Functions of Culture Ethnocentrism

-Enable us to communicate with others - It is a perception that arises from the fact
through a language that cultures, differ and each culture
defines reality differently. Judging another
-Enables us to identify with other people.
culture solely by the values and standards
1.Culture defines situations. of one’s own culture.

-each culture has many subtle cues which Ethnocentrism is the view that one
define each situations. particular ethnic group is somehow
superior to all others.
-One does not know what to do in a
situation until he has defined the situations. Cultural Relativism

2. Culture defines attitudes, values and  The attempt to judge behavior

goals. according to its cultural context. The
principle that an individual person’s
-Each person learns from his/her culture
beliefs and activities should be
what is good, true, and beautiful.
understood by others in terms of that
-Attitudes, values and goals are defined by individual’s own culture.
the culture.
 is the view that all beliefs, customs,
3. Cultures defines myths, legends, and the and ethics are relative to the
supernatural individual within his own social
context.
-Myths and legends are very important
parts of every culture. Example: In Bolivia, 14-year-old girls can
legally get married. In China, men have to
-Culture also provides the individual with a
wait until they're 22.
ready-made view of the universe.
The Cultural Differences Argument
4. Culture provides behavior patterns.
• Theory on the nature of morality
-the individual need not go through painful
trial and error to know what food can be Argument from facts about differences
eaten or how to live among people without between cultural outlooks to making
fear. conclusions about the status of morality.

-Culture lets people find a ready-made set Ex.

of patterns awaiting them which they need
1. Different cultures have different
only to learn and follow.
moral codes
 2. Therefore, there are no objective Those who are xenophobic are so against
truth in morality. Right and wrong the objects and elements of a culture, such
are only matters of opinion, and as clothing or language .
opinions vary from culture to culture.
 2nd - When an entire group is not
Consequences of Accepting Cultural considered part of the society
Relativism
. This type of xenophobia can results
1. We could no longer say that custom hostility and violence on a lower level up to
of other societies are morally inferior greater persecution of the group through
to others. genocide.

2. We could decide whether actions are Culture as Heritage

right or wrong just by consulting the
 - is an expression of the ways of
standards of our society.
living developed by a community
3. The idea of moral progress is called and passed on from generation to
into doubt generation, including customs ,
practices, places, objects, artistic
Xenocentrism and Xenophobia
expressions and values.
 Xenocentrism - refers to preference
Components of cultural heritage
for the foreign. In this sense it the
opposite of ethnocentrism. It is Tangible
characterized by a strong belief that
Refers to physical artefacts produced,
one’s own products, styles, or ideas
maintained and transmitted
are inferior to those which originate
intergenerationally in a society.
elsewhere.
Intangible
 Xenophobia- is the fear of what is
perceived as foreign or strange.  It indicates the practices,
representations, expressions ,
- The origin of the word comes from
knowledge, skills .
the greek for “fear”, “phobos” and
the Greek for ‘Strangers’, “xenus”.  This also includes oral traditions,
performing arts, local knowledge,
Types of Xenophobia
and traditional skills.
 1st- Cultural in nature
Biological and cultural evolution - Survival of the fittest

Biological evolution - refers to the changes, Important sources of information

modifications, and variations in the
- Fossils- refers to the human, plant
genetics and inherited traits
and animal remains that have
Cultural and sociocultural evolution been preserve through time.
- Artefacts- refers to the objects
 changes or development in cultural
that were made and used by
form a simple form to a more
humans.
complex form of human culture.
Hominid
 human adaptation to different
factors like climatic changes and - General term used by scientists to
population increase. categorize the group of early
humans and other humanlike
 Charles Darwin (1809-
creatures that can walk erect
1882)
during the prehistoric time.
 Famous English
Categories of hominid
naturalist and
geologist.  Pre-human stage:

 Concluded that -had both ape like and human like

each species was characteristics.
not created at one
1. Sahelanthropus
time in a fixed
form. 2. Ardipithecus

 He introduced and 3. Australopithecus (most number of

concept of species considered as the first stage)
evolution to
1. Sahelanthropus tchadensis
explain the origins
- Height similar to chimpanzee
of modern
- Brain size 320-380 cubic
humans.
centimetres.
 3 important principles: variation, - Small teeth
heritability, and differential - Had the ability to walk upright
reproductive success.

Natural selection
 2. Ardipithecus ramedus societies produce new forms of
subsistence.

Gerhard Lenski (1924-2015), an American

sociologist, argued that human society
undergoes transformation and evolution
and in the process develops technological
advancement.

