library and Information Science12
• Journal of Library Innovation13 covers innovative library practices in many forms, ranging
from ”the discovery of unmet user needs” to ”creative collaboration between libraries, or
between libraries and other types of institutions” to ”Implementing new technologies” to
”Explorations of the future of libraries.”
• Journal of the Medical Library Association14
• Library and Information Research15
• Library Philosophy and Practice16
• Library Resources and Technical Services (LRTS)17 is one of the most prestigious journals
in the areas of cataloging and technical services. The American Library Association makes
the entire run of this journal, except for the most recent year, available online.
• Library Student Journal18 -- articles written by LIS students. Note that only the ”Articles”
section, rather than the ”Essays” and ”Opinions” sections, is peer-reviewed. Although this
journal isn’t cited very often, the articles are of a high quality.
• Library Trends19 has been edited by professors at the Graduate School of LIS at the
University of Illinois since 1952. Each issue has its own theme, and the topics it covers
are quite wide-ranging. Illinois’ Institutional Repository makes all issues available online,
except for the two most recent years.
• Partnership: the Canadian Journal of Library and Information Practice and Research20

4 http://journal.code4lib.org/
5 http://publications.drdo.gov.in
6 http://www.dlib.org/
7 http://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/EBLIP/
8 http://firstmonday.org/index
9 http://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/ital/issue/current
10 http://www.inthelibrarywiththeleadpipe.org
11 http://www.ijodls.in
12 http://irjlis.com
13 http://www.libraryinnovation.org/
14 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
15 http://www.lirgjournal.org.uk/
16 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/
17 http://www.ala.org/alcts/resources/lrts/archive
18 http://www.librarystudentjournal.org
19 https://ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/999
20 https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/perj/

74
 Peer-reviewed Journals

• Theological Librarianship21

9.4.1 Non-English

• Journal of Educational Media and Library Sciences22 (Chinese - Taiwan)

• Knjižnica23 (Slovenian)
• Libreas24 (German)

21 https://journal.atla.com/ojs/index.php/theolib
22 http://joemls.dils.tku.edu.tw/
23 http://revija-knjiznica.zbds-zveza.si/
24 http://www.libreas.eu/

75
10 List of Contributors

This textbook began as an experiment by Kate Williams and students at Dominican Uni-
versity library school1 . Here are the members of that class who contributed annotations to
the project:
• Amanda Genge
• Angela Busboom Yackley
• Ann Gass
• Anna Parks
• Corey Bard
• Dana Folkerts
• Gwen Jackson
• Judy Smith
• Kara Bourke
• Katie Sollors
• Perry Bassett
Since then, others have worked on this textbook:
• Jane Sandberg2

1 http://www.dom.edu/gslis
2 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User%3Asandbergja

77
11 Contributors

Edits User
1 AMGass1
12 Adrignola2
1 Courcelles3
5 Darklama4
2 Dfolkerts5
1 Dirk Hünniger6
16 Jguk7
6 Kernigh8
2 Parkanna9
1 QUBot10
8 QuiteUnusual11
274 Sandbergja12
3 Smitjudi13

1 https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php%3ftitle=User:AMGass&action=edit&redlink=1
2 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Adrignola
3 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Courcelles
4 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Darklama
5 https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php%3ftitle=User:Dfolkerts&action=edit&redlink=1
6 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Dirk_H%25C3%25BCnniger
7 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Jguk
8 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Kernigh
9 https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php%3ftitle=User:Parkanna&action=edit&redlink=1
10 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:QUBot
11 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:QuiteUnusual
12 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Sandbergja
13 https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php%3ftitle=User:Smitjudi&action=edit&redlink=1

79
List of Figures

• GFDL: Gnu Free Documentation License. http://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl.

html
• cc-by-sa-3.0: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0 License. http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
• cc-by-sa-2.5: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 2.5 License. http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/
• cc-by-sa-2.0: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 2.0 License. http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/
• cc-by-sa-1.0: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 1.0 License. http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/1.0/
• cc-by-2.0: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 License. http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/2.0/
• cc-by-2.0: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 License. http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en
• cc-by-2.5: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 License. http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en
• cc-by-3.0: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License. http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en
• GPL: GNU General Public License. http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-2.0.txt
• LGPL: GNU Lesser General Public License. http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl.
html
• PD: This image is in the public domain.
• ATTR: The copyright holder of this file allows anyone to use it for any purpose,
provided that the copyright holder is properly attributed. Redistribution, derivative
work, commercial use, and all other use is permitted.
• EURO: This is the common (reverse) face of a euro coin. The copyright on the design
of the common face of the euro coins belongs to the European Commission. Authorised
is reproduction in a format without relief (drawings, paintings, films) provided they
are not detrimental to the image of the euro.
• LFK: Lizenz Freie Kunst. http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/de
• CFR: Copyright free use.

