COURSE

Compiled By
http://hau.ernet.in/coa/agromet.htm
Diwan Singh ! Ram Niwas ! Raj Singh ! Surender S Dhankhar ! ML Khichar !

Dept of Agril Meteorology

CCS Haryana Agril University
Hisar – 125 004, India
July, 2010
 e-Course
Manual
On

Disaster
Management
Compiled By
Diwan Singh
Ram Niwas Raj
Singh
Surender S Dhankhar
ML Khichar

Dept of Agril Meteorology

CCS Haryana Agril University
Hisar – 125 004, India
http://hau.ernet.in/coa/agromet.htm
July, 2010
 Foreword

In present era of financial fragility all around, coupled with the growing
challenges of climate change/variability and environmental degradation, we
must scale up our prevention activities to the most effective way to save
lives and livelihoods and to safeguard development. Looking at the
vulnerability of the nation to various hazards like droughts, floods, cyclones
and other extreme weather events which can be predicted to the more
sudden disasters like earthquakes, landslides and various manmade disasters
which cannot be predicted and are very frequent in the present day world,
now it is high time for us to have an insight into these disasters and get
ourselves prepared to reduce losses. Disaster management deals with and
avoiding both natural and manmade disasters and should be used as daily
work along with establishment and management of local facilities and
resources. There are several principles of disaster management, which
include the right use of resources for the day-to-day purposes, coordination
between various organizations, efforts of individuals, focus of large scale
events, right knowledge of geographical location and nature of the society
etc. In India, there are many areas, which are often affected with natural
calamity or manmade disasters, management of which are now top priority in
universities/institutes of higher education. As a result, the study of disaster
management has been included in recently restructured postgraduate
programs at CCS HAU Hisar.

The unit I of ‘Manual on Disaster Management’ discusses various

natural disasters; their meaning and nature, their types and effects. The unit
II discuss man made Disasters and unit III discuss management of all these
disasters at various levels. They focus various precautionary measures that
one needs to take to get one prepared from various disasters prevalent in
our country and also focus on various structural and non-structural measures
that we need to take to combat such disasters. The course on Disaster
Management aims at having a practical understanding of managing disasters.

I hope this manual will help the PG students who are the future of the
nation and volunteers to be able to cope up with disasters and be better
disaster managers and save many precious lives.

I congratulate Dr Diwan Singh, Professor and Head, Dept of Agril

Meteorology (Nodal Dept for this e-course) and his colleagues in designing
and preparing ‘E-Course Manual on Disaster Management’ compulsory for all
postgraduate programs/disciplines in CCS Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar from academic session of 2010-11 onward.

(OP Toky)
July, 2010 Dean
Post Graduate Studies
CCS HAU Hisar
 Preface

A disaster refers to an extreme disruption of the functioning of a

society that causes widespread human, material, or environmental losses
that exceed the ability of the affected society to cope with alone. The events
like droughts, floods, cyclones, earthquakes by themselves, are not
considered disasters. Rather, they become disasters when they adversely
and seriously affect human life, livelihoods and property. Disaster
management refers to measures taken to prepare for and reduce the effects
of natural as well as man made disasters. Therefore, to predict and—where
possible—prevent them, mitigate their effects on vulnerable populations, and
respond to and effectively cope with their consequences. Early warning and
early action offer concrete ways for doing so, locally and globally. Disaster
management is a continuous and integrated process of wide range of
activities and resources rather than from a distinct sectoral activity. It
requires the contributions of many different areas—ranging from training and
logistics, to health care to institutional development.

We are highly thankful to Dr KS Khokhar, worthy Vice Chancellor, CCS

HAU Hisar for his keen interest and guidance on framing the present e-
course on ‘Disaster Management’ and entrusting the Department of
Agricultural Meteorology the responsibility of nodal department for teaching
the course to all PG students to be admitted in the university w.e.f. current
academic session (2010-11).

The authors are also thankful to Dr OP Toky, Dean, Post Graduate

Studies, CCS HAU Hisar for his guidance and encouragement in preparation
of the manual and writing Foreword. The reference material collected from
various public domain portals for compilation of e-manual is also duefully
acknowledged.

The authors’ earnest hope is that this manual will serve as a useful
reference material for our students in managing natural/man made disasters
in most effective way to save lives and livelihoods to safeguard the
development of the state and the nation.

Diwan Singh
Ram Niwas
Raj Singh
Surender S Dhankhar
ML Khichar
 Contents
Unit # Title (s) Page #
I Natural Disasters 1-24
Meaning and Nature, Types and Effects etc 1-3
Floods, Drought, Cyclone 3-10
Earthquakes, Landslides, Avalanches 11-15
Volcanic Eruptions 15-16
Heat and Cold Waves 16-17
Climatic Change - Global Warming, Sea Level Rise 17-22
Ozone Depletion 22-24
II Man-made Disasters 24-102
Nuclear Disasters, Chemical Disasters, Biological Disasters 24-56
Building Fire, Coal fire, Forest Fire, Oil fire 56-88
Air Pollution, Water Pollution, Industrial Wastewater Pollution 88-95
Deforestation 95-97
Road and Rail Accidents 97-100
Air and Sea Accidents 100-102
III Disaster Management 103-131
Disaster Management System 103-107
National Disaster Management Authority 108-121
National Institute of Disaster Management 122-123
National Disaster Management Framework 123-128
Financial Arrangements 128
National Disaster Response Force 129-130
Challenges in Disaster Management Plan 130-131
International Day for Risk Reduction 131
Suggested Readings and Web Resources 132
PGS-505 (e-Course) Disaster Management

Unit-I
What is disaster?
The term ‗Disaster‘ owes its origin to the French word desastre, which is a combination
of two words ‗des‘ meaning bad and ‗aster‘ meaning star. Thus, the term ‗disaster‘ refers
to ‗Bad or Evil Star‘. In earlier days disasters were considered to be an outcome or
outburst of some unfavorable star.
Disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing
widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses which exceed the ability
of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources.
WHO has defined Disaster as- Any occurrence that causes damage, ecological
disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health services on a scale
sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside the affected community.
What are we talking about?
A Disaster is …
• a sudden calamitous event bringing great damage, loss or destruction Webster
dictionary)
• some rapid, instantaneous or profound impact of the natural environment upon the
socio-economic system" (Alexander, 1993)
• an event, concentrated in time and space, which threatens a society or a relatively
self -sufficient subdivision of a society with major unwanted consequences as a
result of precautions which had hitherto been culturally accepted as unwanted
(Turner, 1976).
• an extreme event as any manifestation of the earth's system (lithosphere,
hydrosphere, biosphere or atmosphere) which differs substantially from the mean
(Alexander, 1993).
• an event that results in death or injury to humans, and damage or loss of valuable
good, such as buildings, communication systems, agricultural land, forest, natural
environment etc.

Types of Disaster

Generally, disasters are of two types – Natural and Manmade. Based on the devastation,
these are further classified into major/minor natural disaster and major/minor manmade
disasters. Some of the disasters are listed below:

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Major natural disasters: Minor natural disasters:

• Flood • Cold wave
• Cyclone • Thunderstorms
• Drought • Heat waves
• Earthquake • Mud slides
• Storm
Major man-made disaster:
• Setting of fires Minor man-made disaster:
• Epidemic • Road / train/ air accidents, riots
• Deforestation • Food poisoning
• Pollution due to prawn cultivation • Industrial disaster/ crisis
• Chemical pollution. • Environmental pollution
• Wars

Risk:
Risk is a measure of the expected losses due to a hazardous event of a particular
magnitude occurring in a given area over a specific time period. Risk is a function of the
probability of particular occurrences and the losses each would cause. The level of risk
depends on:
• Nature of the Hazard
• Vulnerability of the elements which are affected
• Economic value of those elements
Vulnerability: It is defined as ―the extent to which a community, structure, service,
and/or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular
hazard, on account of their nature, construction and proximity to hazardous terrain or a
disaster prone area.‖
Hazards: Hazards are defined as ―Phenomena that pose a threat to people, structures, or
economic assets and which may cause a disaster. They could be either manmade or
naturally occurring in our environment.‖
The extent of damage in a disaster depends on:
1) The impact, intensity and characteristics of the phenomenon and
2) How people, environment and infrastructures are affected by that
phenomenon
This relationship can be written as an equation:

Disaster Risk = Hazard +Vulnerability

Difference between an emergency and a disaster situation

An emergency and a disaster are two different situations:
• An emergency is a situation in which the community is capable of coping. It is a
situation generated by the real or imminent occurrence of an event that requires
immediate attention and that requires immediate attention of emergency resources.
• A disaster is a situation in which the community is incapable of coping. It is a natural
or human-caused event which causes intense negative impacts on people, goods,

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services and/or the environment, exceeding the affected community‘s capability to

respond; therefore the community seeks the assistance of government and
international agencies.
Natural Disasters
A natural disaster is an event caused by natural forces of nature that often has a
significant effect on human populations. Typically the human populations either are
displaced (left homeless) or killed. Natural disasters are the effect of a natural
hazard (e.g. flood, tornado, hurricane, volcanic eruption, earthquake or landslide) that
affects the environment, and leads to financial, environmental and/or human losses.
Natural disasters occur due to the activities of nature:
• Weather disasters occur due to changes in atmospheric conditions
• Land disasters are primarily due to changes in the earth‘s crust. For example
volcanoes and earthquakes.
• Water disasters: often are combination of both at above

Tornado Flood Volcano Eruption

Man made hazard is a threat having an element of human intent, negligence, or error, or
involving a failure of a man-made system. Man-made disasters are disasters resulting
from the same factors.

Chemical disaster Fire

1. Flood: The term ‗flood‘ is a general or temporary condition of partial or complete
inundation of normally dry land areas from overflow of inland or tidal waters or from the
unusual and rapid accumulation or runoff of surface waters from any source.
Flooding and flash flooding are the deadliest of natural disasters. Floodwaters claim
thousands of lives every year and render millions homeless. One of the more frightening
things about flooding is that it can occur nearly anywhere, at any time. It can result from

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excess water jams on rivers, even moderate rain, or a single very heavy downpour as it
occurred in Himachal Pradesh recently.

Floods

Many states in our country are flood prone due to heavy rain or otherwise. The flood
causes loss to human life and wide spread damage to property. Unimaginable damage to
agriculture takes place affecting the States planning and upset the financial budgeting
there by slowing down the whole economy of the country.
People not affected by the flood tend to ignore the event thinking that it does not affect
them so why bother?
Flood is not unique to our country. Floods come in different parts of the world. Floods
are the biggest cause of loss of life every year through out globe. Majority of countries do
not document or map floods methodically. People are generally taken by surprise by the
floods as they may come in the night when every body is asleep, giving very little time
for evacuation. Water remains stag anent after the flood recedes, source of drinking water
get polluted and the food get spoiled. People are left with no resource to combat the
natural calamity that has take place. Floods are ugly part of our system we cannot ignore
or wish them away. The only way to fight the floods is to try to predict the flood, prepare
for it, train and educate people. Identify those areas, which are flood prone.
2. Flash Flood: Flash flood is a rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas -
washes, rivers, dry lakes and basins. Flash flooding occurs when a barrier holding back
water fails or when water falls too quickly on saturated soil or dry soil that has poor
absorption ability.

Flash Flood

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It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a storm, hurricane, or tropical storm or
melt water from ice or snow flowing over ice sheets or snowfields. Flash can also occur
after the collapse of a natural ice or debris dam, or a human structure such as a man-
made dams. Flash floods are distinguished from a regular flood by a timescale less than
six hours.
3. A cloudburst is an extreme form of rainfall, sometimes mixed with hail and thunder,
which normally lasts no longer than a few minutes but is capable of creating flood
conditions. Basically it is an intense and very heavy rain that lasts a relatively short time.

Cloud Burst
The usual reason is that the updraft in the storm initially holds up a lot of the rain and hail,
but after a time the updraft weakens, allowing all this rain and sometimes hail to suddenly
fall to the ground. Cloud bursts are a result of sudden collisions of two or more clouds it
results in a very heavy rain fall (its called so because the rainfall is not expected at that
moment).
Cloudbursts descend from very high clouds, sometimes with tops above 15 kilometers.
Meteorologists say the rain from a cloudburst is usually of the shower type with a fall rate
equal to or greater than 100 mm per hour.
During a cloudburst, more than 2 cm of rain may fall in a few minutes. When there are
instances of cloudbursts, the results can be disastrous. Rapid precipitation
from cumulonimbus clouds is possible due to so called Langmuir precipitation process in
which large droplets can grow rapidly by coagulating with smaller droplets which fall
down slowly.
Record Cloudbursts
Duration Rainfall (mm) Location Date
1 minute 38.10 Barst, Guadeloupe 26 November, 1970
5 minutes 61.72 Port Bells, Panama 29 November, 1911
15 minutes 198.12 Plumb Point, Jamaica 12 May, 1916
20 minutes 205.74 Curtea-de-Arges, Romania 7 July, 1947
40 minutes 234.95 Guinea, Virginia, USA 24 August, 1906

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Cloudbursts in the Indian subcontinent

In the Indian subcontinent, a cloudburst usually occurs when a pregnant monsoon cloud
drifts northwards, from the Bay of Bengal or Arabian Sea across the plains, then onto
the Himalaya and bursts, bringing rainfall as high as 75 mm per hour.
An example was the sudden cloud burst over the Indian city of Mumbai and other regions
of western India, on 26 July 2005, during the 2005 Maharashtra floods. Approximately
950 mm of rainfall was recorded in Mumbai over a span of eight to ten hours; the deluge
completely paralyzed India's largest city and financial centre.
Cloudbursts frequently occur in Himachal Pradesh during the monsoon.
The monsoon rains during July and August put a lot of water into the Himalayan soil. On
5th August, 2010, sudden overnight rains due to cloud burst caused flash floods in the
town of Leh, the administrative center of the mountainous northern Ladakh region that
borders China and Pakistan, killing more than 100 people and leaving hundreds injured.
IMD described it as a ‗disastrous weather event‘ in which ―rate of rainfall may be of the
order of 100 mm per hour.

Many buildings crumbled after sudden rains and flash floods in Ladakh
4. Drought:
Drought Occurs When Human Demand for Water Exceeds the Available Supply
Droughts can be of four kinds:
(i) Meteorological drought: This happens when the actual rainfall in an area is
significantly less than the climatological mean of that area. The country as a whole may
have a normal monsoon, but different meteorological districts and sub-divisions can
have below normal rainfall. The rainfall categories for smaller areas are defined by
their deviation from a meteorological area's normal rainfall-
• Excess: 20 per cent or more above normal
• Normal: 19 per cent above normal - 19 per cent below normal
• Deficient: 20 per cent below normal - 59 per cent below normal
• Scanty: 60 per cent or more below normal
(ii) Hydrological drought: A marked depletion of surface water causing very low stream
flow and drying of lakes, rivers and reservoirs

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(iii) Agricultural drought: Inadequate soil moisture resulting in acute crop stress and
fall in agricultural productivity
(iv) Economic drought: Type of drought when a period of below-average precipitation
of sufficient magnitude to have substantial impacts on the local and regional economy.

Drought consequences
• During the year (2001-02), 19 per cent of India's land area experienced 'moderate
drought' ; 10 per cent suffered 'severe drought'
• Rainfall in July (most important for agriculture) was 49 per cent 'deficient'. The
last time this figure fell below 45 per cent was in 1911
• When there is more than 10 per cent rainfall deficiency, and more than 20 per cent
of the area of the country is under drought, the situation is called "all-India
drought"
• In 2002, rainfall deficiency was 19 and 29 per cent of India was under drought.
Meteorological Sub-Division Rainfall (% below normal)

SEVERE DROUGHT
West Rajasthan -71
East Rajasthan -60

MODERATE DROUGHT -36

Haryana -36
Chandigarh -36
Delhi -36
Punjab -26
Coastal Andhra Pradesh -33
Rayalseema -31
North Interior Karnataka -44
South Interior Karnataka -30
Coastal Karnataka -45
Tamil Nadu -35
Kerala -45
Lakshadweep
Source: Down to Earth, January 15, 2003

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Drought 2000-2001
During the drought of 2000-2001, a total of eight states have fallen foul of the rain
gods. These included Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Chattisgarh, Himachal
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tehri Garhwal districts in Uttaranchal. Some states were in
their second, or third consecutive year of drought.
Frightening figures: States hit by drought
• Chhattisgarh: 10,252 villages in 12 of 16 districts,
9,400,000 people affected.
• Gujarat: 12,240 villages in 22 of 25 districts,
29,100,000 people, 107,00,000 cattle.
• Madhya Pradesh: 22,490 villages in 32 of 45 districts,
12,700,000 people, 8,570,000 cattle.
• Orissa: 15,000 villages in 28 of 30 districts, 11900,000
people, 39900,000 cattle.
• Rajasthan: 31,000 villages in 31 of 32 districts,
33,000,000 people, 39,900,000 cattle.
• Himachal Pradesh: All 12 districts affected, 4600,000
people, 88,000 hectare of crop area.
• Maharashtra: 20,000 villages in 26 of 35 districts,
45,500,000 people, 258,000 cattle.
• Uttaranchal: One district affected.

In the 70 important water reservoirs in India, the storage position is officially

described as the lowest in a decade. Ground water levels have fallen considerably in the
eight drought hit states. In a number of districts, says the nodal agriculture ministry, the
fall in water levels is at the rate of over 2 meters a year- this includes eight districts in
Chattisgarh, 13 in Gujarat, 30 in Madhya Pradesh, 18 in Orissa and 15 in Rajasthan.
5. Cyclone: In meteorology, a cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion rotating

Cyclone Catarina ( March 26, 2004) Cyclone Formation

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in the same direction as the Earth. This is usually characterized by

inward spiraling winds that rotate counter clockwise/anti clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth.
A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a low pressure center and
numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain. A tropical cyclone
feeds on heat released when moist air rises, resulting in condensation of water
vapour contained in the moist air.
The practice of giving storms people's names was introduced by Clement Lindley
Wragge, an Anglo-Australian meteorologist at the end of the 19th century. He used
female names, the names of politicians who had offended him, and names from history
and mythology. During World War II, tropical cyclones were given feminine names,
mainly for the convenience of forecasters and in a somewhat adhoc manner. In
addition, GR Stewart's 1941 novel Storm helped to popularize the concept of giving
names to tropical cyclones.
LIST 1 LIST 2 LIST 3 LIST 4
2001 2002 2003 2004
2005 2006 2007 2008
2009 2010 2011 2012
2013 2014 2015 2016
Northern Indian Ocean Names
LIST 1 LIST 2 LIST 3 LIST 4
Onil Ogni Nisha Giri Jal
Agni Akash Bijli Keila
Hibaru Gonu Aila Thane
Pyarr Yemyin Phyan Murjan
Baaz Sidr Ward Nilam
Fanoos Nargis Laila Mahasen
Mala Abe Bandu Phailin
Mukda Khai Muk Phet

Experience shows that the use of short, distinctive given names in written as well as
spoken communications is quicker and less subject to error than the older more
cumbersome latitude-longitude identification methods. These advantages are especially
important in exchanging detailed storm information between hundreds of widely
scattered stations, coastal bases, and ships at sea.
http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutnames.shtml
Cyclone Nargis (01B): Also known as Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Nargis, was a
strong tropical cyclone that caused the worst natural disaster in the recorded history
of Burma (Myanmar). The cyclone made landfall in the country on May 2, 2008, causing
catastrophic destruction and at least 138,000 fatalities. The Labutta Township alone was
reported to have 80,000 dead, with about 10,000 more deaths in Bogale. There were
around 55,000 people missing and many other deaths were found in other towns and
areas, although the Burmese government's official death toll may have been
underreported, and there have been allegations that they stopped updating the death-toll
after 138,000 to minimize political fallout. The feared 'second wave' of fatalities from
disease and lack of relief efforts never materialized. Damage was estimated at over

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Formed April 27, 2008

Dissipated May 3, 2008
Highest 165 km/h )
winds 215 km/h )
Lowest 962 mbar (hPa;
pressure 28.41 inHg)
Fatalities 138,366 total
Damage $10 billion USD
Areas Bangladesh, Burma,
affected India, Sri Lanka

Cyclone ‘Nargis’ on May 1, 2008

$10 billion (USD), which made it the most damaging cyclone ever recorded in this basin.
6. Anticyclone: An anticyclone (opposite to a cyclone) is a weather phenomenon defined
as ‗A large-scale circulation of winds around a central region of high atmospheric
pressure, clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, counterclockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere‘.
Effects of surface-based anticyclones include clearing skies as well as cooler, drier air.
Fog can also form overnight within a region of higher pressure. Surface anticyclones
form due to downward motion through the troposphere, the atmospheric layer where
weather occurs.

Anti Cyclone Calm weather

Calm weather and dry conditions are the hallmarks of an anticyclone -- a weather
phenomenon which most people probably know better as a "high pressure area." These
zones of generally soothing conditions are created by dry air masses. Dry air is heavier
than a similar volume of wet air, so it tends to sink and compress, forming an area of high
pressure. The fact that that air is sinking means that winds flow outwards from the high
pressure area's center at ground level, where the Earth's surface itself prevents the heavy,

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dry air from sinking any more. These winds spiral outwards in a clockwise direction in
the northern hemisphere and in a counterclockwise pattern in the south, due to the effects
of the earth's spin.
7. Earthquake: An earthquake makes the ground move or shake. Earthquakes are usually
caused when rock underground suddenly breaks along a fault. This sudden release of
energy causes the seismic waves that make the ground shake. When two blocks of rock or
two plates are rubbing against each other, they stick a little. They don't just slide
smoothly; the rocks catch on each other. The rocks are still pushing against each other,
but not moving. After a while, the rocks break because of all the pressure that's built up.
When the rocks break, the earthquake occurs. During the earthquake and afterward, the
plates or blocks of rock start moving, and they continue to move until they get stuck
again. The spot underground where the rock breaks is called the focus of the earthquake.

Earthquake Devastation Global Seismic Risk Map

The place right above the focus (on top of the ground) is called the epicenter of the
earthquake. These natural events can cause massive damage and destruction. The study of
earthquakes is called seismology. The epicenter is the point on the surface where the
earthquake is the strongest. The Richter scale is used to measure the amount of energy
released by the earthquake. The severity of an earthquake runs from 0 to 9 on this scale.
Small tremors occur constantly, but every few months a major earthquake occurs
somewhere in the world. Scientists are researching ways to predict earthquakes, but their
predictions are not always accurate.
Main shock, foreshocks and aftershocks
A large earthquake is generally preceded and followed by many smaller shocks. The
largest earthquake is called the main shock. The smaller ones that precede the main shock
are called foreshocks and the subsequent shocks are called aftershocks.
Earthquake swarms
The earthquake swarms are groups of earthquakes which are concentrated in a certain
region, but none of them is significantly larger than the others.
Seismograph
Seismograph is the instrument for recording motions of the earth‘s surface caused by
seismic waves, as a function of time. The simplest earthquake recording system consists
of a sensor and an analog or digital recorder. The record is known as a seismogram.
Location and magnitude of an earthquake are calculated from seismograms.
Intensity
Intensity is description of the effects of an earthquake at a particular place, based on
observations of damage, using a descriptive scale like the Modified Mercalli Scale. A

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map showing intensities at individual locations may be contoured based on isoseismals,

which are lines of equal intensity. An isoseismal map provides a representation of broad
variations of shaking over the region surrounding the earthquake.
Magnitude
Magnitude is a measure of the size of the earthquake, calculated from the amplitude of
the seismic waves and is closely related to the energy released by the earthquake. If the
magnitude increases by 1, then the energy is about 30 times larger; if it increases by 2,
then the energy is about 900 times. Richter magnitude, surface-wave and body-wave
magnitudes are commonly used to indicate this measure. Duration or coda- magnitude
based on the duration of the seismic signal is also in use.
Hypocentre and epicenter
The place on the earth's surface vertically above the origin of the earthquake and is
identified by geographic coordinates. Where the earthquake began is called the focus of
hypocentre. The focus is the spot where the rock ruptures.