- Social as the driver of interaction

HUNTING AND GATHERING SOCIETIES

 This is the oldest and most basic way

Australopethicus or southern ape of economic subsistence. Hunting and
 Almost one third of the human gathering societies produce simple
brain. forms of tools used to hunt for
animals and gather plants and
 Upright vegetation for food.
 Biped  THE MEN are tasked to hunt large
 Too users; not maker animal game like deer, elk, moose,
and other animals available for their
 Used sticks and stones for digging areas.
 Living in small social groups  THE WOMEN are responsible for the
collection of vegetation, berries, and
 Distance of movement was
small edible crops.
estimated to be 15 kilometres
HORTICULTURAL AND PASTORAL SOCIETIES
 Food scavengers
 Horticultural societies developed
 Ate insects, eggs, plants, fruits and
around 10,000 years ago and they are
sometimes meat.
described as semi-sedentary societies
SOCIOCULTURAL AND POLITICAL because they do not frequently move
EVOLUTION as opposed to hunting and gathering
societies.
 The process of sociocultural evolution
explains why human societies change  Pastoral societies developed around
through time. In this process, 10,000 years ago and they are
described as semi-sedentary as well
 because they have settlements but that production “centers on
they do not stay in one place computers and other electronic
permanently. devices that create, process, and
apply ideas and information.
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES AND THE
According to Daniel Bell (1999), an
NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION
American sociologist at Harvard
 Agricultural societies began 5,000 University that these societies are
years ago during the Neolithic Period characterized and introduced the rise
(8000-4000 BCE). During this time, of post-industrial society.
the Neolithic Revolution occurred.
POLITICAL EVOLUTION AND THE
With this major sociocultural and
DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CIVILIZATION
economic development, agricultural
societies started to cultivate wheat,  The development of the early
barley, peas, rice, and millet between civilizations showed the political
8000 and 3500 BCE. During this time, evolution of society. A civilization
humans began to farm and develops because of a society’s highly
domesticate animals. advanced level of culture, social
organization, political developments,
Industrial societies
judicial system, arts, and other forms
 Industrial societies began when the of culture at a particular time.
Industrial Revolution swept through
POLITICAL LEADERS OF EARLY CIVILIZATION
Europe during the late eighteenth
WERE TASKED TO DO THE FOLLOWING:
century and the first half of the
nineteenth century (from 1780s to 1. Craft laws
1850s). During the Industrial
2. Implement laws
Revolution, new sources of energy
were harnessed, advanced forms of 3. Impose justice and punishment
technology were applied, and
4. Collect taxes
machineries were invented.
5. Sometimes act as religious leaders as
Post – industrial societies
well
 With the development of information
Sociocultural Evolution
technology and computers, many
societies transformed into post- • Explains why human societies change
industrial societies. In the post- through time.
industrial era, Macionis (2002) writes
 • Societies produced new forms of Some non-helpful behaviors
technology as a response to the
Advice giving
challenge posed by the environment.
Lecturing
Political Evolution
Excessive questioning
 A civilizations develops because of
society’s highly advanced level of Storytelling
culture, social organization, political
developments, judicial system, arts,
and other forms of culture at a
particular time.

 Political systems of civilizations have

a highly centralized and well
organized form of government whose
leaders are powerful enough to order
the building of massive infrastructure
and implement new policies for
citizens.

DIASS
 3 Goals

a. To help clients gain insights about

themselves
b. To work unstuck issues through a
developmental age not settled in the
past
c. To cope with the stresses of the
society

Methods and Techniques

1. Free association
- To encourage the patient to
discuss in order to release
suppressed emotions
2. Dream analysis
- To explore unconscious processes
using dreams
3. Confrontation and certification
- Feedback procedures for patients
to become aware of what is
happening
4. Interpretation
- Giving insights to the patients
about their inner conflicts

b. Adler’s individual Psychology

- role of cognition in psychological

Methods of Counseling
functioning
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
- gain an understanding of the clients and
- A theory that developed by assess why clients behave and think in
Sigmund Freud. certain ways.
- Analysis of the mind
4 GOALS
- Its objective is to restructure the
personality by resolution of a. Establishment and maintenance of an
intrapsychic conflict. agalitarian relationship
 b. Analysis of client’s lifestyle
c. Interpretation of client’s lifestyle
d. Reorientation and re-education of the
client with accompanying behaviour
change

Phases of ADLARIAN PSYCHOTHERAPY

Establishing the relationship

1. Use of listening skills

- Promote mutrual trust and
respect
2. Winning respect and offering hope
- Increase the client’s motivation
3. Encouragement
- Feeling of support to the clients
4. Lifestyle analysis
- Identify client’s strengths
5. Dream analysis may be used to
conduct lifestyle analysis
- Attempt to deal with difficulties