81
List of Figures

• EPL: Eclipse Public License. http://www.eclipse.org/org/documents/epl-v10.

php
Copies of the GPL, the LGPL as well as a GFDL are included in chapter Licenses14 . Please
note that images in the public domain do not require attribution. You may click on the
image numbers in the following table to open the webpage of the images in your webbrower.

14 Chapter 12 on page 85

82
 List of Figures

1 Faebot, Fæ, Hanay, JarektBot, Mike Peel, Mmcannis com-

monswiki, YaCBot
2 O. Von Corven PD
3 sailko15 , sailko16 GFDL
4 AndreasPraefcke, Blahedo, Botev, BurgererSF, Courcelles,
DocentX, Emijrpbot, Hazard-Bot, JarektBot, Mathiasrex,
Polbot, Shalom Alechem, Un1c0s bot commonswiki, Wistula
5 Joel Bradshaw17 , Joel Bradshaw18
6 Original uploader was Bluefoxicy19 at en.wikipedia20 GPL
7 Unknown
8 Jakob Voss GFDL
9 Jakob Voss GFDL
10 Raysonho @ Open Grid Scheduler / Grid Engine21 ,
Raysonho @ Open Grid Scheduler / Grid Engine22
11 W3C
12 Davepape, Docu, Hawkeye7, Hazard-Bot, Hohum, Jarekt-
Bot, Marcok, Ragesoss, SchlurcherBot

15 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Sailko
16 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Sailko
17 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Joel_Bradshaw
18 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Joel_Bradshaw
19 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Bluefoxicy
20 http://en.wikipedia.org
21 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Raysonho
22 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Raysonho

83
12 Licenses

12.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE

Version 3, 29 June 2007 The “Corresponding Source” for a work in object code form means all different server (operated by you or a third party) that supports equiv- your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to no-
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statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PUR- GNU Lesser General Public License instead of this License. But first,
choose that version for the Program. OF SUCH DAMAGES. 17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16. POSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details. please read <http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-not-lgpl.html>.