Earthquake’s Epicenter
The MSK (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik) intensity broadly associated with the various
seismic zones is VI (or less), VII, VIII and IX (and above) for Zones 2, 3, 4 and 5,
respectively, corresponding to Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE).
Zone 5: It covers the areas with the highest risk zone that suffers earthquakes of
intensity MSK IX or greater. The state of Kashmir, Punjab, the western and central
Himalayas, the North-East Indian region and the Rann of Kutch fall in this zone.
Zone 4: This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable to MSK
VIII. The Indo-Gangetic basin and the capital of the country (Delhi, Jammu)and Bihar
fall in Zone 4.
Delhi prone areas - The areas which are near to Yamuna bank are very much prone to the
earthquake. East delhi is the most earthquake prone area. Some areas are- Shahdara,
Mayur Vihar - I, II, III, Laxmi Nagar and nearby areas, Gurgaon, Rewari, NOIDA.
Zone 3: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of Kashmir, Western Himalayas fall
under this zone. This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to
MSK VII.
Zone 2: This region is liable to MSK VI or less and is classified as the Low Damage Risk
Zone.

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India’s major Earthquake Seismic Zonation map of India

8. Landslide: Landslide is defined as the mass movement of rock, debris or earth down a
slope and have come to include a broad range of motions whereby falling, sliding and
flowing under the influence of gravity remove earth material. They often take place in
combination with earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. At times, prolonged rainfall causing
heavy blockade of the flow or river for quite some time. The formation of river blocks
can cause havoc to the settlements downstream on it's bursting.
In the hilly terrain of India including the Himalayas, landslides have been a major and
widely spread natural disaster the often strike life and property and occupy a position of
major concern.

Land slide

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One of the worst tragedies took place at Malpa Uttarkhand on 11th and 17th August 1998
when nearly 380 people were killed when massive landslides washed away the entire
village. This included 60 pilgrims going to Lake Mansarovar in Tibet. Consequently
various land reform measures have been initiated as mitigation measures.
The two regions most vulnerable to landslides are the Himalayas and the Western Ghats.
The Himalayas mountain belt comprise of tectonically unstable younger geological
formations subjected to severe seismic activity. The Western Ghats and nilgiris are
geologically stable but have uplifted plateau margins influenced by neo- tectonic activity.
Compared to Western Ghats region, the slides in the Himalayas region are huge and
massive and in most cases the overburden along with the underlying litho logy is
displaced during sliding particularly due to the seismic factor.
Causes of Landslides
Landslides can be caused by poor ground conditions, geomorphic phenomena, and
natural physical forces and quite often due to heavy spells of rainfall coupled with
impeded drainage.
Ground Causes: May be due to Weak, sensitivity, or weathered materials, adverse
ground structure (joints, fissures etc.), physical property variation (permeability,
plasticity etc)
Morphological Causes: Ground uplift (volcanic, tectonic etc), Erosion (wind, water) etc,
Vegetation removal (by forest fire, drought etc)
Physical Causes: Prolonged precipitation, Rapid draw- down, Earthquake, Volcanic
eruption, Thawing, Shrink and swell, Artesian pressure (mud slides, Leh, Palampur
9. Mudslide: A mudslide is the most rapid (up to 80 km/h, or 50 mph) and fluid type of
downhill mass wasting. It is a rapid movement of a large mass ofmud formed from
loose soil and water. Similar terms are mudflow, mud stream, debris flow. Heavy
rainfall, snowmelt, or high levels of ground water flowing through cracked bedrock may
trigger a movement of soil or sediments. Floods, debris- and mud flows may also occur
when strong rains on hill or mountain slopes cause extensive erosion.
Avalanches,
10. Avalanche: An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a slope, from either natural

Avalanche in the Himalayas near Mount Everest

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triggers or human activity. Typically occurring in mountainous terrain, an avalanche can

mix air and water with the descending snow. Powerful avalanches have the capability to
entrain ice, rocks, trees, and other material on the slope. Avalanches are primarily
composed of flowing snow, and are distinct from mudslides, rock slides etc and collapses
on an icefall. In mountainous terrain avalanches are among the most serious objective
hazards to life and property, with their destructive capability resulting from their potential
to carry an enormous mass of snow rapidly over large distances.
11. Volcanic eruptions: A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet's surface
or crust, which allows hot magma, ash and gases to escape from below the surface.
Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging.
An eruption begins when pressure on a magma chamber forces magma up through
the conduit and out the volcano's vents. When the magma chamber has been completely
filled, the type of eruption partly depends on the amount of gases and silica in the
magma. The amount of silica determines how sticky (level of viscosity) the magma is
and water provides the explosive potential of steam.
The way volcanoes erupt usually takes a long time. First a volcano makes something
called magma from melted rock. The magma goes through a circulation. It has to form
at the bottom of the volcano and then start its way up the main vent. The main vent is a
hole that is in the volcano and when the volcano is ready to erupt the lava is at the top of
the main vent. The magma goes up the main vent slowly while it is still getting
hotter. When the magma is about half way up the main vent it turns into lava. Lava is a
very hot liquid which burns the remaining rocks from the magma. The lava slowly
continues up the main vent. While going up the lava continues to get hotter and hotter.
Ash and rocks are collected and the lava is getting hotter and hotter while the lava is
continuing its way up the main vent. When the lava is at the top of the main vent the

Volcanic Injection

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volcano erupts. The lava blasts out of the volcano along with ash, rocks, and a cloud of
dust that is very thick. The ash and rock crumble to the ground, but the lava is either
moving down the volcano side very slowly or at a high speed. The lava burns down
almost everything in its way, and it sometimes leaves bits of things burning. The lava
from the volcano can cool fast, or sometimes the lava will slowly cool down from its
intense heat. Lava that cools slowly forms igneous rocks. There are many types of
igneous rocks. Volcanoes can damage themselves in the explosion. A volcano literally
blows its top off. One of the volcanoes that has blown its top from an explosion is Mt. St.
Helens. Mt. St. Helens has erupted more than once. Volcanoes can be under water or on
land. Volcanoes that are under water take a longer time than if they are on land because
they are under water the water slows down the magma and lava but if the volcano is on
land the lava and magma can move quicker up the main vent. It just depends on the
environment how fast the volcano can make the magma the magma makes lava and the
volcano makes an explosion. If the volcano is under water the cooled lava will probably
make an island. The Hawaiian Islands is an example of island made by a chain of
volcanoes. Now go back to the front page of our site and go to a different page on our
site and of course be prepared to learn more about volcanoes.
There are active, dormant, and extinct volcanoes in India viz., Barren Island (erupted in
2009), Baratang (erupted in 2005) and Narcondam in Andaman Islands.
12 Heat wave: A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather, which
may be accompanied by high humidity. There is no universal definition of a heat
wave; the term is relative to the usual weather in the area. Temperatures that people from
a hotter climate consider normal can be termed a heat wave in a cooler area if they are
outside the normal climate pattern for that area.
The definition recommended by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is when
the daily maximum temperature of more than five consecutive days exceeds the average
maximum temperature by 50C, the normal period being 1961–1990.
In the Netherlands, a heat wave is defined as period of at least 5 consecutive days in
which the maximum temperature in De Bilt exceeds 25°C, provided that on at least 3
days in this period the maximum temperature in De Bilt exceeds 30°C. Same criteria of
heat wave are also used in Belgium and Luxembourg.
In the summer in warm climates, an area of high pressure with little or no rain or clouds,
the air and ground easily heats to excess. A static high pressure area can impose a very
persistent heat wave.

European Heat Wave 2003

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In India, a scorching heat wave swept most parts of North India around 20th June 2010
with high humidity posing problems for citizens as Phalodi in Rajasthan baked at 46.5 °C.
In the desert State of Rajasthan, the temperature crossed the 45°C mark at many places.
Phalodi was the hottest place at 46.5°C followed by Kota at 46.3°C. Sriganganagar,
Barmer and Churu recorded a maximum of 46.2, 46 and 45.9°C, respectively while the
high in Jaisalmer and Jodhpur settled at 45°C each. The heat wave also gripped Haryana,
Punjab and the Union Territory of Chandigarh as Hisar was hottest in the region at
45.8°C, 5°C above normal.
Climate change promises to bring with it longer, hotter summers to many places on the
planet. The June, 2010 turned out to be the fourth-hottest month ever recorded globally.
With more heat waves on the horizon, the risk of heat-related health problems increased
many fold. These heat waves may cause exhaustion, a relatively common reaction to
severe heat and can include symptoms such as dizziness, headache and fainting. Heat
stroke is more severe and requires medical attention—it is often accompanied by dry skin,
a body temperature above 103°F, confusion and sometimes unconsciousness and may
prove fatal.
13. Cold wave: A cold wave is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by a cooling
of the air. A cold wave is a rapid fall in temperature within a 24 hour period requiring
substantially increased protection to agriculture, industry, commerce, and social activities.
The precise criterion for a cold wave is determined by the rate at which the temperature
falls, and the minimum to which it falls. This minimum temperature is dependent on the
geographical region and time of year.
Effects: A cold wave can cause death and injury to livestock and wildlife. Exposure to
cold mandates greater caloric intake for all animals, including humans, and if a cold wave
is accompanied by heavy and persistent snow, grazing animals may be unable to reach
needed food and die of hypothermia or starvation. They often necessitate the purchase of
foodstuffs at considerable cost to farmers to feed livestock.
Extreme winter cold often causes poorly insulated water pipelines and mains to freeze.
Even some poorly-protected indoor plumbing ruptures as water expands within them,
causing much damage to property and costly insurance claims. Demand for electrical
power and fuels rises dramatically during such times, even though the generation of
electrical power may fail due to the freezing of water necessary for the generation
of hydroelectricity. Some metals may become fragile at low temperatures. Motor vehicles
may fail as antifreeze fails and motor oil gels, resulting even in the failure of the
transportation system.
14. Climatic Change: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution
of weather over periods of time that range from decades to millions of years. It can be a
change in the average weather or a change in the distribution of weather events around an
average (for example, greater or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change may be
limited to a specific region, or may occur across the whole Earth.
The term sometimes is used to refer specifically to climate change caused by human
activity; for example, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCC) defines climate change as "a change of climate which is attributed directly or
indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and
which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time
periods." In the latter sense climate change is synonymous with global warming.

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Human influences
Anthropogenic factors are human activities that change the environment. Various
hypotheses for human-induced climate change have been argued for many years.
Presently the scientific consensus on climate change is that human activity is very likely
the cause for the rapid increase in global average temperatures over the past several
decades. Consequently, the debate has largely shifted onto ways to reduce further human
impact and to find ways to adapt to change that has already occurred.
Of most concern in these anthropogenic factors is the increase in CO2 levels due to
emissions from fossil fuel combustion, followed by aerosols (particulate matter in the
atmosphere) and cement manufacture. Other factors, including land use, ozone depletion,
animal agriculture and deforestation, are also of concern in the roles they play - both
separately and in conjunction with other factors - in affecting climate, microclimate, and
measures of climate variables.
15. Global warming: Global warming is the increase in the average
temperature of Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid 20th century and its
projected continuation. According to the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report by
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global surface temperature
increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C during the 20th century. Most of the observed temperature
increase since the middle of the 20th century was caused by increasing concentrations
of greenhouse gases, which results from human activity such as the burning of fossil
fuel and deforestation. Global dimming, a result of increasing concentrations of
atmospheric aerosols that block sunlight from reaching the surface, has partially
countered the effects of greenhouse gas induced warming.
Climate model projections summarized in the latest IPCC report indicate that the
global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 6.4°C during the 21st century.
The uncertainty in this estimate arises from the use of models with differing sensitivity to
greenhouse gas concentrations and the use of differing estimates of future greenhouse gas
emissions. An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change

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Earth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. These layers are
mainly determined by whether temperature increases or decreases with
altitude. From highest to lowest, these layers are:
Exosphere: The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere extends from the
exobase upward. Here the particles are so far apart that they can travel
hundreds of kilometres without colliding with one another. The exosphere
is mainly composed of hydrogen and helium.
Thermosphere: Temperature increases with height in the thermosphere
from the mesopause up to the thermopause, then is constant with height.
The temperature of this layer can rise to 1500°C, though the gas molecules
are so far apart that temperature in the usual sense is not well defined.
Mesosphere: The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to 80–85 km. It
is the layer where most meteors burn up upon entering the atmosphere.
Temperature decreases with height in the mesosphere. The mesopause, the
temperature minimum that marks the top of the mesosphere, is the coldest
place on Earth and has an average temperature around −85°C.
Stratosphere: The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to about
51 km. Temperature increases with height, which restricts turbulence and
mixing. The stratopause, which is the boundary between the stratosphere
and mesosphere, typically is at 50-55 km.
Troposphere: The troposphere begins at the surface and extends to between
7 km at poles and 17 km at equator. The troposphere is mostly heated by
transfer of energy from the surface, so on average the lowest part of the
troposphere is warmest and temperature decreases with altitude.
Dry air contains roughly (by volume) 78.09% Nitrogen, 20.95% Oxygen,
0.93% Argon, 0.039% Carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases.
Air also contains a variable amount of Water vapor, on average around
1%.

Atmosphere structure

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Mean CO2 level at Mauna Loa

the amount and pattern of precipitation, probably including expansion

of subtropical deserts. Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be
associated with continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects
include changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, species
extinction , and changes in agricultural yields. Warming and related changes will vary
from region to region around the globe, though the nature of these regional variations is
uncertain. Another major worldwide concomitant of global warming, and one which is
presently happening as well as being predicted to continue, is ocean acidification, which
is likewise a result of contemporary increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide.

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16. Sea Level rise: Current sea level rise has occurred at a mean rate of 1.8 mm per year
for the past century, and more recently, during the satellite era of sea level measurement,
at rates estimated near 2.8 ± 0.4 to 3.1 ± 0.7 mm per year (1993–2003). Current sea level

Sea level projections

rise is due significantly to global warming which will increase sea level over the coming
century and longer periods. Increasing temperatures result in sea level rise by the thermal
expansion of water and through the addition of water to the oceans from the melting of
mountain glaciers, ice caps and ice sheets. At the end of the 20th century, thermal
expansion and melting of land ice contributed roughly equally to sea level rise, while
thermal expansion is expected to contribute more than half of the rise in the upcoming
century. Values for predicted sea level rise over the course of this century typically range
from 90 to 880 mm, with a central value of 480 mm. Models of glacier mass balance (the
difference between melting and accumulation of snow and ice on a glacier) give a
theoretical maximum value for sea level rise in the current century of 2 meters based on
limitations on how quickly glaciers can melt.
17. Tsunami: A tsunami (Japanese word) tidal
wave is a series of water waves (called a tsunami
wave train caused by the displacement of a large
volume of a body of water,

Tsunami waves

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usually an ocean, but can occur in large lakes. Tsunamis are a frequent occurrence in
Japan. Due to the immense volumes of water and energy involved, tsunamis can
devastate coastal regions. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater
explosions (including detonations of underwater nuclear devices), landslides and
other mass movements meteorite ocean impacts or similar impact events, and other
disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.
18. Ozone Depletion: Ozone depletion describes two distinct, but related observations: a
slow, steady decline of about 4%/decade in the total volume
of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer) since the late 1970s, and a much larger,
but seasonal, decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar regions during the same
period. The latter phenomenon is commonly referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to
this well-known stratospheric ozone depletion, there are also tropospheric ozone
depletion events, which occur near the surface in polar regions during spring.
The detailed mechanism by which the polar ozone holes form is different from that for
the mid-latitude thinning, but the most important process in both trends
is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic chlorine and bromine. The main source of
these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
compounds, commonly called freons, and of bromofluorocarbon compounds known
as halons. These compounds are transported into the stratosphere after being emitted at
the surface. Both ozone depletion mechanisms strengthened as emissions of CFCs and
halons increased.
CFCs and other contributory substances are commonly referred as ozone-depleting
substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (270–
315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's
atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide
concern leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs &

Ozone depletion

halons as well as related ozone depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and
trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases
in skin cancer, cataracts damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the
ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.

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19. Climate change and India

Precisely at a time when India is confronted with development imperatives, we will also
be severely impacted by climate change. Like other developing countries, several
sections of the Indian populace will not be able to buffer themselves from impacts of
global warming. With close economic ties to natural resources and climate-sensitive
sectors such as agriculture, water and forestry, India may face a major threat and require
serious adaptive capacity to combat climate change. As a developing country, India can
little afford the risks and economic backlashes that industrialized nations can. With
27.5% of the population still below the poverty line, reducing vulnerability to the impacts
of climate change is essential.
It is in India‘s interest to ensure that the world moves towards a low carbon future. Many
studies have underscored the nation‘s vulnerability to climate change. With changes in
key climate variables, namely temperature, precipitation and humidity, crucial sectors
like agriculture and rural development are likely to be affected in a major way.
Impacts are already being seen in unprecedented heat waves, cyclones, floods,
salinisation of the coastline and effects on agriculture, fisheries and health8.
India is home to a third of the world‘s poor, and climate change will hit this section of
society the hardest. Set to be the most populous nation in the world by 2045, the
economic, social and ecological price of climate change will be massive.

Climate Change Projections in India

The future impacts of climate change, identified by the Government of India‘s National
Communications (NATCOM) in 2004 include:
• Decreased snow cover, affecting snow-fed and glacial systems such as the Ganges
and Bramhaputra. 70% of the summer flow of the Ganges comes from meltwater
• Erratic monsoon with serious effects on rain-fed agriculture, peninsular rivers,
water and power supply
• Drop in wheat production by 4-5 million tones, with even a 1ºC rise in
temperature

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• Rising sea levels causing displacement along one of the most densely populated
coastlines in the world, threatened freshwater sources and mangrove ecosystems
• Increased frequency and intensity of floods. Increased vulnerability of people in
coastal, arid and semi-arid zones of the country
• Studies indicate that over 50% of India‘s forests are likely to experience shift in
forest types, adversely impacting associated biodiversity, regional climate
dynamics as well as livelihoods based on forest products.
Unit-II
Man-made Disasters
Disastrous event caused directly and principally by one or more identifiable deliberate or
negligent human actions, also called human-made disaster. Man made disasters cover a
wide range of events created largely due to accidents, negligence or sometimes even by
human design, which result in huge loss of lives and property every year in South Asia.
These include road, rail, river, marine and aviation accidents, oil spill, building and
bridge collapse, bomb blast, industrial and chemical accidents etc. These also include the
threats of nuclear, biological and chemical disasters.
Nuclear disasters
Nuclear Threat: Nuclear threats are differentiated between military (caused by
belligerent actions or civil war) and non- military causes.
Uranium mining and processing:

Front end: Uranium tailings

Uranium mining and milling and radon gas

Deaths of Navajo
miners since 1950s

Uranium enrichment
• U-235
– Fissionable at 3%
– Weapons grade at 90%

• U-238
– More stable

• Plutonium-239
– Created from U-238; highly radioactive

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Risks of enrichment
Radioactivity of plutonium
and fuel fabrication
Life span of least • Largest industrial users of water, electricity
240,000 years – Paducah, KY, Oak Ridge, TN, Portsmouth, OH

Last Ice Age glaciation • Cancers and leukemia among workers

was 10,000 years ago – Fires and mass exposure.
– Karen Silkwood at Oklahoma fabrication plant.
Neanderthal Man died out
30,000 years ago • Risk of theft of bomb material.

Risk of terrorism
(new challenge to industry)
Back end: Radioactive wastes
9/11 jet • Low-level wastes in commercial facilities
passed near
Indian Point
• Spent fuel in pools or ―dry casks‖ by plants

• Nuclear lab wastes

– Hanford wastes leaked radiation into Columbia River

• High-level underground repository

– Yucca Mountain in Nevada to 2037
– Wolf River Batholith in Wisconsin after 2037?
– Risks of cracks in bedrock, water seepage

Transportation
Radioactive Waste Recycling
risks
• Disposal of radioactive waste from nuclear power
plants and weapons facilities by recycling it into
• Uranium oxide spills household products.

• Fuel rod spills (WI 1981) • In 1996, 15,000 tons of metal were received by the
Association of Radioactive Metal Recyclers .
Much was recycled into products without
• Radioactive waste risks consumer knowledge.

• Depleted Uranium munitions for military.

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Summary
• Nuclear energy has no typical pollutants or
greenhouse gasses

• Nuclear waste contains high levels of radioactive

waste, which are active for hundreds of thousands
of years.

• The controversy around nuclear energy stems

from all parts of the nuclear chain.

Non-military causes
• accidents due to negligent handling or transportation of radioactive material
• accidents due to technical failure in industrial, scientific or medical facilities
• breakdown and crash of orbital satellites with nuclear inventory
• accidents in nuclear power stations, nuclear reconditioning plants and
reconditioning points for nuclear fuel assembly
• of radioactive substances due to terrorism
• nuclear power station accidents due to natural hazards (earthquake) or aeroplane-
crash
• improper storage of nuclear waste material
Military causes
• nuclear power station disasters caused by military operations
• liberation of radioactive material after accidents with nuclear weapon-systems
• detonation of nuclear strategic and tactical weapons
The implications of nuclear disasters are varied depending on the actual event and kind
of liberated radioactive isotopes. Comparing explosions of nuclear weapons with
atomic-reactor accidents one identifies different fall-out characteristics and therefore
different assault-potential. Decontamination measures must be tailored accordingly.
Possible effects:
• contamination/death of large parts of the population and long term effects due to
incorporation of radioactive material (fall-out)
• contamination of land, especially densely populated and agricultural regions
• contamination of food and drinking water
• necessary evacuations or population movements
• devastation and contamination of infrastructure
• area conflagration

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Effects of Nuclear Weapons

The effects of nuclear weapons are classified as either initial or residual. Initial effects
occur in the immediate area of the explosion and are hazardous in the first minute after
the explosion. Residual effects can last for days or years and cause death. The principal
initial effects are blast and radiation.
Blast
Defined as the brief and rapid movement of air away from the explosion's center and the
pressure accompanying this movement. Strong winds accompany the blast. Blast hurls
debris and personnel, collapses lungs, ruptures eardrums, collapses structures and
positions, and causes immediate death or injury with its crushing effect.
Thermal Radiation
The heat and light radiation a nuclear explosion's fireball emits. Light radiation consists
of both visible light and ultraviolet and infrared light. Thermal radiation produces
extensive fires, skin burns, and flash blindness.
Nuclear Radiation
Nuclear radiation breaks down into two categories-initial radiation and residual radiation.
Initial nuclear radiation consists of intense gamma rays and neutrons produced during the
first minute after the explosion. This radiation causes extensive damage to cells
throughout the body. Radiation damage may cause headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
and even death, depending on the radiation dose received. The major problem in
protecting yourself against the initial radiation's effects is that you may have received a
lethal or incapacitating dose before taking any protective action. Personnel exposed to
lethal amounts of initial radiation may well have been killed or fatally injured by blast or
thermal radiation.
Residual radiation consists of all radiation produced after one minute from the explosion.
It has more effect on you than initial radiation. A discussion of residual radiation takes
place in a subsequent paragraph.
Types of Nuclear Bursts
There are three types of nuclear bursts—airburst, surface burst, and subsurface burst. The
type of burst directly affects your chances of survival. A subsurface burst occurs
completely underground or underwater. Its effects remain beneath the surface or in the
immediate area where the surface collapses into a crater over the burst's location.
Subsurface bursts cause you little or no radioactive hazard unless you enter the
immediate area of the crater. No further discussion of this type of burst will take place.
An airburst occurs in the air above its intended target. The airburst provides the
maximum radiation effect on the target and is, therefore, most dangerous to you in terms
of immediate nuclear effects.
A surface burst occurs on the ground or water surface. Large amounts of fallout result,
with serious long-term effects for you. This type of burst is your greatest nuclear
hazard.
Nuclear Injuries
Most injuries in the nuclear environment result from the initial nuclear effects of the
detonation. These injuries are classed as blast, thermal, or radiation injuries. Further
radiation injuries may occur if you do not take proper precautions against fallout.
Individuals in the area near a nuclear explosion will probably suffer a combination of all
three types of injuries.

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Blast Injuries
Blast injuries produced by nuclear weapons are similar to those caused by conventional
high-explosive weapons. Blast overpressure can produce collapsed lungs and ruptured
internal organs. Projectile wounds occur as the explosion's force hurls debris at you.
Large pieces of debris striking you will cause fractured limbs or massive internal injuries.
Blast over-pressure may throw you long distances, and you will suffer severe injury upon
impact with the ground or other objects. Substantial cover and distance from the
explosion are the best protection against blast injury. Cover blast injury wounds as soon
as possible to prevent the entry of radioactive dust particles.
Thermal Injuries
The heat and light the nuclear fireball emits causes thermal injuries. First-, second-, or
third-degree burns may result. Flash blindness also occurs. This blindness may be
permanent or temporary depending on the degree of exposure of the eyes. Substantial
cover and distance from the explosion can prevent thermal injuries. Clothing will provide
significant protection against thermal injuries. Cover as much exposed skin as possible
before a nuclear explosion. First aid for thermal injuries is the same as first aid for burns.
Cover open burns (second-or third-degree) to prevent the entry of radioactive particles.
Wash all burns before covering.
Radiation Injuries
Neutrons, gamma radiation, alpha radiation, and beta radiation cause radiation injuries.
Neutrons are high-speed, extremely penetrating particles that actually smash cells within
your body. Gamma radiation is similar to X rays and is also a highly penetrating radiation.
During the initial fireball stage of a nuclear detonation, initial gamma radiation and
neutrons are the most serious threat. Beta and alpha radiation are radioactive particles
normally associated with radioactive dust from fallout. They are short-range particles and
you can easily protect yourself against them if you take precautions.
Residual Radiation
Residual radiation is all radiation emitted after 1 minute from the instant of the nuclear
explosion. Residual radiation consists of induced radiation and fallout.
Induced Radiation
It describes a relatively small, intensely radioactive area directly underneath the nuclear
weapon's fireball. The irradiated earth in this area will remain highly radioactive for an
extremely long time. You should not travel into an area of induced radiation.
Fallout
Fallout consists of radioactive soil and water particles, as well as weapon fragments.
During a surface detonation, or if an airburst's nuclear fireball touches the ground, large
amounts of soil and water are vaporized along with the bomb's fragments, and forced
upward to altitudes of 25,000 meters or more. When these vaporized contents cool, they
can form more than 200 different radioactive products. The vaporized bomb contents
condense into tiny radioactive particles that the wind carries and they fall back to earth as
radioactive dust. Fallout particles emit alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Alpha and beta
radiation are relatively easy to counteract, and residual gamma radiation is much less
intense than the gamma radiation emitted during the first minute after the explosion.
Fallout is your most significant radiation hazard, provided you have not received a lethal
radiation dose from the initial radiation.

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Bodily Reactions to Radiation

The effects of radiation on the human body can be broadly classed as either chronic or
acute. Chronic effects are those that occur some years after exposure to radiation.
Examples are cancer and genetic defects. Chronic effects are of minor concern insofar as
they affect your immediate survival in a radioactive environment. On the other hand,
acute effects are of primary importance to your survival. Some acute effects occur within
hours after exposure to radiation. These effects result from the radiation's direct physical
damage to tissue. Radiation sickness and beta burns are examples of acute effects.
Radiation sickness symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, weakness, and
loss of hair. Penetrating beta rays cause radiation burns; the wounds are similar to fire
burns.
Effects of Radiation on the Human Body:

Effects of radiation on the body

(1) Hair- The losing of hair quickly and in clumps occurs with radiation exposure at 200
rems or higher.
(2) Brain- Since brain cells do not reproduce, they won't be damaged directly unless the
exposure is 5,000 rems or greater. Like the heart, radiation kills nerve cells and small
blood vessels, and can cause seizures and immediate death.
(3) Thyroid- The certain body parts are more specifically affected by exposure to
different types of radiation sources. The thyroid gland is susceptible to radioactive iodine.
In sufficient amounts, radioactive iodine can destroy all or part of the thyroid. By taking
potassium iodide, one can reduce the effects of exposure.
(4) Blood System- When a person is exposed to around 100 rems, the blood's
lymphocyte cell count will be reduced, leaving the victim more susceptible to infection.
This is often refered to as mild radiation sickness. Early symptoms of radiation sickness
mimic those of flu and may go unnoticed unless a blood count is done. According to data
from Hiroshima and Nagaski, show that symptoms may persist for up to 10 years and
may also have an increased long-term risk for leukemia and lymphoma.

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(5) Heart- Intense exposure to radioactive material at 1,000 to 5,000 rems would do
immediate damage to small blood vessels and probably cause heart failure and death
directly.
(6) Gastrointestinal Tract- Radiation damage to the intestinal tract lining will cause
nausea, bloody vomiting and diarrhea. This is occurs when the victim's exposure is 200
rems or more. The radiation will begin to destroy the cells in the body that divide rapidly.
These including blood, GI tract, reproductive and hair cells, and harms their DNA and
RNA of surviving cells.
(7) Reproductive Tract- Because reproductive tract cells divide rapidly, these areas of
the body can be damaged at rem levels as low as 200. Long-term, some radiation sickness
victims will become sterile.
Recovery Capability
The extent of body damage depends mainly on the part of the body exposed to radiation
and how long it was exposed, as well as its ability to recover. The brain and kidneys have
little recovery capability. Other parts (skin and bone marrow) have a great ability to
recover from damage. Usually, a dose of 600 centigrams (cgys) to the entire body will
result in almost certain death. If only your hands received this same dose, your overall
health would not suffer much, although your hands would suffer severe damage.
External and Internal Hazards
An external or an internal hazard can cause body damage. Highly penetrating gamma
radiation or the less penetrating beta radiation that causes burns can cause external
damage. The entry of alpha or beta radiation-emitting particles into the body can cause
internal damage. The external hazard produces overall irradiation and beta burns. The
internal hazard results in irradiation of critical organs such as the gastrointestinal tract,
thyroid gland, and bone. A very small amount of radioactive material can cause extreme
damage to these and other internal organs. The internal hazard can enter the body either
through consumption of contaminated water or food or by absorption through cuts or
abrasions. Material that enters the body through breathing presents only a minor hazard.
You can greatly reduce the internal radiation hazard by using good personal hygiene and
carefully decontaminating your food and water.
Symptoms
The symptoms of radiation injuries include nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting. The severity
of these symptoms is due to the extreme sensitivity of the gastrointestinal tract to
radiation. The severity of the symptoms and the speed of onset after exposure are good
indicators of the degree of radiation damage. The gastrointestinal damage can come from
either the external or the internal radiation hazard.
Countermeasures against Penetrating External Radiation
Knowledge of the radiation hazards discussed earlier is extremely important in surviving
in a fallout area. It is also critical to know how to protect yourself from the most
dangerous form of residual radiation—penetrating external radiation.
The means you can use to protect yourself from penetrating external radiation are time,
distance, and shielding. You can reduce the level of radiation and help increase your
chance of survival by controlling the duration of exposure. You can also get as far away
from the radiation source as possible. Finally you can place some radiation-absorbing or
shielding material between you and the radiation.

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Time: Time is important to you, as the survivor, in two ways. First, radiation dosages are
cumulative. The longer you are exposed to a radioactive source, the greater the dose you
will receive. Obviously, spend as little time in a radioactive area as possible. Second,
radioactivity decreases or decays over time. This concept is known as radioactive half-
life. Thus, a radioactive element decays or loses half of its radioactivity within a certain
time. The rule of thumb for radioactivity decay is that it decreases in intensity by a factor
of ten for every sevenfold increase in time following the peak radiation level. For
example, if a nuclear fallout area had a maximum radiation rate of 200 cgys per hour
when fallout is complete, this rate would fall to 20 cgys per hour after 7 hours; it would
fall still further to 2 cgys per hour after 49 hours. Even an untrained observer can see that
the greatest hazard from fallout occurs immediately after detonation, and that the hazard
decreases quickly over a relatively short time. As a survivor, try to avoid fallout areas
until the radioactivity decays to safe levels. If you can avoid fallout areas long enough for
most of the radioactivity to decay, you enhance your chance of survival.
Distance: Distance provides very effective protection against penetrating gamma
radiation because radiation intensity decreases by the square of the distance from the
source. For example, if exposed to 1,000 cgys of radiation standing 30 centimeters from
the source, at 60 centimeters, you would only receive 250 cgys. Thus, when you double
the distance, radiation decreases to (0.5)2 or 0.25 the amount. While this formula is valid
for concentrated sources of radiation in small areas, it becomes more complicated for
large areas of radiation such as fallout areas.
Shielding: Shielding is the most important method of protection from penetrating
radiation. Of the three countermeasures against penetrating radiation, shielding provides
the greatest protection and is the easiest to use under survival conditions. Therefore, it is
the most desirable method.
If shielding is not possible, use the other two methods to the maximum extent practical.
Shielding actually works by absorbing or weakening the penetrating radiation, thereby
reducing the amount of radiation reaching your body. The denser the material, the better
the shielding effect. Lead, iron, concrete, and water are good examples of shielding
materials.
Special Medical Aspects: The presence of fallout material in your area requires slight
changes in first aid procedures. You must cover all wounds to prevent contamination and
the entry of radioactive particles. You must first wash burns of beta radiation, then treat
them as ordinary burns. Take extra measures to prevent infection. Your body will be
extremely sensitive to infections due to changes in your blood chemistry. Pay close
attention to the prevention of colds or respiratory infections. Rigorously practice personal
hygiene to prevent infections. Cover your eyes with improvised goggles to prevent the
entry of particles.
Shelter
As stated earlier, the shielding material's effectiveness depends on its thickness and
density. An ample thickness of shielding material will reduce the level of radiation to
negligible amounts.
The primary reason for finding and building a shelter is to get protection against the high-
intensity radiation levels of early gamma fallout as fast as possible. Five minutes to locate
the shelter is a good guide. Speed in finding shelter is absolutely essential. Without
shelter, the dosage received in the first few hours will exceed that received during the rest

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of a week in a contaminated area. The dosage received in this first week will exceed the
dosage accumulated during the rest of a lifetime spent in the same contaminated area.
Shielding Materials: The thickness required to weaken gamma radiation from fallout is
far less than that needed to shield against initial gamma radiation. Fallout radiation has
less energy than a nuclear detonation's initial radiation. For fallout radiation, a relatively
small amount of shielding material can provide adequate protection. Figure 23-1 gives an
idea of the thickness of various materials needed to reduce residual gamma radiation
transmission by 50 percent.

The principle of half-value layer thickness is useful in understanding the absorption of

gamma radiation by various materials. According to this principle, if 5 centimeters of
brick reduce the gamma radiation level by one-half, adding another 5 centimeters of brick
(another half-value layer) will reduce the intensity by another half, namely, to one-fourth
the original amount. Fifteen centimeters will reduce gamma radiation fallout levels to
one-eighth its original amount, 20 centimeters to one-sixteenth, and so on. Thus, a shelter
protected by 1 meter of dirt would reduce a radiation intensity of 1,000 cgys per hour on
the outside to about 0.5 cgy per hour inside the shelter.
Natural Shelters: Terrain that provides natural shielding and easy shelter construction is
the ideal location for an emergency shelter. Good examples are ditches, ravines, rocky
outcropping, hills, and river banks. In level areas without natural protection, dig a
fighting position or slit trench.
Trenches: When digging a trench, work from inside the trench as soon as it is large
enough to cover part of your body thereby not exposing all your body to radiation. In
open country, try to dig the trench from a prone position, stacking the dirt carefully and
evenly around the trench. On level ground, pile the dirt around your body for additional
shielding. Depending upon soil conditions, shelter construction time will vary from a few
minutes to a few hours. If you dig as quickly as possible, you will reduce the dosage you
receive.
Other Shelters: While an underground shelter covered by 1 meter or more of earth
provides the best protection against fallout radiation, the following unoccupied structures
(in order listed) offer the next best protection:

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• Caves and tunnels covered by more than 1 meter of earth.

• Storm or storage cellars.
• Culverts.
• Basements or cellars of abandoned buildings.
• Abandoned buildings made of stone or mud.
Roofs: It is not mandatory that you build a roof on your shelter. Build one only if the
materials are readily available with only a brief exposure to outside contamination. If
building a roof would require extended exposure to penetrating radiation, it would be
wiser to leave the shelter roofless. A roof's sole function is to reduce radiation from the
fallout source to your body. Unless you use a thick roof, a roof provides very little
shielding.
You can construct a simple roof from a poncho anchored down with dirt, rocks, or other
refuse from your shelter. You can remove large particles of dirt and debris from the top
of the poncho by beating it off from the inside at frequent intervals. This cover will not
offer shielding from the radioactive particles deposited on the surface, but it will increase
the distance from the fallout source and keep the shelter area from further contamination.
Shelter Site Selection and Preparation: To reduce your exposure time and thereby
reduce the dosage received, remember the following factors when selecting and setting
up a shelter:
• Where possible, seek a crude, existing shelter that you can improve. If none is
available, dig a trench.
• Dig the shelter deep enough to get good protection, then enlarge it as required for
comfort.
• Cover the top of the fighting position or trench with any readily available material
and a thick layer of earth, if you can do so without leaving the shelter. While a
roof and camouflage are both desirable, it is probably safer to do without them
than to expose yourself to radiation outside your fighting position.
• While building your shelter, keep all parts of your body covered with clothing to
protect it against beta burns.
• Clean the shelter site of any surface deposit using a branch or other object that
you can discard. Do this cleaning to remove contaminated materials from the area
you will occupy. The cleaned area should extend at least 1.5 meters beyond your
shelter's area.
• Decontaminate any materials you bring into the shelter. These materials include
grass or foliage that you use as insulation or bedding, and your outer clothing
(especially footgear). If the weather permits and you have heavily contaminated
outer clothing, you may want to remove it and bury it under a foot of earth at the
end of your shelter. You may retrieve it later (after the radioactivity decays) when
leaving the shelter. If the clothing is dry, you may decontaminate it by beating or
shaking it outside the shelter's entrance to remove the radioactive dust. You may
use any body of water, even though contaminated, to rid materials of excess
fallout particles. Simply dip the material into the water and shake it to get rid of
the excess water. Do not wring it out, this action will trap the particles.
• If at all possible and without leaving the shelter, wash your body thoroughly with
soap and water, even if the water on hand may be contaminated. This washing
will remove most of the harmful radioactive particles that are likely to cause beta

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burns or other damage. If water is not available, wipe your face and any other
exposed skin surface to remove contaminated dust and dirt. You may wipe your
face with a clean piece of cloth or a handful of uncontaminated dirt. You get this
uncontaminated dirt by scraping off the top few inches of soil and using the
"clean" dirt.
• Upon completing the shelter, lie down, keep warm, and sleep and rest as much as
possible while in the shelter.
• When not resting, keep busy by planning future actions, studying your maps, or
making the shelter more comfortable and effective.
• Don't panic if you experience nausea and symptoms of radiation sickness. Your
main danger from radiation sickness is infection. There is no first aid for this
sickness. Resting, drinking fluids, taking any medicine that prevents vomiting,
maintaining your food intake, and preventing additional exposure will help avoid
infection and aid recovery. Even small doses of radiation can cause these
symptoms which may disappear in a short time.
Exposure Timetable: The following timetable provides you with the information needed
to avoid receiving serious dosage and still let you cope with survival problems:
• Complete isolation from 4 to 6 days following delivery of the last weapon.
• A very brief exposure to procure water on the third day is permissible, but exposure
should not exceed 30 minutes.
• One exposure of not more than 30 minutes on the seventh day.
• One exposure of not more than 1 hour on the eighth day.
• Exposure of 2 to 4 hours from the ninth day through the twelfth day.
• Normal operation, followed by rest in a protected shelter, from the thirteenth day on.
• In all instances, make your exposures as brief as possible. Consider only mandatory
requirements as valid reasons for exposure. Decontaminate at every stop.
The times given above are conservative. If forced to move after the first or second day,
you may do so, Make sure that the exposure is no longer than absolutely necessary.
Water Procurement
In a fallout-contaminated area, available water sources may be contaminated. If you wait
at least 48 hours before drinking any water to allow for radioactive decay to take place
and select the safest possible water source, you will greatly reduce the danger of
ingesting harmful amounts of radioactivity.
Although many factors (wind direction, rainfall, sediment) will influence your choice in
selecting water sources, consider the following guidelines.
Safest Water Sources: Water from springs, wells, or other underground sources that
undergo natural filtration will be your safest source. Any water found in the pipes or
containers of abandoned houses or stores will also be free from radioactive particles. This
water will be safe to drink, although you will have to take precautions against bacteria in
the water. Snow taken from 15 or more centimeters below the surface during the fallout is
also a safe source of water.
Streams and Rivers: Water from streams and rivers will be relatively free from fallout
within several days after the last nuclear explosion because of dilution. If at all possible,
filter such water before drinking to get rid of radioactive particles. The best filtration
method is to dig sediment holes or seepage basins along the side of a water source. The
water will seep laterally into the hole through the intervening soil that acts as a filtering

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agent and removes the contaminated fallout particles that settled on the original body of
water. This method can remove up to 99 percent of the radioactivity in water. You must
cover the hole in some way in order to prevent further contamination.
Standing Water: Water from lakes, pools, ponds, and other standing sources is likely to
be heavily contaminated, though most of the heavier, long-lived radioactive isotopes will
settle to the bottom. Use the settling technique to purify this water. First, fill a bucket or
other deep container three-fourths full with contaminated water. Then take dirt from a
depth of 10 or more centimeters below the ground surface and stir it into the water. Use
about 2.5 centimeters of dirt for every 10 centimeters of water. Stir the water until you
see most dirt particles suspended in the water. Let the mixture settle for at least 6 hours.
The settling dirt particles will carry most of suspended fallout particles to the bottom and
cover them. You can then dip out the clear water. Purify this water using a filtration
device.
Additional Precautions: As an additional precaution against disease, treat all water with
water purification tablets from your survival kit or boil it.
Food Procurement
Although it is a serious problem to obtain edible food in a radiation-contaminated area, it
is not impossible to solve. You need to follow a few special procedures in selecting and
preparing rations and local foods for use. Since secure packaging protects your combat
rations, they will be perfectly safe for use. Supplement your rations with any food you
can find on trips outside your shelter. Most processed foods you may find in abandoned
buildings are safe for use after decontaminating them. These include canned and
packaged foods after removing the containers or wrappers or washing them free of fallout
particles. These processed foods also include food stored in any closed container and
food stored in protected areas (such as cellars), if you wash them before eating. Wash all
food containers or wrappers before handling them to prevent further contamination.
If little or no processed food is available in your area, you may have to supplement your
diet with local food sources. Local food sources are animals and plants.
Animals as a Food Source: Assume that all animals, regardless of their habitat or living
conditions, were exposed to radiation. The effects of radiation on animals are similar to
those on humans. Thus, most of the wild animals living in a fallout area are likely to
become sick or die from radiation during the first month after the nuclear explosion. Even
though animals may not be free from harmful radioactive materials, you can and must use
them in survival conditions as a food source if other foods are not available. With careful
preparation and by following several important principles, animals can be safe food
sources.
First, do not eat an animal that appears to be sick. It may have developed a bacterial
infection as a result of radiation poisoning. Contaminated meat, even if thoroughly
cooked, could cause severe illness or death if eaten.
Carefully skin all animals to prevent any radioactive particles on the skin or fur from
entering the body. Do not eat meat close to the bones and joints as an animal's skeleton
contains over 90 percent of the radioactivity. The remaining animal muscle tissue,
however, will be safe to eat. Before cooking it, cut the meat away from the bone, leaving
at least a 3-millimeter thickness of meat on the bone. Discard all internal organs (heart,
liver, and kidneys) since they tend to concentrate beta and gamma radioactivity.