12.2 GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.3, 3 November 2008 following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title. 9. TERMI-
stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such as ”Acknowl- part of the section titles. * M. Delete any section Entitled ”Endorse- NATION
Copyright © 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, edgements”, ”Dedications”, ”Endorsements”, or ”History”.) To ”Preserve ments”. Such a section may not be included in the Modified Version.
Inc. <http://fsf.org/> the Title” of such a section when you modify the Document means that * N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled ”Endorsements” You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document
it remains a section ”Entitled XYZ” according to this definition. or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section. * O. Preserve any except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt oth-
Warranty Disclaimers. erwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and will
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this
license document, but changing it is not allowed. 0. PREAMBLE The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice automatically terminate your rights under this License.
which states that this License applies to the Document. These War- If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appen-
ranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this dices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other impli- from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, un-
functional and useful document ”free” in the sense of freedom: to as- cation that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of less and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally terminates
sure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or effect on the meaning of this License. 2. VERBATIM COPYING Invariant Sections in the Modified Version’s license notice. These titles your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to no-
without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Sec-
must be distinct from any other section titles. tify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days
ondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to
get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either after the cessation.
modifications made by others. commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the You may add a section Entitled ”Endorsements”, provided it con-
copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies tains nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated
to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no parties—for example, statements of peer review or that the text has permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by
This License is a kind of ”copyleft”, which means that derivative works other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a some reasonable means, this is the first time you have received notice
of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It com- technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copy- standard. of violation of this License (for any work) from that copyright holder,
plements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license ing of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept
designed for free software. and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the
compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough notice.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text,
number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free
of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the
software, because free software needs free documentation: a free pro- You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under
gram should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the you may publicly display copies. 3. COPYING IN QUANTITY (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently
software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals;
already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the same material does
it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on not give you any rights to use it. 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS
whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this Li-
printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, LICENSE
cense principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.
Document’s license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old
1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: one.
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions
Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the
This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such
back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this Li-
that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but
the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title cense give permission to use their names for publicity for or to as-
be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See
with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add sert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version. 5. COMBINING
world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited DOCUMENTS
under the conditions stated herein. The ”Document”, below, refers to to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and
any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
is addressed as ”you”. You accept the license if you copy, modify or respects. You may combine the Document with other documents released under If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
distribute the work in a way requiring permission under copyright law. this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified License ”or any later version” applies to it, you have the option of
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the In- following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, variant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list
A ”Modified Version” of the Document means any work containing the of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license
Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifica- Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version
actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages. notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
tions and/or translated into another language. number of this License, you may choose any version ever published
(not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of this License
A ”Secondary Section” is a named appendix or a front-matter sec- The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transpar- can be used, that proxy’s public statement of acceptance of a version
tion of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
ent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Document.
the publishers or authors of the Document to the Document’s overall copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name
copy a computer-network location from which the general network- 11. RELICENSING
subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
using public has access to download using public-standard network
directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original au-
protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added
a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any thor or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. ”Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site” (or ”MMC Site”) means any
material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably pru-
mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical connec- Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant World Wide Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also
dent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity,
tion with the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial, Sections in the license notice of the combined work. provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those works. A public
to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the
philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them. stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a server. A ”Massive
an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled ”History” Multiauthor Collaboration” (or ”MMC”) contained in the site means
edition to the public. in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled ”His- any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site.
The ”Invariant Sections” are certain Secondary Sections whose titles
are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that tory”; likewise combine any sections Entitled ”Acknowledgements”, and
says that the Document is released under this License. If a section does any sections Entitled ”Dedications”. You must delete all sections En- ”CC-BY-SA” means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be titled ”Endorsements”. 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS 3.0 license published by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-
Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to
designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the profit corporation with a principal place of business in San Francisco,
Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections Document. 4. MODIFICATIONS You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other doc- California, as well as future copyleft versions of that license published
then there are none. uments released under this License, and replace the individual copies by that same organization.
of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document un-
The ”Cover Texts” are certain short passages of text that are listed, as included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this ”Incorporate” means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or
der the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other in part, as part of another Document.
the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may respects.
Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words. and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy An MMC is ”eligible for relicensing” if it is licensed under this License,
of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version: You may extract a single document from such a collection, and dis- and if all works that were first published under this License somewhere
A ”Transparent” copy of the Document means a machine-readable tribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy other than this MMC, and subsequently incorporated in whole or in
copy, represented in a format whose specification is available to the * A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title dis- of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or invariant sections, and
general public, that is suitable for revising the document straightfor- tinct from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document. 7. (2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008.
wardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version if The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in
editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic the original publisher of that version gives permission. * B. List on A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate the site under CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August
translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or 1, 2009, provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing. ADDENDUM:
A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, for authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together distribution medium, is called an ”aggregate” if the copyright resulting How to use this License for your documents
or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage sub- with at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all of its from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the com-