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Cook all meat until it is very well done. To be sure the meat is well done, cut it into less
than 13-millimeter-thick pieces before cooking. Such cuts will also reduce cooking time
and save fuel.
The extent of contamination in fish and aquatic animals will be much greater than that of
land animals. This is also true for water plants, especially in coastal areas. Use aquatic
food sources only in conditions of extreme emergency.
All eggs, even if laid during the period of fallout, will be safe to eat. Completely avoid
milk from any animals in a fallout area because animals absorb large amounts of
radioactivity from the plants they eat.
Plants as a Food Source: Plant contamination occurs by the accumulation of fallout on
their outer surfaces or by absorption of radioactive elements through their roots. Your
first choice of plant food should be vegetables such as potatoes, turnips, carrots, and other
plants whose edible portion grows underground. These are the safest to eat once you
scrub them and remove their skins.
Second in order of preference are those plants with edible parts that you can
decontaminate by washing and peeling their outer surfaces. Examples are bananas, apples,
tomatoes, prickly pears, and other such fruits and vegetables.
Any smooth-skinned vegetable, fruit, or plant that you cannot easily peel or effectively
decontaminate by washing will be your third choice of emergency food.
The effectiveness of decontamination by scrubbing is inversely proportional to the
roughness of the fruit's surface. Smooth-surfaced fruits have lost 90 percent of their
contamination after washing, while washing rough-surfaced plants removes only about
50 percent of the contamination.
You eat rough-surfaced plants (such as lettuce) only as a last resort because you cannot
effectively decontaminate them by peeling or washing. Other difficult foods to
decontaminate by washing with water include dried fruits (figs, prunes, peaches, apricots,
pears) and soya beans.
In general, you can use any plant food that is ready for harvest if you can effectively
decontaminate it. Growing plants, however, can absorb some radioactive materials
through their leaves as well as from the soil, especially if rains have occurred during or
after the fallout period. Avoid using these plants for food except in an emergency.
Chemical Disasters
The terms ―chemical accident‖ or ―chemical incident‖ refer to an event resulting in the
release of a substance or substances hazardous to human health and/or the environment in
the short or long term. Such events include fires, explosions, leakages or releases of toxic
or hazardous materials that can cause people illness, injury, disability or death.
The extent of chemical disaster scenarios are, influenced by the military - non-military
circumstance. In many peacetime scenarios industrial man-made chemical accidents are
more probable. Natural disasters where volcanic activities occur highlight the dynamics
of the natural environment in contributing to the chemical hazards leading to disaster.
Many if not most products we use in everyday life are made from chemicals and
thousands of chemicals are used by manufacturing industries to make these products. The
source of many of these chemicals is petroleum, which is refined into two main fractions:
fuels and the chemical feedstocks that are the building blocks of plastics, paints, dyes,
inks, polyester, and many of the products we buy and use every day. Fuels and chemical
feedstocks made from petroleum are called organic chemicals. The other important class

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of chemicals is inorganics, which include acids, caustics, cyanide, and metals.

Commercial products made from inorganics range from car bodies to computer circuit
boards. Of the more than 400000 chemicals in commercial use, most are subject to
accidental spills or releases. Chemical spills and accidents range from small to large and
can occur anywhere chemicals are found, from oil drilling rigs to factories, tanker trucks
to fifty-five-gallon drums and all the way to the local dry cleaner or your garden tool shed.
Sources of Chemical Disasters: Chemical accidents may originate in:
1. Manufacturing and formulation installations including during commissioning and
process operations; maintenance and disposal.
2. Material handling and storage in manufacturing facilities, and isolated storages;
warehouses and godowns including tank farms in ports and docks and fuel depots.
3. Transportation (road, rail, air, water, and pipelines).
Causative Factors Leading to Chemical Disasters
Chemical disasters, in general, may result from:
i) Fire.
ii) Explosion.
iii) Toxic release.
iv) Poisoning.
v) Combinations of the above.
Initiators of Chemical Accidents
A number of factors including human errors could spark off chemical accidents
with the potential to become chemical disasters. These are:
a. Process and Safety System Failures:
i. Technical errors: design defects fatigue, metal failure, corrosion etc.
ii. Human errors: neglecting safety instructions, deviating from specified procedures
etc.
iii. Lack of information: absence of emergency warning procedures, nondisclosure of
line of treatment etc.
iv. Organizational errors: poor emergency planning and coordination, poor
communication with public, noncompliance with mock drills/exercises etc., which
are required for ensuring a state of quick response and preparedness.
b. Natural Calamities:
The Indian subcontinent is highly prone to natural disasters, which can also
trigger chemical disasters. Damage to phosphoric acid sludge containment during the
Orissa super cyclone in 1999 and the release of acrylonitrile at Kandla Port, during an
earthquake in 2001, are some of the recent examples.
Impact of Chemical Disasters
In addition to loss of life, the major consequences of chemical disasters include
impact on livestock, flora/fauna, the environment (air, soil, water) and losses to industry
as shown in Figure below. Chemical accidents may be categorised as a major accident or
a disaster depending upon the number of casualties, injuries, damage to the property or
environment.
A major accident is defined in the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous
Chemicals (MSIHC) Rules, 1989, issued under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986,
whereas ‗disaster‘ is defined in the DM Act, 2005. The Major Chemical Accidents in
India following the Bhopal Gas Disaster in 1984, major incidences of chemical disasters

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in India include A fire in an oil well in Andhra Pradesh (2003); a vapour cloud explosion
in the Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited Refinery (HPCL), Vishakhapatnam
(1997); and an explosion in the Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Limited (IPCL) Gas
Cracker Complex, Nagothane, Maharashtra (1990).
Non-military causes:
• accidents due to negligent handling or transportation of dangerous chemical
substances
• accidents due to technical failure in industrial, scientific or medical facilities
• liberation of hazardous chemical agents due to terrorism
• liberation of hazardous chemical agents due to natural hazards (earthquakes,
floods, volcanoes)
• accidents related to disposal measures of chemical waste
Military causes:
• military-strikes on facilities containing dangerous chemical compounds
• liberation of hazardous material after accidents with chemical weapon-systems
• employment of chemical weapons as a military action during combat
• accidents related to production or disposal processes
The effects of chemical disasters are dependent on the actual event, possible chemical
reactions, the kind of liberated dangerous compounds and the kind of occurrence (solid,
liquid, gaseous). Influences of meteorological conditions, especially temperature and
winds, are of importance to estimate the dimensions of a disaster. According to its
hazardous potential, each scenario and analysed carefully for possible effects on the
environment. Decontamination measures will have to be applied accordingly. Examples
of possible effects include:
• contamination/death of large parts of the population, long time effects due to
incorporation of poisonous substances
• contamination of land, especially densely populated regions and agricultural
acreage
• contamination of food and drinking water
• necessary evacuations or refugee movements
• over-strainment of medical personnel and supply systems
• contamination of basic infrastructure (e.g. roads, bridges,...)

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Based on these causes and resulting effects the employment of military and civil defence
forces is probable. The types of forces include:
• C-specialists (reconnaissance, detection, decontamination)
• C-labs for detailed identification of dangerous substances
• Fire-brigades (fire fighting, water supply)
• SAR-specialists (SAR operations, evacuations)
• Basic logistic and support forces (communication, transport)
• Helicopters and aircraft forces (air lift, air-drop evacuation)
• Naval forces (reconnaissance, transport)
• Medical forces (medical on-site support)
• Personnel for hedging and characterising of contaminated areas
• Personnel for disposal of cadavers and dangerous substances
Disaster is a rarity in the chemical industry, but negligence or misfortune can so easily
result in devastating consequences.
Considering the potentially dangerous materials and processes employed in the chemical
sector, most producers can be justifiably proud of their health and safety records.
Occasionally, however, things do go wrong.
Aside from the immediate implications surrounding a major incident, such as loss of life,
a threat to the environment or the destruction of plants and surrounding buildings, the
damage to the industry's reputation is almost irrevocable.
"If you measure the fears of the population about chemicals all over Europe, then air
pollution, water pollution and the risk of plant catastrophes are still the most important to
them," says Daniel Verbist, executive director responsible for communications at the
European Chemical Industry council (Cefic). But from each disaster, lessons can be
learned, he says - and these can often lead to the introduction of more stringent health,
safety and environment legislation. Here is a selection of some of the industry's worst
moments.
Oppau, Germany - September 21, 1921
Workers at BASF's Oppau site, in Germany, decided that the best course of action to
loosen a 4,500 tonne mound of ammonium nitrate (AN) and ammonium sulfate that had
solidified was to detonate several dynamite charges.
Unfortunately, the use of this tried-and-true method was not suited to the explosive nature
of AN, resulting in a massive 125m (410ft)-long and 19m-deep crater and the deaths of
more than 500 people.
The accident destroyed around 80% of the homes in Oppau and ripped the roofs off
houses as far as 25km (10 miles) away.
AN has since been responsible for numerous explosions in the chemical sector globally,
as well as many acts of terrorism. Strict measures have been imposed to ensure the safe
handling and storage of the fertilizer.
Texas City, Texas, US - April 16, 1947
On the morning of April 16, 1947, a French ship - The Grandcamp - was being loaded
with ammonium nitrate (AN) fertilizer. With over 2,000 tonnes of AN onboard, a fire
started in the hold. Not wanting to damage the cargo, the captain refused to use water on
the flames and opted instead to control the fire using the steam system.
The heat intensified and the ship exploded, killing crewmembers and showering
onlookers with shrapnel. The blast was heard over 150 miles (240km) away.

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A 15ft (4.6m) wave swept a barge ashore, buildings were destroyed - including a
Monsanto chemical plant nearby - and the ship's anchor was found more than a mile
away. There were around 3,500 injuries and 576 people were killed.
Texas City, Texas, US - March 23, 2005
The 2005 disaster at UK oil major BP's Texas City refinery, in Texas, US, was
considered the nation's worst industrial disaster in 15 years.
A series of explosions occurred when a hydrocarbon isomerization unit was restarted and
a distillation tower flooded with hydrocarbons. As a result, 15 were killed and another
180 were injured. BP admitted to charges and accepted fines last year, with BP America
chairman Bob Malone conceding that the company was guilty of a felony "for failing to
have adequate written procedures for maintaining the ongoing mechanical integrity of
process equipment at the Texas City refinery.
"If our approach to process safety and risk management had been more disciplined and
comprehensive, this tragedy could have been prevented," he said.
Jilin City, China - November 13, 2005
A series of explosions rocked China-based Jilin Petrochemical's 70,000 tonne/year
aniline complex in Northeast China, killing five and injuring 70. Benzene also leaked into
the Songhua river and caused millions of people to go without drinking water, with many
fleeing their homes.
Initial investigations suggested the explosion occurred after operators attempted to
unblock a nitrobenzene rectification tower. Jilin's Bureau of Production Safety
Supervision and Administration concluded that a valve was left open, causing
temperatures to rise rapidly.
Nearby equipment and storage tanks containing nitrobenzene, benzene and nitric acid
feedstocks also caught fire and exploded. Water and electricity supplies had to be cut off
as local residents reported tap water turning red or yellow. There were also concerns that
water supplies to some Russian towns could be affected by the contamination of the river.
Bhopal, India - December 3, 1984
A gas leak at US-based Union Carbide's pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, is cited as one
of the chemical industry's greatest tragedies.

On the night of Dec. 2nd and 3rd, 1984, a Union Carbide plant in
Bhopal, India, began leaking.

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On December 3, 1984, methyl isocyanate gas leaked from the facility during the early
hours of the morning while local residents slept. Around 2,000 people died immediately,
with another 8,000 dying later.
The initial investigation suggested that large volumes of water had entered the chemical
tank, which caused a chemical reaction and led to the leak. The incident highlighted the
problem of urbanization and having a plant located near a densely populated area. In
2001, Union Carbide became a wholly owned subsidiary of US giant Dow Chemical.
Flixborough, UK - June 1, 1974
In 1974, cyclohexane vapor leaked from ruptured pipework at the Nypro (UK) site at
Flixborough. This resulted in an explosion that killed 28 people and injured 36.
Offsite, 53 injuries were reported. Property in the surrounding area was also severely
damaged.
The disaster led to the Health and Safety at Work Act, introduced the same year, when
the Health and Safety Executive was also established.
Seveso, Italy - July 10, 1976
On July 10, 1976, in a small Italian town north of Milan, a reactor at the ICMESA
chemical plant overheated, resulting in an explosion and the first, and highest known
exposure, to dioxins in a residential area. A toxic cloud containing 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol
- used to make pesticides and antiseptics - spread to the densely populated city of Seveso.
This became the catalyst for the Seveso Directive, in 1982, which has since undergone
numerous amendments. It was replaced by the Seveso II directive in 1996.
Toulouse, France - September 21, 2001
Some seven years later, there is still no official ruling on the cause of the 2001explosion
at Atofina's Grande Paroisse fertilizer plant in Toulouse, France. A report is now
expected toward the end of this year or the beginning of 2009.
Around 300 tonnes of ammonium nitrate (AN) exploded, destroying the site and
wrecking buildings 3km (1 mile) away in the city center.
The blast left a crater 50m (164 feet) wide and 10m deep. It was responsible for the death
of 30 people, and 10,000 injuries.
Schweizerhalle, Switzerland - November 1, 1986
Water used to extinguish a major fire at the Sandoz chemical factory in 1986 washed
chemicals into the river Rhine, one of Europe's busiest waterways. The spill caused
severe pollution, which took years to eradicate, and killed an estimated 500,000 fish.
The incident highlighted the need for antipollution legislation in Europe. Soil was
excavated from the area and decontaminated to ensure there was no risk to the
groundwater.
The German chemical company also developed a new framework for warehouse safety,
including segregated storage for different risk categories of chemicals, and fire measures
such as retention basins for run-off water.
Emergency Planning: After the incident of Bhopal gas disaster, the Factories Act has
been amended and a new chapter i.e. Chapter IVA – provision relating to hazardous
processes has been added to the Factories Act with addition of new provisions sec 41A,
41B, 41C, 41D, 41E, 41G & 41H covering all hazardous process industries. Under the
provision of Sec 41B(4) every occupier shall with the approval of the Chief Inspector of
Factories draw up an On-site Emergency Plan and detailed disaster control measures for
his factory and make known to the workers employed therein and to the general public

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living in the vicinity of the factory the safety measures required to be taken in the event
of an accident taking place. This is the statutory provision laid down in the act for
preparation of On-site Emergency Plan to control disaster in the factories. Major
accidents may cause emergency and it may lead to disaster, which may cause heavy
damage to plant, property, harm to person and create adverse affects on production. Many
disasters like Bhopal gas tragedy, Chernobyl nuclear disaster etc. have occurred at many
places in the world causing heavy loss of life and property. Emergency situation arises all
on a sudden and creates havoc and damage to person, property, production and
environment. Therefore such situations and risks should be thought in advance and it
should be planned before hand to tackle them immediately and control them within the
shortest time.
What is emergency? A major emergency can be defined as an accident/ incident that
has potential to cause serious injuries or loss of life. It may cause extensive damage of
property, serious disruption both in production and working of factory and may adversely
effect the environment. The following factors may cause major emergency.
(i) Plant failure.
(ii) Human error.
(iii) Vehicle crash.
(iv) Sabotage.
(v) Earthquake.
(vi) Natural Calamities.
On-site Emergency:- If an accident/ incident takes place in a factory, its effects are
confined to the factory premises, involving only the persons working in the factory and
the property inside the factory it is called as On-site Emergency.
Off-site Emergency:- If the accident is such that it affects inside the factory are
uncontrollable and it may spread outside the factory premises, it is called as Off-site
Emergency.
Each major hazardous factory should prepare an emergency plan incorporating details of
action to be taken in case of any major accident/ disaster occurring inside the factory. The
plan should cover all types of major accident/ occurrences and identify the risk involved
in the plant. Mock drills on the plan should be carried out periodically to make the plan
foolproof and persons are made fully prepared to fight against any incident in the plant.
The plan will vary according to the type of industry and emergency.
Statutory Provision:- After the Bhopal gas tragedy (1984) and supreme court direction
in case of M/S Sriram Foods and Fertilizers, the Govt. of India has made some important
amendments to the Factories Act 1948 in the year 1987 with incorporation of special
provisions relating to hazardous process. Under Section 41(B)(4) every occupier is to
prepare On-site Emergency Plan and detailed disaster control measures for his factory.
Again under provision of Rule 13 of the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous
Chemicals Rules 1989, the occupier shall prepare and keep up to date On-site Emergency
plan containing details how major accidents will be dealt with on the site on which the
industrial activity is carried on and that plan shall include the name of the person who is
responsible for safety on the site and names of those who are authorized to take action in
accordance with the plan in case of emergency.

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Main elements of On-site Emergency plans:-

• Leadership and Administration.
• Role and Responsibilities of Key Personnel.
• Emergency action.
• Light and Power.
• Source of energy control.
• Protective and rescue equipment.
• Communication.
• Medical care.
• Mutual Aid.
• Public relation.
• Protection of vital records.
• Training.
• Periodical revision of plan.
Emergency Action Plan:- The Action Plan should consist
™ Designated Emergency Control Centre/Room.
™ Key Personnel.
Emergency Control Centre:- This is the main center from where the operations to
handle the emergency are directed and coordinated.
Maximum facilities to be made available in the emergency control are –
i. Internal and external communication.
ii. Computer and other essential records.
iii. Daily attendance of workmen employed in factory.
iv. Storage of hazardous material records and manufacturing records.
v. Pollution records.
vi. Walky-talky.
vii. Plan of the plant showing-
a. Storage area of hazardous materials.
b. Storage of safety equipments.
c. Fire fighting system and additional source of water.
d. Site entrance, roadway and emergency exist.
e. Assembly points.
f. Truck parking area.
g. Surrounding location.
viii. Note Book, Pad and Pencil.
ix. List of Key Personnel with addresses, telephone number etc.
Assembly Points:- A safe place far away from the plant should be pre determined as
assembly point where in case of emergency personnel evacuated from the affected areas
are to be assembled. The plant workers, contract workers and visitors should assemble in
assembly point in case of emergency and the time office clerk should take their
attendance so as to assess the missing person during emergency.
The Key Personnel for onsite emergency:-
1. Works main controller.
2. Works incident controller.
a. Communication Officer.
b. Security and Fire Officer.

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c. Telephone Operators.
d. Medical Officer.
e. Personnel/Administrative Officer.
f. Essential work team leaders.
(1) Works Main Controller:- The General Manager of the Plant should act as main
controller. His duties are to -
1. Assess the magnitude of the situation and decide whether the evacuation of staff
from the plant is needed.
2. Exercise and direct operational control over areas other than those affected.
3. Maintain a continuous review of possible development and assess in consultation
with work incident controller and other Key Personnel.
4. Liaison with Police, Fire Service, Medical Services, Factory Inspectorate and
other Govt. agencies.
5. Direct and control rehabilitation of affected area after emergency.
6. Intimate Off-site Emergency controller if the emergency spreads beyond the
factory premises and likely to affect the surrounding area.
7. Ensure that evidence is preserved for enquiries to be conducted by statutory
authorities.
The Works Main Controller will declare the emergency and he will instruct gate office to
operate the emergency siren after assessing the gravity of the situation.
(2) Work Incident Controller (WIC):- He is the next responsible officer after the
Works Main Controller. Generally the plant manager is designated as Work Incident
Controller. In case of emergency he will rush to the place of occurrence and take overall
charge and report to the Works Main Controller by personal communication system like
cell phones or walky talky and inform about the magnitude of emergency. He will assess
the situation and considering the magnitude of emergency he will take decision and
inform Communication Officer to communicate the news of emergency to different
agencies. He will give direction to stop all operations within the affected area. He will
take the charge of Main Controller till the Main Controller arrives. He will order for
shutdown and evacuation of workers and staffs from affected area. He will inform all
Key Personnel and all outside agency for help. He will inform security and fire officers
and State Fire Services. He will ensure that all non-essential workers/staff are evacuated
to assembly point and areas searched for casualties. He will report all significant
development to Communication Officer. Moreover he will advise to preserve evidence of
emergency into the cause of emergency.
Other Key Personnel and their duties:
Communication Officer: On hearing the emergency siren/alarm he will proceed to the
control center and communicate to work incident controller. He will collect information
from the emergency affected area and send correct message to work main controller for
declaration of emergency. He will maintain a log book of incident. He will contact all
essential departments. He will take stock of the meteorological condition from local
meteorological Department. He will communicate all information as directed by Works
Main Controller.
Security and Fire Officer: The Security or Fire officer will be responsible for the fire
fighting. On hearing the emergency alarm/siren, he will reach the incident area with fire
and security staff. Immediately after arrival to the emergency area, he will inform

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through telephone or walky-talky to the communication officer. He will inform to the

Work Incident Controller about the situation and requirement of outside help like State
Fire Service and other mutual aid members.
At the site, the entire fire squad member will respond to the advice and information given
by the works incident controller.
The security will control the visitors and the vehicle entry.
Telephone Operator : In case of fire is discovered but no emergency siren is operated, he
shall ensure the information about the location of the fire/emergency incident from the
person discovered/ notices the above and communicate to different Key Personnel
immediately with clear message.
Medical Officer: Medical Officer with his team will report to the Works Incident
Controller on hearing the fire/ emergency siren immediately. The ambulance will be
parked nearest to the site of incident. Name of injured and other casualties carried to the
Hospital will be recorded and handed over to Works Incident Controller. The ambulance
will carry the injured to the nearest hospital for treatment.
Personnel/ Administrative Officer: He should work as a liaison officer liaisoning with
works main controller and other essential departments such as Police, Press and Statutory
authorities. His responsibilities shall include-
ƒ To ensure that casualties receive adequate attention to arrange additional help if
required and inform relatives.
ƒ To control traffic movement into the factory and ensure that alternative transport
is available when needed.
ƒ When emergency is prolonged, arrange for the relief of personnel and organize
refreshment and catering facilities.
ƒ Arrange for finance for the expenditure to handle the emergency.
Essential Works and Team Leaders: During emergency the plants immediately affected
or likely to be affected, as determined by the Works Main Controller, need to be shut
down for safety. In the area immediately affected, it may be possible to isolate equipment
from which flammable or toxic material is leaking. This work must be immediately
carried out by plant supervisors and essential operators.
Workers/ staffs need to be nominated to carry out the following essential works at the
time of emergency-
• Extra first aid personnel to deal with casualties.
• Emergency engineering works, provision of extra or replacement of light,
isolation of equipment, temporary by pass electrical lines etc.
• Moving tankers or other vehicles from area of risk.
• To carry out tests on ambient air quality.
• To act as runner in case of communication system fails.
• The Works Main Controller will require a task force of suitable trained people
for the following works-
i. Manning of assembly points to record the arrival of evacuated people.
ii. Assistance of casualty arrival areas to record details of casualties.
iii. Manning the factory entrance in liaison with security to direct emergency
vehicle containing the gate e.g. ambulance, fire tenders etc.
For these essential jobs designated teams should be made available. The responsibilities
of the team and the leader should be given.

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The essential work teams are-

1. Task Force and repair team.
2. Fire fighting team.
3. Communication team.
4. Security Team.
5. Transport Team.
6. First aid and medical team.
7. Safety team.
Alarm System: Alarm system varies and will depend on the size of the works area.
Simple fire bell, hand operated siren – break open type, fire alarm etc. Automatic alarm
may be needed for highly hazardous nature of plant.
Communication System:
Communication is a key component to control an emergency.
The following communication system may be provided in the plant-
• Walky-Talky.
• Telephone (internal & external).
• Cell phone.
• Intercom/paging.
• Runners (verbal or written messages).
Siren for Emergency: Siren for emergency should be different from the normal siren.
The emergency siren should be audible to a distance of 5 KM radius. The emergency
siren should be used only in case of emergency.
Escape Route: The escape route from each and every plant should be clearly marked.
The escape route is the shortest route to reach out of the plant area to open area, which
leads to assembly point. This route should be indicated on the layout plan attached to the
On-site Emergency Plan.
Evacuation: All non-essential staff should be evacuated from the emergency site. As
soon as the emergency siren rings the workers have to shut down the plant and move to
the assembly point. The plant shut down procedure in case of emergency should be
prepared and kept ready and responsible person should be nominated for the purpose.
Counting of Personnel: All personnel working in the plant should be counted. Time
office person should collect the details of personnel arriving at the assembly point. These
should be checked with the attendances of regular workers, contract workers present in
the site on the day of emergency. The accident control should be informed and
arrangement should be made for searching missing person in the emergency affected area.
The employees‘ address, contact number of next to kin should be maintained in the time
office so that during emergency relatives of those affected due to emergency may be
informed accordingly.
Information in respect of emergency should be given to the media and other agency.
All Clear Signal: After control of emergency the Work Incident Controller will
communicate to the works main controller about the cessation of emergency. The main
controller can declare all clear by instructing the time office to sound ―All Clear Sirens‖.
Mutual Aid System: Mutual aid scheme should be introduced among industries so that
in case of emergency necessary help from mutual aid partner may be extended.
Essential elements of this scheme are –

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Mutual aid must be a written document signed by the Chief Executive of the industries
concerned.
• Specify key personnel who are authorized to give requisition of materials
from other industries.
• Specify the available quantity of material/equipment that can be spared.
• Mode of requisition during emergency.
• Mode of payment/ replacement of material given during an emergency.
• May be updated from time to time based on experience gained.
Mock drills on emergency planning should be conducted once in 6 months and sequence
of events should be recorded for improvement of the exercise. Exercises on On-site
Emergency Planning should be monitored by Factory Inspectorate and the high officials
of the organization and the plan is reviewed every year.
Emergency facilities: The following facilities should be provided in any factory to tackle
any emergency at any time.
1. Fire protection and fire fighting facilities.
2. Emergency lighting and standby power.
3. Emergency equipment and rescue equipment –
i. Breathing apparatus with compressed air cylinder.
ii. Fire proximity suit.
iii. Resuscitator.
iv. Water gel Blanket.
v. Low temperature suit.
vi. First aid kit.
vii. Stretchers.
viii. Torches.
ix. Ladders.
4. Safety Equipment –
i. Respirators.
ii. Gum boots.
iii. Safety helmets.
iv. Asbestos Rubber hand gloves.
v. Goggles and face shield.
vi. Toxic gas measuring instruments.
vii. Explosive meter.
viii. Oxygen measuring instruments.
ix. Toxic gas measuring instrument.
x. Wind direction indicator.
On-site Emergency Plan should contain -
1. Site plan and topographic plan.
2. Plan showing the fire fighting facilities.
3. Plan showing hazardous material storage area.
4. Material safety data sheets for hazardous chemicals.
5. Facilities available in main control center.
6. List of emergency equipment.
7. List of Safety Equipment.
8. List of important telephone numbers and addresses.

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i. Nearest hospitals and ambulance service center.

ii. Nearest fire station.
iii. Govt. Officials.
iv. Transport provider.
9. Names and address & contact telephone number of Key Personnel.
The on site emergency plan so prepared shall be documented in a printed form in
sufficient copies to give all concerned for knowledge, study and easy follow up. The
emergency plan shall be rehearsed and practised at regular intervals to test efficiency of
personnel, equipments coordinated efforts and to increase confidence and experience to
operate such plan.
Off-site Emergency Plan: The main objective of the plan are:
i. To save lives and injuries.
ii. To prevent or reduce property losses and
iii. To provide for quick resumption of normal situation or operation.
Risk Assessment: Risk assessment is most essential before preparing any off site
emergency plan. Hazardous factories and their hazard identification, other hazard prone
areas, specific risks, transportation risk, storage risks, pollution risks by air and water
pollution, catastrophic risks such as disasters, natural calamities, acts of god, earthquake,
landslide, storm, high wind, cyclone, flood, scarcity, heavy rain, lightening, massive
infection, heavy fire, heavy explosion, volcano, heavy spill, toxic exposure,
environmental deterioration etc., risks from social disturbances, risks from the past
accidents must be considered while carrying out risk assessment for a particular
area(district) from which the offsite emergency plan is to be prepared.
Central Control Committee: As the offsite plan is to be prepared by the Government, a
Central Control Committee shall be formed under the Chairmanship of the District
Collector. Other officers from Police, Fire Service, Factory Inspectorate, Medical
Department shall be incorporated as members of the Central Control Committee. Under
the Central Control Committee the following committees shall be constituted under the
control of the District Collector.
i. Incident and Environment Control Committee.
ii. Fire Control Committee.
iii. Traffic control, Law and order, Evacuation and Rehabilitation Committee.
iv. Medical help, Ambulance and Hospital Committee.
v. Welfare, Restoration and Resumption Committee.
vi. Utility and Engineering Services Committee.
vii. Press, Publicity and Public Relations Committee.
The Off-site Emergency Plan shall be prepared by the District Collector in consultation
with the factory management and Govt. agencies. The plan contains up to date details of
outside emergency services and resources such as Fire Services, Hospitals, Police etc.
with telephone number. The district authorities are to be included in the plan area.
a. Police Department.
b. Revenue Department.
c. Fire Brigade.
d. Medical Department.
e. Municipality.
f. Gram/Village Panchayat.

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g. Railway Department.
h. Telephone Department.
i. Factory Department.
j. Electricity Department.
k. Pollution Control Department.
l. Explosive Department.
m. Press and Media.
Mock exercises on Off-site plan should be carried out at least once in a year to train the
employees, up to date the plan, observe and rectify deficiencies.
Hazop Study: Before making on site and off site plan hazop study has to be carried out
to identify the potential hazardous situations and to find out possible control measures.
Hazop study is to be carried out by a team of experts. The team should consist of –
(a) Mechanical Engineer.
(b) Chemical Engineer.
(c) R & D Chemist.
(d) Works Manager.
(e) Project Manager.
(f) Outside experts.
(g) Safety Officer/ Manager.
Biological Disasters
Apart from the natural transnational movement of the pathogenic organisms, their
potential use as weapons of biological warfare and bio-terrorism has become far more
important now than ever before. Utilization of organisms causing smallpox and anthrax
by such terrorist groups can cause greater harm and panic.
Biological agents are living organisms or their toxic products that can kill or incapacitate
people, livestock, and plants. Bio-terrorism can be defined as the use of biological
agents to cause death, disability or damage mainly to human beings. Thus, bio-terrorism
is a method of terrorist activity to prevail mass panic and slow mass casualties. The three
basic groups of biological agents, which could be used as weapons, are bacteria, viruses,
and toxins. Most biological agents are difficult to grow and maintain. Many break down
quickly when exposed to sunlight and other environmental factors, while others, such as
anthrax spores, are very long lived. Biological agents can be dispersed by
spraying them into the air, by infecting animals that carry the disease to humans, and by
contaminating food and water. Potentially, hundreds of human pathogens could be used
as weapons; however, public health authorities have identified only a few as having the
potential to cause mass casualties leading to civil disruptions.
Causes and Method of Delivery
There are number of causes why biological weapons are potentially more powerful agents
to mass casualties leading to civil disruptions. To attract widespread attention and to
harm a selected target, these outfits can utilize possibly any biological material, which
fulfils some of the criteria of bio-weapons.
• Biological agents can be disseminated with readily available technology.
Common agricultural spray devices can be adopted to disseminate biological
pathogens of the proper particle size to cause infection in human population over
great distances.

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• The perpetrators can use natural weather conditions, such as wind and
temperature inversions as well as existing building infrastructures (e.g. ventilation
system) or air movement related to transportation (e.g. subway cars passing
through tunnels) to disseminate these agents and thus to infect or intoxicate a
large number of people.
• The expense of producing biological weapons is far less than that of other weapon
systems.
The methods of bio-logical agent dissemination and delivery techniques include:
• Aerosols – biological agents are dispersed into the air, forming a fine mist that
may drift for miles. Inhaling the agent may cause epidemic diseases in human
beings or animals.
• Animals – some diseases are spread by insects and animals, such as fleas, mice,
flies, mosquitoes, and livestock.
• Food and water contamination – some pathogenic organisms and toxins may
persist in food and water supplies. Most microbes can be killed, and toxins
deactivated, by cooking food and boiling water. Most microbes are killed by
boiling water for one minute, but some require longer. Follow official instructions.
• Person-to-person – spread of a few infectious agents is also possible. Humans
have been the source of infection for smallpox, plague, and theLassa viruses.
Types
There are three categories of biological agents potential enough to cause mass casualties.
However, those in category A have the greatest potential for fear and disruption and most
significant public health impacts. The list of these biological agents with a very brief
description about them is given below.
• The disease anthrax is caused by the gram-positive, non-motile Bacillus anthracis.
Anthrax has been a scourge of cattle and other herbivores for centuries. During the
industrial revolution, the inhalation form was first recognized as an occupational
pulmonary disease in workers in the wool industries of Europe. Anthrax makes an ideal
biological weapon. The inhalation form of disease is highly lethal. The spores can
maintain virulence for decades and they can be milled to the ideal particle size for
optimum infection of the human respiratory tract. Different clinical forms of the disease
are observed, depending on the route of exposure. Inhalational anthrax presents with
non-specific symptoms that cannot be distinguished from many more common diseases
based on early clinical manifestations or routine laboratory tests. Therefore, despite
aggressive medical care sometimes develop rapidly progressive disease and dye.
• If used as a biological weapon, smallpox represents a serious threat to civilian
population because of its case fatality rate of 30% or more among unvaccinated persons
and the absence of specific therapy. Smallpox has long been considered as the most
devastating of all infectious diseases and today its potential for devastation is far greater
than at any previous time.
Smallpox virus is a member of genus Orthopoxvirus, and it is closely related to the
viruses causing cowpox, vaccinia and monkey pox. It is one of the largest DNA viruses
known, and it has a bricklike appearance on electron microscopy. Transmission of this
virus can occur in several different ways: generally by droplets, occasionally by aerosol,
by direct contact with secretions or lesions from a patient, and rarely by formites
contacted with the infection virus from a patient. Transmission risk increases if the

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index patient is coughing or sneezing or if he or she has hemorrhagic disease. Typically,

the virus enters the respiratory mucosa and then travels to regional lymph nodes where
it replicates. The incubation period from infection to onset of rash ranges from 7 to 17
days, averaging 12 to 14 days. Smallpox scabs remain infectious until they fall off,
whereas chickenpox is no longer infectious once the lesions are crusted.
• The mere mention of the word plague conjures up many images because has already
demonstrated a historical potential to kill millions of people across the globe. It is a
disease that results from infection by non-motile, gram-negative coccobacillus Yersinia
pestis. When stained, its bipolar appearance is often described as resembling a safety
pin. Pestis has two important properties that differentiate it from B. anthracis- person-
to-person transmissibility and a lack of spore production. Following the bite of an
infected flea, plague bacilli are carried via the lymphatic to the regional lymph nodes
where they multiply exponentially. This is only weapon besides smallpox, which can
cause devastation beyond those persons who are initially infected. With modern air
travel, containing an out break of plague could be challenging. A vaccine for plague
does exist; however, it is no longer being produced, and it does not demonstrate
efficacy against infection by aerosol.
• Botulism or Botulinum toxins are deadly. A toxin is any toxic substance that can be
produced in an animal, plant, or microbe. The toxins produce serious disease in human
beings. Many natural toxins can be produced by chemical synthesis or can be expressed
artificially. Toxins are natural and non-volatile and generally do not penetrate intact
skin, which happens in case of chemical weapons. There are different types of toxins
and they are immunologically distinct, meaning that antibodies developed against one
do not cross-react against others. Those that most commonly cause human disease are
types A, B, and E. Humans can be intoxicated either by oral means, inhalation, or
wound infection. Mass casualties can be produced through contamination of food
source or by aerosol dissemination. The incubation period of botulism can range from
as short as 24 to 36 hours to several days from the time of inhalation.
• Tularemia is caused by Francisella tularensis, which is a gram-negative, non-motile
coccobacillus. Tularemia is a zoonotic disease acquired in a natural setting by humans
through skin or mucous membrane contact with the body fluids or tissues of infected
animals or from being beaten by infected deerflies, mosquitoes, or ticks. It can remain
viable for weeks in the environment or in animal carcasses and for years if frozen.
Unlike anthrax, which requires thousands of spores to infect someone, tularemia can
cause illness with as few as 10 to 50 organisms. After an incubation period of 2 to 10
days, pneumonia symptoms develop associated with weight loss and nonproductive
cough. The drug of choice for treatment is streptomycin with other aminoglycosides.
Major Events across the Globe
Documented Intentional Use of Biologicals
• Japan used plague bacilli in China during 1932-1945 causing 260,000 deaths
• Dispersal of anthrax spores due to accident in production unit in USSR caused 68
deaths in 1979
• In 1984, Osho followers used Salmonella typhimurium in salad in a restaurant in
Oregaon, USA leading to 751 cases
• Shigella dysenteriae Type 2 employed in Texas, USA in 1996

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• Anthrax through postal envelopes in USA in Oct-Nov 2001 leading to 22 cases

and 5 deaths
Impact: Even a small-scale biological attack with a weapon grade agent on an urban
center could cause massive morbidity and mortality, rapidly overwhelming the local
medical capabilities. For example, an aerosolized release of little as 100kg of anthrax
spores upwind of a metro city of a size of Washington D C has been estimated to have the
potential to cause up to three millions of deaths.
Prevention & Mitigation Measures: General Measures of Protection
1. The general population should be educated and the made aware of the threats and risks
associated with it.
• Only cooked food and boiled/chlorinated/filtered water should be consumed
• Insects and rodents control measures must be initiated immediately.
• Clinical isolation of suspected and confirmed cases is essential.
2. An early accurate diagnosis is the key to manage casualties of biological warfare.
Therefore, a network of specialised laboratories should be established for a confirmatory
laboratory diagnosis.
3. Existing disease surveillance system as well as vector control measures have be
pursued more rigorously.
4. Mass immunization programme in suspected area has to be vigorously followed up.
5. Enhancing the knowledge and skills of clinicians plays a vital role in controlling the
adverse impact of the attack. As bio-terrorism related infections will remain rare events,
creative ongoing strategies will be required to sustain attention to potential new cases.
Action Plan for Biological Disaster Management in India
Biological Disaster could arise from a source located either inside the country or outside
the country (warfare). Management of such a situation could be dealt effectively only if
there is a disaster plan well integrated in the system and also there is mechanism of post
disaster evaluation.
Inter-Disaster Stage:
This is the period between two disasters in which pre-disaster planning in terms of system
development should be done.
Action plan has following elements:
One of the simplest & easy method to suspect is to take notice of a situation during which
more patients with similar ailments from a particular locality start consulting health guide
at village level,
(a) Constitution of a Crisis Management Structure
• Identification of Nodal Officers for Crisis Management at District, State &
Central Level.
• Identification of Focal points for control of epidemic at District, State & Central
Level.
• Constitution of advisory committees - Administrative and Technical
• Preparation of contingency plan including Standing Operating Procedure at
District, State & Central Level.
(b) System of Surveillance.
• System of information collection at District, State & Central Level.
• System of data analysis

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• System for flow of information from District to State and to Central Level during
crisis period.
• Establishment of control rooms at District, State & Central Level.
c) System of Epidemiological Investigation.
• System of field investigation
• System of active surveillance
• Arrangement for support facilities
(d) Confirmation of pathogens by laboratory set up.
• System of laboratory investigation at District, State & Central Level.
• Quality Control of Laboratory Practices.
(e) Training to different level workers.
Pre impact stage of warning (Early Detection):
Early warning signals: Early identification of an outbreak of disease of international
public health importance shall require knowledge of early warning signals amongst all
the echelons of health care providers. Some of the suggested early warning signals which
must command quick investigation by professionals may include followings:
• Sudden high mortality or morbidity following acute infection with short
incubation period
• Acute fever with haemorrhagic manifestations
• Acute fever with altered sensorium and malaria and JE excluded in endemic areas
• Even one case of suspected plague or anthrax
• Occurrence of cases which are difficult to diagnose with available clinical and
laboratory support and their non-responsive to conventional therapies
• Clustering of cases/deaths in time and space with high case fatality rate
• Unusual clinical or laboratory presentations
A comprehensive list of all the trigger events that shall attract immediate attention of
local public health machinery need to be developed by a group of experts.
• By suspicion: Management Plan should aim to identify crisis situation at a very early
stage preferably confined to a limited area. This can be done only by suspecting danger of
impending disaster by local health employees (at village by village health guide, at sub
centre level by multi purpose worker and PHC level by doctors at PHC).
• Alertness of institution dealing with emergency health, medical services/
Confirmation by identified laboratories :-
If such a situation arises, after providing symptomatic treatment at PHC level, services of
well established laboratory at district or medical college level may be requisitioned
to identify the organism and also to seek guidance for specific treatment and
management.
• Constant surveillance and monitoring till there is no risk of any outbreak.
Disaster Stage:
When disaster strikes following actions would be needed:
Public Health Control Measures:
Aim of control measures, is to contain the disease initially but eliminate ultimately by
following public health measures:
• Identification of all infected individuals based on an established case definition

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• Eliminating or reducing source of infection (Isolation and treatment of patients)

identified by epidemiological and laboratory studies
• Interrupting Transmission of disease: Spread of disease depend of mode of
transmission which could be prevented by:
o Possibility of reducing direct contacts with patients;
o Vector control: Rodents/Mosquitoes control.
o Food control
o Environmental control: Transmitted by water/air.
o Control through sewerage system.
• Protecting persons at risk (Community) Immunisation and Health Education plays
major role in protecting person at risk.
Trigger mechanism: The trigger mechanism is an emergency quick response mechanism
like ignition switch when energized spontaneously sets the vehicle of management into
motion on the road of disaster mitigation process.
• System of alert and mechanism of activation of Disaster Plan.
• Immediate organization of field operation for curative and preventive medical
care including immunization.
• Checking of initial information on an epidemic.
• Preliminary analysis of the situation.
• Arrangement for laboratory support.
• Emergency health services advisory committee meeting to take stock of the
situation and to advise further action.
• Field investigation about:
o Safety pre-cautions
o Case finding
• Deputation of Quick Response Teams
o Search for source of infection and contact tracing
o Special investigation for common source of infection.
• Analysis of investigation data to identify type, source of out break and mode of
transmission:
o Ecological data
o Clinical data
o Epidemiological data
o Laboratory data
o Entomological data
• General control measures to prevent further out break:
o Protective measure for contacts & Community
o Control of common source of outbreak like food water or mosquito etc.
o Immunization, emergency mass immunization and specific immunization,
mass chemoprophylaxis.
Post disaster stage:
Evaluation after disaster is most important step in disaster management in order to rectify
deficiencies in the management and to record the entire operation for future guidance for
which following measures are necessary:
• Evaluation of control measures
• Cost effectiveness

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• Post-epidemic measures
• Sharing of experience
• System for documentation of events.
Management of Biological disaster on above principles and steps should be taken by the
health authorities of the State Government with the available infrastructure.
Future Plan
The followings are the some of the key issues and concerns across the globe that need to
be included in the future plan of bio-terrorism management.
• Since vaccines against a number of potential biological warfare agents have
already been developed and some have already been in use, mass immunization of
the population would be done on a priority basis.
• Vaccines against remaining agents would have to researched and developed.
• Mass public awareness before, during and after such an attack must be
emphasized upon. The strategies that must be incorporated include accurate threat
intelligence, physical countermeasures, medical countermeasures and education
and training of physicians and ancillary health care providers including first-aid
providers.
Dos & Don’ts in a Biological War Attack
Before:
· Children and older adults are particularly vulnerable to biological agents. Ensure from a
doctor/the nearest hospital that all the required or suggested immunizations are up to date.
During:
• In the event of a biological attack, public health officials may not immediately be
able to provide information on what you should do. It will take time to determine
what the illness is, how it should be treated, and who is in danger. Close the doors
and windows when a biological attack is imminent.
• Watch television, listen to radio, or check the Internet for official news and
information including signs and symptoms of the disease, areas in danger, if
medications or vaccinations are being distributed, and where you should seek
medical attention if you become ill.
• The first evidence of an attack may be when you notice symptoms of the disease
caused by exposure to an agent.
• Be suspicious of any symptoms you notice, but do not assume that any illness is a
result of the attack.
• Use common sense and practice good hygiene.
However, if you notice of an unusual and suspicious substance nearby:
• Move away quickly.
• Cover your head and nose
• Wash with soap and water.
• Listen to the media for official instructions.
• Seek medical attention if you become sick.
If you are exposed to a biological agent:
1. Ultra efficient filter masks can be used
2. Follow official instructions for disposal of contaminated items such as bagand cloths.
3. Take bath with soap and put on clean clothes.

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4. Seek medical assistance. If required and advised, stay away from othersor even
quarantined.
After:
Pay close attention to all official warnings and instructions on how to proceed. The
delivery of medical services for a biological event may be handled differently to respond
to increased demand. The basic public health procedures and medical protocols for
handling exposure to biological agents are the same as for any infectious disease. It is
important for you to pay attention to official instructions via radio, television, and
emergency alert systems.
Building fire
Definition of fire: Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the chemical process of
combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative
processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition.
Fire safety: Fire safety refers to precautions that are taken to prevent or reduce the
likelihood of a fire that may result in death, injury, or property damage, alert those in a
structure to the presence of a fire in the event one occurs, better enable those threatened
by a fire to survive, or to reduce the damage caused by a fire. Fire safety measures
include those that are planned during the construction of a building or implemented in
structures that are already standing, and those that are taught to occupants of the building.
Threats to fire safety are referred to as fire hazards. A fire hazard may include a situation
that increases likelihood a fire may start or may impede escape in the event a fire occurs.
Fire safety is often a component of building safety. Those who inspect buildings for
violations of the Fire Code and go into schools to educate children on Fire Safety topics
are fire department members known as fire prevention officers. The Chief Fire Prevention
Officer or Chief of Fire Prevention will normally train newcomers to the Fire Prevention
Division and may also conduct inspections or make presentations.

A fire safety station at a high school

Fire hoses built into a structure can sometimes be used by occupants to mitigate fires
while the fire department is responding.
Key elements of a fire safety policy
• Building a facility in accordance with the version of the local building code
• Maintaining a facility and conducting yourself in accordance with the provisions of
the fire code. This is based on the occupants and operators of the building being
aware of the applicable regulations and advice.