sequent modification by readers is not Transparent. An image format principal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless they release you pilation’s users beyond what the individual works permit. When the
is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy
from this requirement. * C. State on the Title page the name of the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to
that is not ”Transparent” is called ”Opaque”. of the License in the document and put the following copyright and
publisher of the Modified Version, as the publisher. * D. Preserve the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative
license notices just after the title page:
all the copyright notices of the Document. * E. Add an appropriate works of the Document.
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright
ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input for- notices. * F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license Copyright (C) YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to copy,
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU
mat, SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard- notice giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the
conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below. Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version pub-
entire aggregate, the Document’s Cover Texts may be placed on cov- lished by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,
modification. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG, * G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections ers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic
XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can and required Cover Texts given in the Document’s license notice. * no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license
equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise is included in the section entitled ”GNU Free Documentation License”.
be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or H. Include an unaltered copy of this License. * I. Preserve the section they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.
XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally Entitled ”History”, Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at 8. TRANSLATION
available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF pro- least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Ver- If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover
duced by some word processors for output purposes only. sion as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled ”History” Texts, replace the ”with … Texts.” line with this:
in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and pub- Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute
lisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing
The ”Title Page” means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the
such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence. * Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being
J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all
License requires to appear in the title page. For works in formats Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invari- LIST.
which do not have any title page as such, ”Title Page” means the text public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the
network locations given in the Document for previous versions it was ant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the
near the most prominent appearance of the work’s title, preceding the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, pro- If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
beginning of the body of the text. based on. These may be placed in the ”History” section. You may omit
a network location for a work that was published at least four years vided that you also include the original English version of this License combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the sit-
before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a uation.
The ”publisher” means any person or entity that distributes copies of refers to gives permission. * K. For any section Entitled ”Acknowledge- disagreement between the translation and the original version of this
the Document to the public. ments” or ”Dedications”, Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail. If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
in the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor ac- recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of
A section ”Entitled XYZ” means a named subunit of the Document knowledgements and/or dedications given therein. * L. Preserve all If a section in the Document is Entitled ”Acknowledgements”, ”Dedi- free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to per-
whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and cations”, or ”History”, the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title mit their use in free software.
12.3 GNU Lesser General Public License
GNU LESSER GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE The “Corresponding Application Code” for a Combined Work means You may convey a Combined Work under terms of your choice that, You may place library facilities that are a work based on the Library
the object code and/or source code for the Application, including any taken together, effectively do not restrict modification of the portions side by side in a single library together with other library facilities that
Version 3, 29 June 2007 data and utility programs needed for reproducing the Combined Work of the Library contained in the Combined Work and reverse engineer- are not Applications and are not covered by this License, and convey
from the Application, but excluding the System Libraries of the Com- ing for debugging such modifications, if you also do each of the follow- such a combined library under terms of your choice, if you do both of
bined Work. 1. Exception to Section 3 of the GNU GPL. ing: the following:
Copyright © 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. <http://fsf.org/>
You may convey a covered work under sections 3 and 4 of this License * a) Accompany the combined library with a copy of the same work
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this without being bound by section 3 of the GNU GPL. 2. Conveying * a) Give prominent notice with each copy of the Combined Work
license document, but changing it is not allowed. that the Library is used in it and that the Library and its use are based on the Library, uncombined with any other library facilities,
Modified Versions. conveyed under the terms of this License. * b) Give prominent no-
covered by this License. * b) Accompany the Combined Work with a
copy of the GNU GPL and this license document. * c) For a Com- tice with the combined library that part of it is a work based on the
This version of the GNU Lesser General Public License incorporates If you modify a copy of the Library, and, in your modifications, a fa- Library, and explaining where to find the accompanying uncombined
the terms and conditions of version 3 of the GNU General Public Li- bined Work that displays copyright notices during execution, include
cility refers to a function or data to be supplied by an Application that the copyright notice for the Library among these notices, as well as a form of the same work.
cense, supplemented by the additional permissions listed below. 0. uses the facility (other than as an argument passed when the facility
Additional Definitions. reference directing the user to the copies of the GNU GPL and this
is invoked), then you may convey a copy of the modified version: license document. * d) Do one of the following: o 0) Convey the 6. Revised Versions of the GNU Lesser General Public License.
Minimal Corresponding Source under the terms of this License, and
As used herein, “this License” refers to version 3 of the GNU Lesser * a) under this License, provided that you make a good faith effort to the Corresponding Application Code in a form suitable for, and under
General Public License, and the “GNU GPL” refers to version 3 of the ensure that, in the event an Application does not supply the function terms that permit, the user to recombine or relink the Application The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new ver-
GNU General Public License. or data, the facility still operates, and performs whatever part of its with a modified version of the Linked Version to produce a modified sions of the GNU Lesser General Public License from time to time.
purpose remains meaningful, or * b) under the GNU GPL, with none Combined Work, in the manner specified by section 6 of the GNU Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but
“The Library” refers to a covered work governed by this License, other of the additional permissions of this License applicable to that copy. GPL for conveying Corresponding Source. o 1) Use a suitable shared may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.
than an Application or a Combined Work as defined below. library mechanism for linking with the Library. A suitable mechanism
3. Object Code Incorporating Material from Library Header Files. is one that (a) uses at run time a copy of the Library already present Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Library
An “Application” is any work that makes use of an interface provided on the user’s computer system, and (b) will operate properly with a as you received it specifies that a certain numbered version of the GNU
by the Library, but which is not otherwise based on the Library. Defin- The object code form of an Application may incorporate material from modified version of the Library that is interface-compatible with the Lesser General Public License “or any later version” applies to it, you
ing a subclass of a class defined by the Library is deemed a mode of a header file that is part of the Library. You may convey such object Linked Version. * e) Provide Installation Information, but only if you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that
using an interface provided by the Library. code under terms of your choice, provided that, if the incorporated ma- would otherwise be required to provide such information under section published version or of any later version published by the Free Software
terial is not limited to numerical parameters, data structure layouts 6 of the GNU GPL, and only to the extent that such information is Foundation. If the Library as you received it does not specify a version
and accessors, or small macros, inline functions and templates (ten or necessary to install and execute a modified version of the Combined number of the GNU Lesser General Public License, you may choose
A “Combined Work” is a work produced by combining or linking an Work produced by recombining or relinking the Application with a
Application with the Library. The particular version of the Library fewer lines in length), you do both of the following: any version of the GNU Lesser General Public License ever published
modified version of the Linked Version. (If you use option 4d0, the by the Free Software Foundation.
with which the Combined Work was made is also called the “Linked Installation Information must accompany the Minimal Corresponding
Version”. * a) Give prominent notice with each copy of the object code that the Source and Corresponding Application Code. If you use option 4d1,
Library is used in it and that the Library and its use are covered by you must provide the Installation Information in the manner specified If the Library as you received it specifies that a proxy can decide
The “Minimal Corresponding Source” for a Combined Work means the this License. * b) Accompany the object code with a copy of the GNU by section 6 of the GNU GPL for conveying Corresponding Source.) whether future versions of the GNU Lesser General Public License
Corresponding Source for the Combined Work, excluding any source GPL and this license document. shall apply, that proxy’s public statement of acceptance of any ver-
code for portions of the Combined Work that, considered in isolation, sion is permanent authorization for you to choose that version for the
are based on the Application, and not on the Linked Version. 4. Combined Works. 5. Combined Libraries. Library.