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Examples of these include:

• Not exceeding the maximum occupancy within any part of the building.
• Maintaining proper fire exits and proper exit signage (e.g., exit signs pointing to
them that can function in a power failure)
• Placing and maintaining fire extinguishers in easily accessible places.
• Properly storing/using, hazardous materials that may be needed inside the building
for storage or operational requirements (such as solvents in spray booths).
• Prohibiting flammable materials in certain areas of the facility.
• Periodically inspecting buildings for violations, issuing Orders To Comply and,
potentially, prosecuting or closing buildings that are not in compliance, until the
deficiencies are corrected or condemning it in extreme cases.
• Maintaining fire alarm systems for detection and warning of fire.
• Obtaining and maintaining a complete inventory of firestops.
• Ensuring that spray fireproofing remains undamaged.
• Maintaining a high level of training and awareness of occupants and users of the
building to avoid obvious mistakes, such as the propping open of fire doors.
• Conduct fire drills at regular intervals throughout the year.
Some common fire hazards are:
• Blocked cooling vent
• Overloaded electrical system
• Fuel store areas with high oxygen concentration or insufficient protection
• Materials that produce toxic fumes when heated
• Objects that block fire exits
• Combustibles near or around the clothes dryer
• Incorrectly installed wiring
• Misuse of electrical appliances
• Lit candles left unattended
• Improperly-extinguished tobacco
• Failure to clean and maintain the clothes dryers exhaust duct
• Combustible solutions on clothes placed in the clothes dryer
• Flammables left near a hot water heater
• Fireplace chimneys not properly or regularly cleaned
• Misuse of wood burning stoves

Improper use and maintenance of gas stoves often create fire hazards

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Fire code
The Fire code (also Fire prevention code or Fire safety code) is a model code
adopted by the state or local jurisdiction and enforced by fire prevention officers within
municipal fire departments. It is a set of rules prescribing minimum requirements to
prevent fire and explosion hazards arising from storage, handling, or use of dangerous
materials, or from other specific hazardous conditions. It complements the building code.
The fire code is aimed primarily at preventing fires, ensuring that necessary training and
equipment will be on hand, and that the original design basis of the building, including
the basic plan set out by the architect, is not compromised. The fire code also addresses
inspection and maintenance requirements of various fire protection equipment in order to
maintain optimal active fire protection and passive fire protection measures.
A typical fire safety code includes administrative sections about the rule-making and
enforcement process, and substantive sections dealing with fire suppression equipment,
particular hazards such as containers and transportation for combustible materials, and
specific rules for hazardous occupancies, industrial processes, and exhibitions.
Sections may establish the requirements for obtaining permits and specific precautions
required to remain in compliance with a permit. For example, a fireworks exhibition may
require an application to be filed by a licensed pyrotechnician, providing the information
necessary for the issuing authority to determine whether safety requirements can be met.
Once a permit is issued, the same authority (or another delegated authority) may inspect
the site and monitor safety during the exhibition, with the power to halt operations, when
unapproved practices are seen or when unforeseen hazards arise.
List of some typical fire and explosion issues in a fire code
• fireworks, explosives, mortars and cannons, model rockets (licenses for
manufacture, storage, transportation, sale, use)
• certification for servicing, placement, and inspecting fire extinguishing equipment
• general storage and handling of flammable liquids, solids, gases (tanks, personnel
training, markings, equipment)
• limitations on locations and quantities of flammables (e.g., 10 liters of gasoline
inside a residential dwelling)
• specific uses and specific flammables (e.g., dry cleaning, gasoline distribution,
explosive dusts, pesticides, space heaters, plastics manufacturing)
• permits and limitations in various building occupancies (assembly hall, hospital,
school, theater, elderly care, child care, prisons, warehouses, etc)
• locations that require a smoke detector, sprinkler system, fire extinguisher, or
other specific equipment or procedures
• removal of interior and exterior obstructions to emergency exits or firefighters
and removal of hazardous materials
• permits and limitations in special outdoor applications (tents, asphalt kettles,
bonfires, etc)
• other hazards (flammable decorations, welding, smoking, bulk matches, tire yards)
• Electrical safety code
• Fuel gas code

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Public fire safety education

Fire prevention programs may include distribution of smoke detectors, visiting schools to
review key topics with the students and implementing nationally recognized programs
such as NFPAs "Risk Watch" & "Learn not to burn‖.
Other programs or props can be purchased by fire departments or community
organizations. These are usually entertaining and designed to capture children's attention
and relay important messages. Props include those that are mostly auditory, such as
puppets & robots. The prop is visually stimulating but the safety message is only
transmitted orally. Other props are more elaborate, access more senses and increase the
learning factor. They mix audio messages and visual queues with hands-on interaction.
Examples of these include mobile trailer safety houses and tabletop hazard house
simulators.
All programs tend to mix messages of general injury prevention, safety, fire prevention
and escape in case of fire. In most cases the fire department representative is regarded as
the expert and is expected to present information in a manner that is appropriate for each
age group.
Fire educator qualifications
The US industry standard that outlines the recommended qualifications for fire safety
educators is NFPA 1035: Standard for Professional Qualifications for Public Fire and
Life Safety Educator, 2005 Edition. This standard is currently being revised and the
newest edition is slated for release in 2010. According to NFPA, 1035 specifically covers
the requirements for Fire and Life Safety Educator Levels I, II, and III; Public
Information Officer; and Juvenile Firesetter Intervention Specialist Levels I and II.
Target Audiences: According to the United States Fire Administration, the very young
and the elderly are considered to be "at risk" populations. These groups represent
approximately 33% of the population and they should receive fire safety information.
Protection and prevention:
Fire fighting services are provided in most developed areas to extinguish or contain
uncontrolled fires. Trained firefighters use fire apparatus, water supply resources such as
water mains and fire hydrants or they might use A and B class foam depending on what is
feeding the fire. Fire prevention is intended to reduce sources of ignition. Fire prevention
also includes education to teach people how to avoid causing fires. Buildings, especially
schools and tall buildings, often conduct fire drills to inform and prepare citizens on how
to react to a building fire. Purposely starting destructive fires constitutes arson and is a
crime in most jurisdictions.

Structure fire

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Model building codes require passive fire protection and active fire protection systems to
minimize damage resulting from a fire. Most common form of active fire protection is
fire sprinklers. To maximize passive fire protection of buildings, building materials and
furnishings in most developed countries are tested for fire-resistance, combustibility and
flammability. Upholstery, carpeting and plastics used in vehicles and vessels are also
tested.
Methodology of Recording the Causes of Fire Disasters:
Fire risk analysis: a measure or a probability
Fire risk analysis is still an open question. It is always in two steps:
1. measure of severity
2. probability distribution
The measure of severity may also be separated into two parts:
1. definition of the scale that measures severity, such as number of fatalities and
injured persons, dollars' worth of damage, area affected by flames or smoke, etc.
2. definition of the rules for calculating the specific severity measurement to be used
for a particular fire
The probability distribution provides the probability, for each value, that the severity
measure may have, i.e., the probability for every type of fire.
As actual fires reflect all the factors that affect ignition probability and fire severity, fire
risk analysis usually begins with the calculation of fire prevention factors.
Fire prevention factors
It is essential to understand that the major factors in fire prevention are the initial input in
any fire risk analysis approach, in order to organize a fire security system which is always
designed on the basis of the development of fire and its resulting combustion products,
i.e., smoke and gas. Table below lists the major factors in fire prevention. These concern
the most important heat sources and flammable materials, the major factors that bring
them together, and building practices that can affect the success of prevention.

Heat source a. Fixed equipment

b. Portable equipment
c. Torches and other tools
d. Materials for smoking and associated lighting implements
e. Explosives
f. Natural causes
g. Exposure to other fires
Forms and types a. Building materials
of ignitable materials b. Interior and exterior finishes
c. House contents and furnishings
d. Stored materials and supplies
e. Trash, lint and dust
f. Combustible or flammable gases or liquids
g. Volatile solids
Factors that bring a. Arson
heat and ignitable b. Misuse of heat source
material together c. Misuse of ignitable material
d. Mechanical or electrical failure

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e. Design, construction or installation deficiency

f. Error in operating equipment
g. Natural causes
h. Exposure
Practices that affect a. Housekeeping
prevention success b. Security
c. Education of occupants
d. Control of fuel type, quantity and distribution

Fires develop in several stages, or "realms". Table below provides guidance on the
technical definition of these realms. Within any realm a fire may either continue to grow
or be unable to sustain continued development and die down. It includes a rough guide to
the approximate flame sizes that may be used to describe the size of the realms. It also
describes the major factors that influence growth within a realm. Absence of a significant
number of factors indicate that the fire will self-terminate rather than continue to develop.

Realm Approximate range Main factors influencing

of fire extent spread of fire
1. Amount and duration of heat flux
Pre-burning Overheating to ignition
2. Surface area receiving heat
1. Fuel continuity (flame 250 ram high)
2. Material ignitability
Initial burning Ignition to radiation point 3. Thickness
4. Surface roughness
5. Thermal inertia of the fuel
1. Interior finish
2. Fuel arrangement
Radiation point to
3. Feedback
Vigorous burning enclosure point (flame
4. Material ignitability
250 ram to 1.5 m high)
5. Thermal inertia of the fuel
6. Proximity of flames to walls
1. Interior finish
2. Fuel arrangement
Enclosure point to 3. Feedback
ceiling point (flame 1.5 4. Height of fuels
Interactive burning
m to flame touching 5. Proximity of flames to walls
ceiling) 6. Ceiling height
7. Room insulation
8. Size and location of openings
1. Fuel arrangement
2. Ceiling height
Ceiling point to full
Remote burning 3. Length/width ratio
room involvement
4. Room insulation
5. Size and location of openings

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Risk estimation and evaluation: A fire risk analysis designer must ascertain both the
general and the particular conditions that influence the level of fire risk that can be
tolerated in a given building or space.
• The acceptable levels of risk and the focus of fire safety analysis and strategy
processes are concentrated under the following headings
• Safety
• Property protection
• Continuity of building or space operations
It is important, at this stage of the present analysis, to describe what is an acceptable risk.
Fire risk analysis may be distinguished as:
1. Risk estimation, i.e., the estimation and analysis of the measure of severity and
probability and their associated uncertainties
2. Risk evaluation, i.e., the additional steps required to be decided regarding the
importance of a particular value of risk or a change in risk
A fire analysis that includes risk evaluation may be called a fire risk assessment in order
to underline the fact that the analysis will support value judgments.
Acceptable risk is the term used when the method of risk evaluation involves treating risk
as a constraint. This method may seem attractive because it refuses to consider costs until
or unless a sufficient degree of fire safety has been provided. In an acceptable risk
approach, a certain level of risk is defined as acceptable, and all alternatives meeting that
level are evaluated strictly on the basis of cost. When acceptable risk is not defined in
terms of affordable risk, it is often defined in the following terms:
• historically acceptable risk (i.e., "anything in use for a long time is all right"),
which may be overturned if public understanding of the magnitude of the risk
changes dramatically
• unavoidable risk, such as the use of background radiation levels as a guide for
acceptable exposure to medical X-rays
Most extreme version of an acceptable risk approach is the minimum risk approach. It is
difficult to ascertain the level of risk that will be tolerated by the owner of a building, its
occupants, and the community. It is often necessary to make a conscious effort to arouse
sensitivity of the occupants to contents and purpose of the building (or the space it
occupies), with regard to products of combustion. Consequently, fire safety criteria are
often not identified in a clear, concise manner that enables the designer to provide
appropriate protection for the realization of design objectives. It is unfortunately
impossible to provide more than some general guidelines that must be considered in
building design in order to assist in the identification of fire safety objectives. Specific
objectives must be developed for each individual building or space.
Safety. The first step in safety fire risk analysis design is to identify the characteristic
occupants of the building or the space (e.g., a stadium). What are the physical and mental
capabilities of the occupants? What is the range of their activities and locations during the
24-hour, seven day-a-week period? Are special considerations needed for certain periods
of the day or week? The interaction of the building's response to the fire with the actions
of its occupants during the fire emergency determines the acceptable level of risk that the
building design poses.
Property protection. Specific items of property that have a high monetary or other value
must be identified in order to protect them adequately in case of fire.

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Continuity of building operations. The third major design concern is the maintenance of
operational continuity after a fire. The amount of "downtime" that can be tolerated before
revenues begin to be seriously affected must be identified. Certain functions or locations
are more essential for continued operation of the building than others. It is important to
identify areas of the building that are particularly sensitive to space (or building)
operations, so that adequate protection can be provided for the vital business operations
that are conducted in them.
Building Fire Protection: Modern buildings built under the strict design and buildings
codes of today have many fire protection systems installed by default. These systems
assist with detection and response to fire related emergencies.
If you have questions or maintenance issues in regards to any of this equipment, please
contact the Property and Campus Services - Maintenance Department on (03) 8344 6000.
Fire Break Glass Alarm (B.G.A.)
Buildings fitted with a "Fire - Break Glass Alarm" allow occupants to
activate the fire alarm and alert the fire brigade easily. The red panel on
the wall houses a small button that when depressed will contact the Fire
Brigade. The Fire Brigade will respond instantly to the building. You
should always try to ring University Security on x46666 to confirm the
fire. The glass or perspex material is easy to break with your fist, elbow
or a pen. Smashing the glass will sometimes activate the button
automatically.
Fire Control Systems
Some buildings or sections of buildings are fitted with automatically
activated sprinkler heads. On activation, the sprinklers discharge a fine
mist of water to extinguish/contain a fire.
In other special risk locations such as flammable liquids storerooms,
computer rooms (main frames), flood systems are used to extinguish fire.
Where gaseous flooding systems are installed in normally occupied areas
(e.g. computer rooms), a warning alarm is sounded prior to the discharge
of gas into the room. A warning notice instructing personnel what to do
should also be displayed.
Fire Indicator Panel (FIP)
The F.I.P. is the hub of the fire alarm system in a building. It is usually
located on the ground floor near an entrance close to the nearest road.
The panel may be located in a cabinet or on a wall. On the panel is a
number of lights and buttons. These lights "indicate" which fire sensor
has activated in the building. The FIP will automatically notify the fire
brigade of an alarm when one of its sensors locates a fire. The FIP. will
usually talk to the E.W.I.S. (where installed) and notify the building
occupants that they need to evacuate.
Fire Hose Reels & Fire Hydrants
Canvas fire hoses attached to or adjacent to fire hydrant points are
installed only for use by the Fire Brigade. They must not be used by
untrained personnel as injury or excess property damage may result.

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Fire Doors
Fire doors are installed to minimise the spread of fire, including the
passage of smoke through a building. Fire doors may be automatically
operated by heat activated mechanisms or smoke detectors. The securing
of fire doors must be such that persons leaving an area via the fire door
can do so without the use of keys or similar at all times. Fire doors must
not be wedged open.
Smoke and Thermal Fire Detectors
The detection system in buildings may sense either heat or smoke or a
combination of these. Smoke detectors are increasingly being used
because of their earlier warning of an emergency situation. Smoke
detectors may also be used to activate fire doors to isolate zones in the
building.
Portable Fire Extinguishers
Portable fire fighting equipment such as fire extinguishers are designed
to provide the user with an appliance to attend a small fire during its
initial stage.

How to Prevent a House Fire: House fires kill and injure thousands yearly, and cost
many more their valued possessions and memories. Here are some steps you can take to
lessen the chance of your home becoming a part of this statistic.
Steps
™ Inspect your home. You may need to recruit, or even hire, someone experienced
in home electrical wiring, plumbing (gas), heating, and air conditioning.
™ Stay in the kitchen when using the range for cooking. If you are leaving for
just a minute, turn off all the burners on the range. Going to the basement for a
can of tomatoes, or running out to check the mail, going to the bathroom,
answering the phone in another part of the house? Simply turn off all the burners.
After all, you are just leaving for a minute. You can immediately turn the pot or
frying pan back on when you return. Doing this simple step will prevent one of
the most common situations that cause house fires: unattended cooking. When
cooking with oil, keep a lid or flat cookie sheet close by. If flames appear, simply
suffocate the fire with the lid and immediately turn off stove or fryer to let it cool
down. Do not try to move the pan. Do not use water. The super-heated water will
explode into steam, and can cause severe burns, and oil can splash and spread fire.
™ Don't cook when drinking alcohol, using drugs, or are very tired. Eat
something prepared, make a cold sandwich, and go to sleep. Cook your meal later,
when you are fully conscious.
™ Don't sit down or lie down when smoking. Standing up will usually prevent you
from falling asleep while smoking. Getting too tired? Put out the cigarette
thoroughly in an ash tray or water-damp sink and go to bed. Cleaning out the ash
tray? Place the ashes in the sink and dampen them, then scoop them up and place
them in the trash can away from the house.
Check the condition of your electrical system.
o Look for improperly grounded receptacles. Many modern appliances require
a "three pronged" (grounded) receptacle, but people will sometimes use an

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adapter to bypass this safety feature, or even break a ground prong off an
appliance cord. Changing existing circuits to provide grounding is usually a
job left to a professional electrician.
o Look in the attic and crawl spaces for wiring which has been damaged by
pests or insects. Some old wiring is insulated with a material which insects
eat or chew on, and squirrels or other rodents will often chew the
thermoplastic insulation off of modern nonmetallic cable (Romex).
o Look for overloaded circuit breakers, panel boxes, or fuse boxes. Check for
breakers or fuses which may have circuits "piggy-backed" on them. These
are rated for single circuit protection, but sometimes in outdated or
undersized panel boxes, people will put two or even more wires in the
terminal of a single breaker or fuse.
o Notice flickering lights, or intermittent power surges. These conditions may
be caused by outside influences, but if they occur often, they may indicate a
bad connection or short in the circuit.
o Note breakers which "trip", or fuses that "blow" frequently. This is almost
always a sign of an overloaded circuit or other wiring problem, usually of a
most serious nature.
o Look at the individual breaker connections, especially in outdoor panel
boxes, for corrosion, signs of thermal damage (smut or smokey residue near
terminals) splices which are poorly taped or wire nutted, or abraded or
damaged wire insulation.
o Check the ground cable. A failure in the building grounding system and
bonding can be dangerous in regard to electrical shock, as well as fire. Look
for loose split bolts, clamps, or other connecting devices, and corrosion.
o Be especially careful to notice any connections in wiring other than copper.
Installed correctly, and with tight connections, aluminum wire is not
excessively dangerous, but when connections are made to copper wires, an
electrolytic reaction may occur, causing increased resistance in the
connection which will generate excessive heat. If you are able to apply an
antioxidant compound to aluminum connections, it will help decrease the
risk of oxidation causing a short circuit at these locations.
o Look into possibility of installing a lightning protection system in home if
you live in an area where lightning is a frequent problem. The savings from
reduced damages to appliances may offset the cost of this upgrade.
™ Consider having a home sprinkler system installed, to extinguish fires when
you are away and at home.
™ Check the natural gas/LP gas system in your home. You will want to look for
loose fittings, leaking valves, faulty pilot lights, and debris or improperly stored
flammable materials in areas near these appliances.
™ Check the vent stacks on gas water heaters, furnaces, and clothes dryers.
™ Check the automatic ignition systems or pilot lights on these fixtures, as well,
particularly for any guards which are not properly installed, and for lint or dust
buildup in the immediate area around them.
™ Have the gas plumbing (pipes), valves, and regulators inspected by a professional
any time you smell gas or suspect a leak.

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™ Check the Heating Ventilation and Air Condition unit (HVAC).

Check the air conditioning and heating unit in your home. These systems
operate with electric motors and air moving equipment which requires periodic
maintenance.
o Clean, or have your interior AC coils cleaned, and replace your return air
filters regularly. This will prevent the fan motor from being overworked,
and also save money on your energy bill. For window AC's, NEVER use
extension cords!
o Lubricate belt drive pulleys (where applicable), boss bearings on drive
motors, and other equipment as needed.
o Have the resistance coils or furnace burners cleaned and serviced at the
beginning of the heating season, since debris may accumulate there while
the system is off during the summer.
o Listen to the system when it is operating. Squealing sounds, rumbling
noises, or banging and tapping sounds may indicate loose parts or bearings
which are seizing up.
o If you have access to a snap-on amp meter, you may check the amperage
draw on the high amperage circuit to your heating coils to make sure they
are in the normal operating range. Higher than normal amperage draw on a
circuit indicates unusual resistance, and in an electrical circuit, resistance
is what causes heat, and ultimately, fires.
Check your appliances.
o Keep the range and hood clean. Grease fires are no fun.
o Keep your stove and oven clean, especially watching for grease
accumulation.
o Check stove vent hoods, clean the filter regularly, and make sure that if it
is equipped with an exterior vent, insects or birds do not build nests or
otherwise impede the air flow through it.
o Check the power cords for your appliances. Look for missing grounding
prongs on the plugs and damaged insulation, and replace or repair them if
defects are found.
o Keep the lint trap and outside vent clean in your clothes dryer. Some
dryers have internal ductwork which may become clogged and require
servicing, so if the dryer is operating poorly, have it checked. Lint or other
material collecting near the heat coils in clothes dryers is extremely
dangerous. Stay nearby while using the dryer. Have a smoke alarm and
fire extinguisher nearby. If you must leave the area for a minute, turn off
the dryer. After all, you are not going to be away long, and you can
immediately turn the dryer on when you return.
Be very careful with space heaters.
o Keep flammable materials (curtains, the couch) a safe distance (usually 3
feet) from portable heaters.
o Set heaters where they are not in the traffic flow of the room.
o As a rule, extension cords are not recommended with space heaters. Small,
low wattage heaters may be an exception, but check the manufacturer's

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recommendations prior to using an extension cord with one. Be SAFE,

just don't use extension cords.
o Use space heaters only on solid, firm surfaces. They should never be
placed on tables, chairs or other places where they may tip over. Replace
old space heaters with ones that will automatically turn off if tipped over.
Maintain your fireplace correctly.
o Fire box cut away.
o Inspect the fire box (hearth) for cracks, damaged sheet metal (for inserts)
and other hazards.
o Use glass fire doors or a wire mesh spark screen to prevent embers from
popping out of the fireplace.
o Burn dry, seasoned wood to prevent creosote buildup in the chimney. Note
that some woods, like cedar, pop excessively when burned, and should not
be used in an open fireplace.
o Remove ash and unburned wood only when there are no embers or sparks
in the fire box. Place ash in a metal (NOT plastic bucket) and place
outside away from any buildings.
o Have your chimney inspected and cleaned at least once a year.
Never store flammable liquids near ignition sources.
o Keep gasoline, paint thinners, and other highly flammable liquids or
materials in UL approved containers and out of the house.
o Do not store any flammable liquid in a garage or utility room with that has
a pilot light equipped appliance in use in it. Be safe, keep these items
outdoors, or in a separate outbuilding.
Never use extension cords for air conditioners. An overheated cord is like an
out-of-control electric heater.
Be careful with candles, oil lamps, and other open flame illumination or
decorations. Cover the flame with a wire cage to prevent something from falling
or blowing onto the flame, and to prevent children and pets from coming in
contact with the flame. Extinguish the fire when leaving the room, if even for a
minute. After all, you'll be right back, and you can immediately relight the candle.
Use caution with holiday decorations, particularly Christmas trees. Natural
Christmas trees are highly combustible when they become dry, and old, damaged,
or low quality tree lights cause many fires when combined with an under watered
or otherwise dry tree. Watch a video of a Christmas tree fire. It is amazing how
fast it can destroy a room, and a home.
Be very careful in any situation where you use an extension cord for
extended periods of time. Often, foot traffic, moving furniture, and other hazards
damage these cords, causing a potential for a fire. Holiday decorations are often
lit for weeks with these cords, and if you are using them, use a high quality cord
with a sufficient rating for the intended purpose.
Teach your children not to play with lighters or matches. Children are often
the cause and victims of fires, and should not be allowed access to matches or
cigarette lighters. Consider getting a lockable box, and keeping matches and
lighters locked up.

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Do not pile up lawn clippings near a building. Fermenting lawn clippings can
create heat, and catch on fire. Barn fires start this way from bales of hay with no
electricity; house fires have been started from a pile of lawn clippings.
Be careful using a grill on a deck. Decks are flammable. Place non-flammable
pads under your grill. Have a fire extinguisher readily available. Stay with your
grill while cooking. Turn off propane if leaving, if even for a minute. After all,
you'll be right back and can turn on the propane again.
Crate train dogs and use the crates when you are not home and awake, to
prevent new dogs or puppies from chewing on electrical cords, or pets from
urinating on electrical objects and starting a fire.
Confine new cats to a safe room, a small room with no places for the cat to
crawl into to hide (such as into the refrigerator motor), and no electrical
cords. Use the safe room until the cat is calm and no longer hiding. Provide cats
with edible oat or wheat grass, to prevent them from chewing on electrical cords.
Confine rabbits, chinchillas, and other pets when not supervising them, to prevent
them from chewing on electrical cords, causing burns or electrical fires.
After Using Matches quickly place in or run under water to extinguish any
invisible flame or heat source that could cause a fire in the trash can.
Tips
• Install and maintain fire alarms, smoke detectors, and carbon monoxide detectors.
There have been countless lives saved using these inexpensive devices.
• If you suspect or notice electrical problems or strange odors, don't hesitate to have
them checked by a competent person.
• Never store oily rags, especially rags saturated with mineral spirits, paint thinners,
or linseed oil. Under certain conditions, these materials may spontaneously
combust (start on fire without any known source).
• Store only the minimum amount of any combustible material in your home, and
keep it in the original, or a UL approve container.
• Teach your children proper evacuation techniques in case of a fire. Practice
family fire drills, with a meeting place outside (by the tree in the front yard, or at
the mailbox or front gate. That way you will all know that everyone is safely
outside. Never go back into a house on fire.
• Watch an educational video of a house fire with your older children. The smoke
will be very black very quickly, unlike the fires on the movies. You have very
little time to escape a fire.
• Do not block doors or windows which may be needed to escape fire.
• Contact your local Fire Department and request a Residential Home Survey. In
most areas they will be happy to come out and give you advice and you are not
required to do anything that they say if you don't want to. It is completely
voluntary.
Warnings
• Never burn debris or allow debris to accumulate near your home.
• In case of a fire, get out of your home as quickly as possible, making sure all
occupants are alerted and leave also.

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Coal Fire
The term coal fire refers to a burning or smoldering coal seam, coal storage pile or coal
waste pile. The adsorption of oxygen at the outer and inner surface of coal and resulting
oxidation is an exothermic reaction. This leads to an increase in temperature within the
coal accumulation. If the temperature exceeds approximately 80°C the coal can ignite and
start to burn. This process, referred to as ―spontaneous combustion‖, is the most common
cause for coal fires of large extent. Spontaneous combustion processes can be accelerated
through human impact. Mining operations expose formerly covered coal to oxidation
processes and additionally lead to the accumulation of large coal waste and storage piles.
Coal fires can also be ignited by lightning, forest- or peat fires, mining accidents or
careless human interaction. Uncontrolled coal seam fires are an environmental and
economic problem of international magnitude. They occur in many countries worldwide
including China, India, Russia, the United States, Indonesia, Venezuela, Australia, South
Africa, Germany, Romania and the Czech Republic.

Global coal fire occurrence

Bulk storage of any combustible materials leads to fire risk in many large storage areas
such as waste bunkers, wood or paper stockpiles and coal storage yards. Self-ignition
usually starts within the bottom layers of a stockpile as a result of temperature increases
in the material. Continuous monitoring of the surface layers enables a fast location of hot
spots rapid response to coal fires at initial stage. It is obvious and well proven that coal
fire fighting at the initial stage increases the probability to control and extinguish the fire
it with low effort. The fires usually start as ‗hot spots‘ in the coal accumulation. These are
places where the generated heat cannot be dissipated efficiently while there is still
enough oxygen to promote the oxidation reaction of the coal.
Why and when self-ignition may occur?
First the coal‘s temperature begins to climb above ambient. At about 65°C-150°C
measurable quantities of gas-aerosols, hydrogen and CO2 gases announce the danger of
possible combustion. As the temperature increases further, at about 315°C-370°C
relatively large, visible particulates are emitted. Soon, as the hot spot heating rate
increases in intensity, reaching about 400°C-425°C, incipient combustion, and ultimately
self ignition and flame, will occur. The risk from fire exists anywhere significant amounts
of coal are in use or storage. After all, coal is flammable and susceptible to a variety of
ignition scenarios. One of the most frequent and serious causes of coal fires is
spontaneous combustion. In fact, spontaneous combustion is one of the most prevalent
and serious causes of coal fires. It has been a well-known, and long-feared, danger at coal
storage sites all over the world. Coal reacts with atmospheric oxygen even at ambient

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temperatures and this reaction is exothermic. If the heat liberated during the process is
allowed to accumulate, the rate of the above reaction increases exponentially and there is
a further rise in temperature. When this temperature reaches the ignition temperature of
coal, the coal starts to burn and the phenomena is described as spontaneous combustion.
Preventing spontaneous combustion coal fires involves attention to many different factors.
Among the most critical are the type, age, and composition of coal, how it is stored, and
how it is used. Given the right kind of coal, oxygen, and a certain temperature and
moisture content, coal will burn by itself. Spontaneous combustion has long been
recognized as a fire hazard in stored coal. Spontaneous combustion fires usually begin as
"hot spots" deep within the reserve of coal. The hot spots appear when coal absorbs
oxygen from the air. Heat generated by the oxidation then initiated the fire. Such fires can
be very stubborn to extinguish because of the amount of coal involved and the difficulty
of getting to the seat of the problem. Moreover, coal in either the smoldering of flaming
stage may produce copious amounts of CH4 and CO2 gases. In addition to their toxicity,
these gases are highly explosive in certain concentrations, and can further complicate
efforts to fight this type of coal fire. Even the most universal firefighting substance, water,
cannot be used indiscriminately. Because of the remote possibility of a steam explosion,
it is advisable that water be applied carefully and from a safe distance.
What may cause spontaneous coal combustion?
The following general factors contribute to spontaneous coal fires:
• Long coal handling procedures which allow long-time retention of coal, which
increases the possibility of overheating.
• New coal added on top of old coal created segregation of particle sizes, which is a
major cause of overheating.
• Insufficient, temperature probes installed in the coal bunker resulted in an
excessive period of time before the fire is detected.
• Failure of equipment needed to fight the fire.
• Ineffective capability and use of CO2 suppression system.
• Delay in the application of water.
• Inadequate policies, procedures, and training of personnel prevented proper
decision making, including the required knowledge to immediately attack the fire.
Environmental effects of coal: There are a number of adverse environmental effects of
coal mining and burning.
Effects of mining:
• Release of carbon dioxide and methane, both of which are greenhouse gases
causing climate change and global warming . Coal is the largest contributor to the
human-made increase of CO2 in the atmosphere.
• Waste products including uranium, thorium, and other radioactive and heavy
metal contaminants
• Acid rain
• Acid mine drainage (AMD)
• Interference with groundwater and water table levels
• Impact of water use on flows of rivers and consequential impact on other land-
uses
• Dust nuisance tunnels, sometimes damaging infrastructure
• Rendering land unfit for the other uses

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Effects on water:
• Flood events can cause severe damage to improperly constructed or located coal
haul roads, housing, coal crushing and washing plant facilities, waste and coal
storage piles, settling basin dams, surface water diversion structures, and the mine
itself. Besides the danger to life and property, large amounts of sediment and poor
quality water may have detrimental effects many miles downstream from a mine
site after a flood.
• Ground water supplies may be adversely affected by surface mining. These
impacts include drainage of usable water from shallow aquifers; lowering of
water levels in adjacent areas and changes in flow directions within aquifers;
contamination of usable aquifers below mining operations due to infiltration or
percolation of poor quality mine water; and increased infiltration of precipitation
on spoil piles.
• Where coal or carbonaceous shales are present, increased infiltration may result in
increased runoff of poor quality water and erosion from spoil piles; recharge of
poor quality water to shallow groundwater aquifers; or poor quality water flow to
nearby streams. This may contaminate both ground water and nearby streams for
long periods. Lakes formed in abandoned surface mining operations are more
likely to be acid if there is coal or carbonaceous shale present in spoil piles,
especially if these materials are near the surface and contain pyrites.
• Sulphuric acid is formed when minerals containing sulphide are oxidised through
air contact, which could lead to acid rain. Leftover chemicals deposits from
explosives are usually toxic and increase the salt quantity of mine water and even
contaminating it.
Effects on wildlife: Surface mining of coal causes direct and indirect damage to wildlife.
The impact on wildlife stems primarily from disturbing, removing, and redistributing the
land surface. Some impacts are short-term and confined to the mine site; others may have
far reaching, long term effects.
• The effect on wildlife is destruction or displacement of species in areas of
excavation and spoil piling. Mobile wildlife species like game animals, birds, and
predators leave these areas. More sedentary animals like invertebrates, many
reptiles, burrowing rodents and small mammals may be directly destroyed.
• If streams, lakes, ponds or marshes are filled or drained, fish, aquatic invertebrates,
and amphibians are destroyed. Food supplies for predators are reduced by
destruction of these land and water species. Animal populations displaced or
destroyed can eventually be replaced from populations in surrounding ranges,
provided the habitat is eventually restored. An exception could be extinction of a
resident endangered species.
• Many wildlife species are highly dependent on vegetation growing in natural
drainages. This vegetation provides essential food, nesting sites and cover for
escape from predators. Any activity that destroys this vegetation near ponds,
reservoirs, marshes, and wetlands reduces the quality and quantity of habitat
essential for waterfowl, shore birds, and many terrestrial species
• Broad and long lasting impacts on wildlife are caused by habitat impairment. The
habitat requirements of many animal species do not permit them to adjust to
changes created by land disturbance. These changes reduce living space.

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• Large mammals and other animals displaced from their home ranges may be
forced to use adjacent areas already stocked to carrying capacity. This
overcrowding usually results in degradation of remaining habitat, lowered
carrying capacity, reduced reproductive success, increased interspecies and intra-
species competition, and potentially greater losses to wildlife populations than the
number of originally displaced animals.
• Degradation of aquatic habitats has often been a major impact from surface
mining and may be apparent to some degree many miles from a mining site.
• In some situations, surface mining may have beneficial impacts on some wildlife.
Where large, continuous tracts of forest, bush land, sagebrush, or grasslands are
broken up during mining, increased edges and openings are created. Preferred
food and cover plants can be established in these openings to benefit a wide
variety of wildlife. Under certain conditions, creation of small lakes in the mined
area may also be beneficial. These lakes and ponds may become important water
sources for a variety of wildlife inhabiting adjacent areas. Many lakes formed in
mine pits are initially of poor quality as aquatic habitat after mining, due to lack
of structure, aquatic vegetation, and food species. They may require habitat
enhancement and management to be of significant wildlife value.
Loss of topsoil: Removal of soil and rock overburden covering the coal resource, if
improperly done, causes burial and loss of top soil, exposes parent material, and creates
vast infertile wastelands.
Fly ash spills

Aerial photograph of Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill
Strategies for Coal mine Disaster Prevention
Mine fires are caused due to spontaneous heating of coal and carbonaceous matter in the
rocks. In coal mines the fires could be underground fires which have remained
underground or may become surface fires, fires in coal benches in open cast mines, fires
in overlying rock mass, fires in overburden dumps or fires in coal stacks. Such fires in the
coalfields not only consume huge quantity of coal but also do not permit exploitation of
coal in adjoining areas and in underlying coal seams. Combating mine fires, specially the
underground fires that have remained underground and those that have become surface
fires, is a costly proposition. The Trigger Mechanism should aim to prevent any further
occurrence of the fires and quick liquidation of the existing fires. The information needed

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during preparedness is: zonation of existing coal mine fire affected regions, modelling/
simulation of potential land subsidence and related impact, assessment of loss of
property/energy; for warning/prediction it is real time monitoring of coal fires, prediction
of spread and depth, pollution extent; for relief it is delineation of affected areas, ways to
arrest spread of fire, support to affected population, and for rehabilitation it is long-term
measures to control spread, awareness creation among public, relocation of affected
people. Mine Fire Hazard Assessment is by mine fire monitoring, hazard estimation and
mapping. Mining situations which may lead to development of the mine fires have been
outlined and Coal Mining Regulations, 1957 and subsequent circulars amply provide for
the safeguards against mine fires. While for Disaster Warning System some
experimentation has been done with the continuous monitoring systems of gases and
temperature, there is practically no general prevailing disaster warning system in the
Indian coal fields in respect of mine fires. The Directorate General of Mines Safety
(DGMS) examines from all considerations each and every application for underground
and surface mining and wherever necessary imposes conditions that require preparedness
for taking actions in the case of occurrence of the mine fires, specially in the underground
mines. The R&D activities in relation to mine fires address prevention and preparedness.
Post disaster actions in respect of mine fires depend upon the type and location of fire.
The most important fires are the ones that occur in the underground workings. The short-
range and long range actions have been listed. The strategies for disaster prevention in
respect of the mine fires should be viewed and developed from the following
considerations:
1. Prevent spreading of existing fires and their mitigation.
2. Integrate preventive measures in mine planning and design.
3. Provision of periodical technical audit of mines in order to check deviations from the
planned activities.
4. Create a fire mitigation fund for meeting expenditure on mitigation of existing fires.
5. Permit mines to sell reclaimed land at prevailing rates to recover the costs of
reclamation and development of land. This may require some amendments in the Land
Acquisition Act.
6. Evolving a scheme of reward and punishment for prevention, safeguarding and
mitigation of mine fires.
7. Development of a catalogue of fire related characteristics of coal seams in Indian
coalfields.
8. Development of a catalogue of details of mine fires prevailing in the Indian coalfields
and actions being taken for their mitigation.
9. Assessment of potential fire areas in existing mines and suggesting preventive
measures.
10. Strengthening R&D facilities at research and educational institutions.
11. Strengthening mine fire wings of the coal companies.
There are certain limitations in taking up mine fire management programme which need
to be overcome through:
• Operational use of high technology (satellite/aerial data) for monitoring and
estimation of extent and depth.
• Accelerating response time to meet needs of decision-makers.

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• Mapping of fire-prone areas and appropriate planning Development of new tools

such as thermal inertia mapping and AR interferometry for accurate information
of fires.
The following recommendations are being made for the implementation of strategies for
prevention of mine fires:
1. A comprehensive compendium of precise and accurate details of all existing mine fires
in the Indian coalfields be prepared.
2. A workshop be organised with experts who should interact with the officials of the
mining companies.
3. In the entire mining project proposals and related environmental management plans
(EMPs), prevention of fire should be specifically addressed.
4. A comprehensive compendium on details of existing underground mines and open-cast
mines be prepared coal field-wise so that the existing situation can be assessed for future
occurrences of mine fires and hence implementation of preventive measures may be
carried out.
5. Although a large number of claims have been made by R&D and educational
institutions towards breakthroughs for mitigation and prevention of mine fires, a
consolidated statement is not available. Hence, it will be advisable to direct the
institutions to develop a compendium of achievements so far for the benefit of the
industry.
6. The R&D and educational institutions may be directed to conduct studies addressing
the problems faced by the mining industry in a time bound manner.
7. A high-powered committee comprising of real mining, mine fire, subsidence and
environmental experts be formed to assess and oversee the actions being taken by the
concerned agencies.
8. All the details be placed on a dedicated web-site with provision for continuous
updating.
9. Wherever surface is likely to be affected by subsidence and their impacts with chances
of fires, construction activities should not be permitted.
10. Actions should be initiated to relocate settlements from the coalfields that are
threatened by mine fires.
Forest fire/ Wildfire
What causes forest fires?
Forest fire refers to the uncontrolled fire that erupts in the wilderness. It can be caused by
many factors like lightning, volcanic eruptions and also human actions.

A wildfire in California, USA on 5 September 2008

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A wildfire is any uncontrolled fire in combustible vegetation that occurs in the

countryside or a wilderness area. Other names such as brush fire, bushfire, forest fire,
grass fire, hill fire, peat fire, vegetation fire, veldfire and wildland fire may be used to
describe the same phenomenon depending on the type of vegetation being burned. A
wildfire differs from other fires by its extensive size, the speed at which it can spread out
from its original source, its potential to change direction unexpectedly, and its ability to
jump gaps such as roads, rivers and fire breaks. Wildfires are characterized in terms of
the cause of ignition, their physical properties such as speed of propagation, the
combustible material present, and the effect of weather on the fire.
Wildfires occur on every continent except Antarctica. Fossil records and human history
contain accounts of wildfires, as wildfires can occur in periodic intervals. Wildfires can
cause extensive damage, both to property and human life, but they also have various
beneficial effects on wilderness areas. Some plant spp. depend on the effects of fire for
growth and reproduction, although large wildfires may also have -ve ecological effects.
Strategies of wildfire prevention, detection, and suppression have varied over the years,
and wildfire management experts encourage further development of technology and
research. One of the more controversial techniques is controlled burning: permitting or
even igniting smaller fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a
potential wildfire. While some wildfires burn in remote forested regions, they can cause
extensive destruction of homes and other property located in the wildland-urban interface:
a zone of transition between developed areas and undeveloped wilderness.
Characteristics

The distribution of wildfires on the African continent during the year 2002
The name wildfire was once a synonym for Greek fire but now refers to any large or
destructive conflagration. Wildfires differ from other fires in that they take place
outdoors in areas of grassland, woodlands, bushland, scrubland, peatland, and other
wooded areas that act as a source of fuel, or combustible material. Buildings may become
involved if a wildfire spreads to adjacent communities. While the causes of wildfires vary
and the outcomes are always unique, all wildfires can be characterized in terms of their
physical properties, their fuel type, and the effect that weather has on the fire.
Wildfire behavior and severity result from the combination of factors such as available
fuels, physical setting, and weather. While wildfires can be large, uncontrolled disasters
that burn through 0.4 to 400 square kilometers (100 to 100,000 acres) or more, they can
also be as small as 0.0010 square kilometers (0.25 acres) or less. Although smaller events
may be included in wildfire modeling, most do not earn press attention. This can be
problematic because public fire policies, which relate to fires of all sizes, are influenced
more by the way the media portrays catastrophic wildfires than by small fires.

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Causes: The four major natural causes of wildfire ignitions are lightning, volcanic
eruption, sparks from rockfalls, and spontaneous combustion. The thousands of coal seam
fires that are burning around the world, such as those in Centralia, Burning Mountain,
and several coal-sustained fires in China, can also flare up and ignite nearby flammable
material. However, many wildfires are attributed to human sources such as arson,
discarded cigarettes, sparks from equipment, and power line arcs (as detected by arc
mapping). In societies experiencing shifting cultivation where land is cleared quickly and
farmed until the soil loses fertility, slash and burn clearing is often considered the least
expensive way to prepare land for future use. Forested areas cleared by logging
encourage the dominance of flammable grasses, and abandoned logging roads overgrown
by vegetation may act as fire corridors. Annual grassland fires in Southern Vietnam can
be attributed in part to the destruction of forested areas by herbicides, explosives, and
mechanical land clearing and burning operations during the Vietnam War.
The most common cause of wildfires varies throughout the world. In the United States,
Canada, and Northwest China, for example, lightning is the major source of ignition. In
other parts of the world, human involvement is a major contributor. In Mexico, Central
America, South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, Fiji, and New Zealand, wildfires can be
attributed to human activities such as animal husbandry, agriculture, and land-conversion
burning. Human carelessness is a major cause of wildfires in China and in the
Mediterranean Basin. In Australia, the source of wildfires can be traced to both lightning
strikes and human activities such as machinery sparks and cast-away cigarette butts.
Fuel type

A surface fire in the western desert of Utah, Charred landscape following a crown fire in
US the North Cascades, US

The spread of wildfires varies based on the flammable material present and its vertical
arrangement. For example, fuels uphill from a fire are more readily dried and warmed by
the fire than those downhill, yet burning logs can roll downhill from the fire to ignite
other fuels. Fuel arrangement and density is governed in part by topography, as land
shape determines factors such as available sunlight and water for plant growth. Overall,
fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows:
• Ground fires are fed by subterranean roots, duff and other buried organic matter.
This fuel type is especially susceptible to ignition due to spotting. Ground fires

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typically burn by smoldering, and can burn slowly for days to months, such as
peat fires in Kalimantan and Eastern Sumatra, Indonesia, which resulted from a
riceland creation project that unintentionally drained and dried the peat.
• Crawling or surface fires are fueled by low-lying vegetation such as leaf and
timber litter, debris, grass, and low-lying shrubbery.
• Ladder fires consume material between low-level vegetation and tree canopies,
such as small trees, downed logs, and vines. Kudzu, Old World climbing fern, and
other invasive plants that scale trees may also encourage ladder fires.
• Crown, canopy, or aerial fires burn suspended material at the canopy level, such
as tall trees, vines, and mosses. Ignition of a crown fire, termed crowning, is
dependent on density of the suspended material, canopy height, canopy continuity,
and sufficient surface and ladder fires in order to reach the tree crowns e.g.,
ground-clearing fires lit by humans can spread into the Amazon rain forest,
damaging ecosystems not particularly suited for heat or arid conditions.
Physical properties
Wildfires occur when all of the necessary elements of a fire triangle come together in a
wooded area: an ignition source is brought into contact with a combustible material such
as vegetation, that is subjected to sufficient heat and has an adequate supply of oxygen
from the ambient air. High moisture content usually prevents ignition and slows
propagation, because higher temperatures are required to evaporate any water within the
material and heat the material to its fire point. Dense forests usually provide more shade,
resulting in lower ambient temperatures and greater humidity, and are therefore less
susceptible to wildfires. Less dense material such as grasses and leaves are easier to
ignite because they contain less water than denser material such as branches and trunks.
Plants continuously lose water by evapotranspiration, but water loss is usually balanced
by water absorbed from the soil, humidity, or rain. When this balance is not maintained,
plants dry out and are therefore more flammable, often a consequence of droughts.

Experimental fire in Canada

A wildfire front is the portion sustaining continuous flaming combustion, where
unburned material meets active flames, or the smoldering transition between unburned
and burned material. As the front approaches, the fire heats both the surrounding air and
woody material through convection and thermal radiation. First, wood is dried as water is
vaporized at a temperature of 100°C (212°F). Next, the pyrolysis of wood at 230°C

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(450°F) releases flammable gases. Finally, wood can smolder at 380°C (720°F) or, when
heated sufficiently, ignite at 590°C (1,000°F). Even before the flames of a wildfire arrive
at a particular location, heat transfer from the wildfire front warms the air to 800°C
(1,470°F), which pre-heats and dries flammable materials, causing materials to ignite
faster and allowing the fire to spread faster. High-temperature and long-duration surface
wildfires may encourage flashover or torching: the drying of tree canopies and their
subsequent ignition from below.
Wildfires have a rapid forward rate of spread (FROS) when burning through dense,
uninterrupted fuels. They can move as fast as 10.8 kilometers per hour (6.7 mph) in
forests and 22 kilometers per hour in grasslands. Wildfires can advance tangential to the
main front to form a flanking front, or burn in the opposite direction of the main front by
backing. They may also spread by jumping or spotting as winds and vertical convection
columns carry firebrands (hot wood embers) and other burning materials through the air
over roads, rivers, and other barriers that may otherwise act as firebreaks. Torching and
fires in tree canopies encourage spotting, and dry ground fuels that surround a wildfire
are especially vulnerable to ignition from firebrands. Spotting can create spot fires as hot
embers and firebrands ignite fuels downwind from the fire. In Australian bushfires, spot
fires are known to occur as far as 10 kilometers from the fire front.
Especially large wildfires may affect air currents in their immediate vicinities by the
stack effect: air rises as it is heated, and large wildfires create powerful updrafts that will
draw in new, cooler air from surrounding areas in thermal columns. Great vertical
differences in temperature and humidity encourage pyrocumulus clouds, strong winds,
and fire whirls with the force of tornadoes at speeds of more than 80 kilometers per hour.
Rapid rates of spread, prolific crowning or spotting, the presence of fire whirls, and
strong convection columns signify extreme conditions.
Effect of weather
Heat waves, droughts, cyclical climate changes such as El Niño, and regional weather
patterns such as high-pressure ridges can increase the risk and alter the behavior of
wildfires dramatically. Years of precipitation followed by warm periods can encourage
more widespread fires and longer fire seasons. Since the mid 1980s, earlier snowmelt and
associated warming has also been associated with an increase in length and severity of
the wildfire season in the Western United States. However, one individual element does
not always cause an increase in wildfire activity. For example, wildfires will not occur
during a drought unless accompanied by other factors, such as lightning (ignition source)
and strong winds (mechanism for rapid spread).
Fire intensity also increases during daytime hours. Burn rates of smoldering logs are up
to five times greater during the day due to lower humidity, increased temperatures, and
increased wind speeds. Sunlight warms the ground during the day which creates air
currents that travel uphill. At night the land cools, creating air currents that travel
downhill. Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills
and through valleys. Fires in Europe occur frequently during the hours of 12:00 p.m. and
2:00 p.m. Wildfire suppression operations in the United States revolve around a 24-hour
fire day that begins at 10:00 a.m. due to the predictable increase in intensity resulting
from the daytime warmth.

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Ecology

Global fires during the year 2008 for the months of August (top image) and February
(bottom image), as detected by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
(MODIS) on NASA's Terra satellite.
Wildfires are common in climates that are sufficiently moist to allow growth of
vegetation but feature extended dry, hot periods. Such places include vegetated areas of
Australia and Southeast Asia, the veld in southern Africa, the fynbos in Western Cape of
South Africa, the forested areas of the United States and Canada, and the Mediterranean
Basin. Fires can be particularly intense during days of strong winds, periods of drought,
and during warm summer months. Global warming may increase the intensity and
frequency of droughts in many areas, creating more intense and frequent wildfires.
Although some ecosystems rely on naturally occurring fires to regulate growth, many
ecosystems suffer from too much fire, such as the chaparral in southern California and
lower elevation deserts in the American Southwest. The increased fire frequency in these
ordinarily fire-dependent areas has upset natural cycles, destroyed native plant
communities, and encouraged the growth of fire-intolerant vegetation and non-native
weeds. Invasive species, such as Lygodium microphyllum and Bromus tectorum, can
grow rapidly in areas that were damaged by fires. Because they are highly flammable,
they can increase the future risk of fire, creating a positive feedback loop that increases
fire frequency and further destroys native growth.
In the Amazon Rainforest, drought, logging, cattle ranching practices, and slash-and-burn
agriculture damage fire-resistant forests and promote the growth of flammable brush,
creating a cycle that encourages more burning. Fires in the rainforest threaten its
collection of diverse species and produce large amounts of CO2. Also, fires in the
rainforest, along with drought and human involvement, could damage or destroy more
than half of the Amazon rainforest by the year 2030. Wildfires generate ash, destroy
available organic nutrients, and cause an increase in water runoff, eroding away other

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nutrients and creating flash flood conditions. A 2003 wildfire in the North Yorkshire
Moors destroyed 2.5 square kilometers (600 acres) of heather and the underlying peat
layers. Afterwards, wind erosion stripped the ash and the exposed soil, revealing
archaeological remains dating back to 10,000 BC. Wildfires can also have an effect on
climate change, increasing the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere and
inhibiting vegetation growth, which affects overall carbon uptake by plants.
Plant adaptation

Ecological succession after a wildfire in a boreal pine forest next to Hara Bog, Lahemaa
National Park, Estonia.
The pictures were taken one and two years after the fire.
Plants in wildfire-prone ecosystems often survive through adaptations to their local fire
regime. Such adaptations include physical protection against heat, increased growth after
a fire event, and flammable materials that encourage fire and may eliminate competition.
For example, plants of the genus Eucalyptus contain flammable oils that encourage fire
and hard sclerophyll leaves to resist heat and drought, ensuring their dominance over less
fire-tolerant species. Dense bark, shedding lower branches, and high water content in
external structures may also protect trees from rising temperatures. Fire-resistant seeds
and reserve shoots that sprout after a fire encourage species preservation, as embodied by
pioneer species. Smoke, charred wood, and heat can stimulate the germination of seeds in
a process called serotiny. Exposure to smoke from burning plants promotes germination
in other types of plants by inducing the production of the orange butenolide.
Grasslands in Western Sabah, Malaysian pine forests, and Indonesian Casuarina forests
are believed to have resulted from previous periods of fire. Chamise deadwood litter is
low in water content and flammable, and the shrub quickly sprouts after a fire. Sequoia
rely on periodic fires to reduce competition, release seeds from their cones, and clear the
soil and canopy for new growth. Caribbean Pine in Bahamian pineyards have adapted to
and rely on low-intensity, surface fires for survival and growth. An optimum fire
frequency for growth is every 3 to 10 years. Too frequent fires favor herbaceous plants,
and infrequent fires favor species typical of Bahamian dry forests.
Atmospheric effects
See also: Air pollution, Atmospheric chemistry, Haze, 1997 Southeast Asian haze, 2005
Malaysian haze, and 2006 Southeast Asian haze

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A Pyrocumulus cloud produced by a wildfire in Yellowstone National Park

Most of the Earth's weather and air pollution reside in the troposphere, the part of the
atmosphere that extends from the surface of the planet to a height of about 10 kilometers
(6 mi). The vertical lift of a severe thunderstorm or pyrocumulonimbus can be enhanced
in the area of a large wildfire, which can propel smoke, soot, and other particulate matter
as high as the lower stratosphere. Previously, prevailing scientific theory held that most
particles in the stratosphere came from volcanoes, but smoke and other wildfire
emissions have been detected from the lower stratosphere. Pyrocumulus clouds can reach
6,100 meters (20,000 ft) over wildfires. Increased fire byproducts in the stratosphere can
increase ozone concentration beyond safe levels. Satellite observation of smoke plumes
from wildfires revealed that the plumes could be traced intact for distances exceeding
1,600 kilometers (1,000 mi). Computer-aided models such as CALPUFF may help
predict the size and direction of wildfire-generated smoke plumes by using atmospheric
dispersion modeling.
Wildfires can affect climate and weather and have major impacts on atmospheric
pollution. Wildfire emissions contain fine particulate matter which can cause
cardiovascular and respiratory problems. Forest fires in Indonesia in 1997 were estimated
to have released between 0.81 and 2.57 gigatonnes (0.89 and 2.83 billion short tons) of
CO2 into the atmosphere, which is between 13%–40% of the annual carbon dioxide
emissions from burning fossil fuels. Atmospheric models suggest that these
concentrations of sooty particles could increase absorption of incoming solar radiation
during winter months by as much as 15%.

Smoke trail- while looking towards Dargo from Swifts Creek, Victoria, Australia, 11 January 2007

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Human involvement
The human use of fire for agricultural and hunting purposes during the Paleolithic and
Mesolithic ages altered the preexisting landscapes and fire regimes. Woodlands were
gradually replaced by smaller vegetation that facilitated travel, hunting, seed-gathering
and planting. In recorded human history, minor allusions to wildfires were mentioned in
the Bible and by classical writers such as Homer. However, while ancient Hebrew, Greek,
and Roman writers were aware of fires, they were not very interested in the uncultivated
lands where wildfires occurred. Wildfires were used in battles throughout human history
as early thermal weapons. From the Middle ages, accounts were written of occupational
burning as well as customs and laws that governed the use of fire. In Germany, regular
burning was documented in 1290 in the Odenwald and in 1344 in the Black Forest. In
14th century Sardinia, firebreaks were used for wildfire protection. In Spain during the
1550s, sheep husbandry was discouraged in certain provinces by Philip II due to the
harmful effects of fires used in transhumance. As early as the 1600s, Native Americans
were observed using fire for many purposes including cultivation, signaling, and warfare.
Scottish botanist David Douglas noted the native use of fire for tobacco cultivation, to
encourage deer into smaller areas for hunting purposes, and to improve foraging for
honey and grasshoppers. Charcoal found in sedimentary deposits off the Pacific coast of
Central America suggests that more burning occurred in the 50 years before the Spanish
colonization of the Americas than after the colonization. In the post-World War II Baltic
region, socio-economic changes led more stringent air quality standards and bans on fires
that eliminated traditional burning practices.
Wildfires typically occurred during periods of increased temperature and drought. An
increase in fire-related debris flow in alluvial fans of northeastern Yellowstone National
Park was linked to the period between AD 1050 and 1200, coinciding with the Medieval
Warm Period. However, human influence caused an increase in fire frequency.
Dendrochronological fire scar data and charcoal layer data in Finland suggests that, while
many fires occurred during severe drought conditions, an increase in the number of fires
during 850 BC and 1660 AD can be attributed to human influence. Charcoal evidence
from the Americas suggested a general decrease in wildfires between 1 AD and 1750
compared to previous years. However, a period of increased fire frequency between 1750
and 1870 was suggested by charcoal data from North America and Asia, attributed to
human population growth and influences such as land clearing practices. This period was
followed by an overall decrease in burning in the 20th century, linked to the expansion of
agriculture, increased livestock grazing, and fire prevention efforts.
Prevention
Wildfire prevention refers to the preemptive methods of reducing the risk of fires as well
as lessening its severity and spread. Effective prevention techniques allow supervising
agencies to manage air quality, maintain ecological balances, protect resources, and to
limit the effects of future uncontrolled fires. North American firefighting policies may
permit naturally caused fires to burn to maintain their ecological role, so long as the risks
of escape into high-value areas are mitigated. However, prevention policies must
consider the role that humans play in wildfires, since, for example, 95% of forest fires in
Europe are related to human involvement. Sources of human-caused fire may include
arson, accidental ignition, or the uncontrolled use of fire in land-clearing and agriculture
such as the slash-and-burn farming in Southeast Asia.

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In the mid-1800s, explorers from the HMS Beagle observed Australian Aborigines using
fire for ground clearing, hunting, and regeneration of plant food in a method called fire-
stick farming. Such careful use of fire has been employed for centuries in the lands
protected by Kakadu National Park to encourage biodiversity. In 1937, U.S. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated a nationwide fire prevention campaign, highlighting the
role of human carelessness in forest fires. Later posters of the program featured Uncle
Sam, leaders of the Axis powers of World War II, characters from the Disney movie
Bambi, and the official mascot of the U.S. Forest Service, Smokey Bear.

A prescribed burn in a Pinus nigra stand in Portugal

Wildfires are caused by a combination of natural factors such as topography, fuels, and
weather. Other than reducing human infractions, only fuels may be altered to affect future
fire risk and behavior. Wildfire prevention programs around the world may employ
techniques such as wildland fire use and prescribed or controlled burns. Wildland fire
use refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn. Controlled
burns are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather
conditions.Vegetation may be burned periodically to maintain high species diversity, and
frequent burning of surface fuels limits fuel accumulation, thereby reducing the risk of
crown fires. Using strategic cuts of trees, fuels may also be removed by handcrews in
order to clean and clear the forest, prevent fuel build-up, and create access into forested
areas. Chain saws and large equipment can be used to thin out ladder fuels and shred
trees and vegetation to a mulch. Multiple fuel treatments are often needed to influence
future fire risks, and wildfire models may be used to predict and compare the benefits of
different fuel treatments on future wildfire spread. However, controlled burns are
reportedly "the most effective treatment for reducing a fire‘s rate of spread, fireline
intensity, flame length, and heat per unit of area" according to Jan Van Wagtendonk, a
biologist at the Yellowstone Field Station. Additionally, while fuel treatments are
typically limited to smaller areas, effective fire management requires the administration
of fuels across large landscapes in order to reduce future fire size and severity.
Building codes in fire-prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame-
resistant materials and a defensible space be maintained by clearing flammable materials
within a prescribed distance from the structure. Communities in the Philippines also
maintain fire lines 5 to 10 meters wide between the forest and their village, and patrol
these lines during summer months or seasons of dry weather. Fuel buildup can result in
costly, devastating fires as new homes, ranches, and other development are built adjacent

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to wilderness areas. Continued growth in fire-prone areas and rebuilding structures

destroyed by fires has been met with criticism. However, the population growth along the
wildland-urban interface discourages the use of current fuel management techniques.
Smoke is an irritant and attempts to thin out the fuel load is met with opposition due to
desirability of forested areas, in addition to other wilderness goals such as endangered
species protection and habitat preservation. The ecological benefits of fire are often
overridden by the economic and safety benefits of protecting structures and human life.
For example, while fuel treatments decrease the risk of crown fires, these techniques
destroy the habitats of various plant and animal species. Additionally, government
policies that cover the wilderness usually differ from local and state policies that govern
urban lands.

A ponderosa pine stand in the Bitterroot National Forest in Montana in 1909, 1948, and 1989. The
increase in vegetation density was attributed to fire prevention efforts since 1895.
Detection
Fast and effective detection is a key factor in wildfire fighting. Early detection efforts
were focused on early response, accurate results in both daytime and nighttime, and the
ability to prioritize fire danger. Fire lookout towers were used in the United States in the
early 1900s and fires were reported using telephones, carrier pigeons, and heliographs.
Aerial and land photography using instant cameras were used in the 1950s until infrared
scanning was developed for fire detection in the 1960s. However, information analysis
and delivery was often delayed by limitations in communication technology. Early
satellite-derived fire analyses were hand-drawn on maps at a remote site and sent via
overnight mail to the fire manager. During the Yellowstone fires of 1988, a data station
was established in West Yellowstone, permitting the delivery of satellite-based fire
information in approximately four hours.

Dry Mountain Fire Lookout in the Ochoco National Forest, Oregon, circa 1930

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Currently, public hotlines, fire lookouts in towers, and ground and aerial patrols can be
used as a means of early detection of forest fires. However, accurate human observation
may be limited by operator fatigue, time of day, time of year, and geographic location.
Electronic systems have gained popularity in recent years as a possible resolution to
human operator error. These systems may be semi- or fully-automated and employ
systems based on the risk area and degree of human presence, as suggested by GIS data
analyses. An integrated approach of multiple systems can be used to merge satellite data,
aerial imagery, and personnel position via Global Positioning System (GPS) into a
collective whole for near-realtime use by wireless Incident Command Centers.
A small, high risk area that features thick vegetation, a strong human presence, or is close
to a critical urban area can be monitored using a local sensor network. Detection systems
may include wireless sensor networks that act as automated weather systems: detecting
temperature, humidity, and smoke. These may be battery-powered, solar-powered, or
tree-rechargeable: able to recharge their battery systems using the small electrical
currents in plant material. Larger, medium-risk areas can be monitored by scanning
towers that incorporate fixed cameras and sensors to detect smoke or additional factors
such as the infrared signature of carbon dioxide produced by fires. Additional capabilities
such as night vision, brightness detection, and color change detection may also be
incorporated into sensor arrays.
Satellite and aerial monitoring can provide a wider view and may be sufficient to monitor
very large, low risk areas. These more sophisticated systems employ GPS and aircraft-
mounted infrared or high-resolution visible cameras to identify and target wildfires.
Satellite-mounted sensors such as Envisat's Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer
and European Remote-Sensing Satellite's Along-Track Scanning Radiometer can
measure infrared radiation emitted by fires, identifying hot spots greater than 39 °C
(102 °F). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Hazard Mapping
System combines remote-sensing data from satellite sources such as Geostationary
Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES),

Wildfires across the Balkans in late July 2007 (MODIS image)

Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and Advanced Very High
Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) for detection of fire and smoke plume locations.
However, satellite detection is prone to offset errors, anywhere from 2 to 3 kilometers (1
to 2 mi) for MODIS and AVHRR data and up to 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) for GOES data.
Satellites in geostationary orbits may become disabled, and satellites in polar orbits are

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often limited by their short window of observation time. Cloud cover and image
resolution and may also limit the effectiveness of satellite imagery.
Suppression:
Wildfire suppression depends on the technologies available in the area in which the
wildfire occurs. In less developed nations such as Thailand, the techniques used can be as
simple as throwing sand or beating the fire with sticks or palm fronds. In more advanced
nations, the suppression methods vary due to increased technological capacity. Silver
iodide can be used to encourage snow fall, while fire retardants and water can be dropped
onto fires by unmanned aerial vehicles, planes, and helicopters. Complete fire
suppression is no longer an expectation, but the majority of wildfires are often
extinguished before they grow out of control. While more than 99% of the 10,000 new
wildfires each year are contained, escaped wildfires can cause extensive damage.
Worldwide damage from wildfires is in the billions of euros annually. Wildfires in
Canada and the US burn an average of 54,500 square kilometers (13,000,000 acres) per
year.

Tanker 910 during a drop demonstration in December, 2006

Above all, fighting wildfires can become deadly. A wildfire's burning front may also
change direction unexpectedly and jump across fire breaks. Intense heat and smoke can
lead to disorientation and loss of appreciation of the direction of the fire, which can make
fires particularly dangerous. For example, during the 1949 Mann Gulch fire in Montana,
USA, thirteen smokejumpers died when they lost their communication links, became
disorientated, and were overtaken by the fire. In the Australian February 2009 Victorian
bushfires, at least 173 people died and over 2,029 homes and 3,500 structures were lost
when they became engulfed by wildfire.
The Effects of Forest Fires on Animals
Nothing is more destructive to a forest environment than fire. This unpredictable element
can quickly and easily devour miles of forest land, leaving a path of charred ruin in its
wake. News programs often give detailed reports about property damage and measure the
effects of forest fires in terms of dollars. However, these devastating events have another
set of casualties: animals. The forest fauna experiences drastic changes when a fire seizes
the land.
Injury and Mortality- One of the first and most direct effects a fire will have on forest
animals is injury or death. This can be from the fire itself or from inhalation of toxic

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fumes produced within the blaze. Vertebrates are less likely to be greatly affected in this
fashion. When vertebrate deaths do occur, there are usually no lasting effects on the
population.
Spike in Food Supply- When a forest is damaged by fire, new and beneficial minerals
are introduced to the soil. These nutrients stimulate the growth of enriched plant life,
providing an abundance of food for forest-dwelling fauna. In some cases, animals will eat
ash or the charred bark of trees and obtain beneficial minerals.
Population Growth- For the animals that benefit from the surge in the food supply, it is
not uncommon for an increase in population to occur. This boom in forest animal births
does not necessarily mean they will thrive over the long term. This is because the post-
fire environment is barren and simplistic, offering little potential for long-term
adjustment.
Forced Migration- Forest fires turn the area into a scorched and simplified habitat.
While some animals are equipped to survive in this type of setting, others are not.
Unfortunately, these animals are forced to vacate the altered habitat and seek new
surroundings. These animals often perish when unable to locate new dwellings.

Forest Fires in India

The most common hazard in forests is forests fire. Forests fires are as old as the forests
themselves. They pose a threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the entire regime
to fauna and flora seriously disturbing the bio-diversity and the ecology and environment
of a region. During summer, when there is no rain for months, the forests become littered
with dry senescent leaves and twinges, which could burst into flames ignited by the
slightest spark. The Himalayan forests, particularly, Garhwal Himalayas have been
burning regularly during the last few summers, with colossal loss of vegetation cover of
that region.
Oil Fire
Oil fires are oil wells/tanks that have caught on fire, and burn. Petroleum is highly
inflammable. It is processed at high pressure and temperature. Oil fires can be the result
of human actions, such as accidents or arson or natural events, such as lightning. They
can exist on a small scale, such as an oil field spill catching fire, or on a huge scale, as in
geyser-like jets of flames from ignited high pressure oil wells.
Effects
Oil well fires/tanks can cause the loss of millions of barrels of crude oil per day.
Combined with the ecological problems caused by the large amounts of smoke and
unburnt petroleum falling back to earth, oil tanks fires was seen in Jaipur and oil well fire
generally seen in Kuwait can cause enormous economic losses.

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Smoke from burnt crude oil contains many chemicals, including sulfur dioxide, carbon
monoxide, soot, benzopyrene, Poly aromatic hydrocarbons, and dioxins. There are
several techniques used to put out oil well fires, which vary by resources available and
the characteristics of the fire itself. In essence the trade was started by Myron M. Kinley,
who dominated the field in the early years. His lieutenant, Red Adair, went on to become
the most famous of oil well firefighters.
Extinguishing the fires
The techniques include:
• Dousing with copious amounts of water
• Raising the plume- Inserting one metal casing 30 to 40 feet high over the well head
(thus raising the flame above the ground). Liquid nitrogen or water is then forced in at
the bottom to reduce the oxygen supply and put out the fire.
• Drill relief wells into the producing zone to redirect some of the oil and make the fire
smaller. (However, most relief wells are used to pump heavy mud and cement deep
into the wild well).
• Using a gas turbine to blast a fine mist at the fire. Water is injected to the compressor
section of the turbine in large quantities. This does not harm the turbine. This
technique is also used for cleaning turbines.
• Using dynamite to 'blow out' the fire by blasting fuel and oxygen from the flame and
consuming oxygen in the combustion. This was one of the earliest effective methods
and is still widely used. The first use was in California in 1913.
• Dry Chemical (mainly Purple K) can be used on small well fires such as those in
refineries.
Special vehicles called "Athey wagons" as well as the typical bulldozer protected by
corrugated steel sheeting are normally used in the process.

Air pollution
Air pollution is defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of air that may be harmful to human, other life, plants and cultural assets.
In broad sense pollution is the thermodynamic disorder that is the byproduct of energy
conversion and the use of resources.
Types of Air Pollutants: Two main groups of air pollutants based on their way of
emission:
Primary pollutants: These emitted directly into the air are called primary pollutants e.g.
particulates, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and hydro carbons.

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Secondary pollutants: These are the pollutants produced through reactions between
primary pollutants and normal atmospheric compounds e.g. ozone in lower atmosphere
over urban areas. Products from photo chemical processes are called photoxidents, which
mainly occur as a consequence of traffic immissions which have toxic and irritating effects.
Under the influence of sunlight, nitrogen oxides and reactive hydro carbons enter into
photo chemical reactions resulting in production of ozone and secondary products such as
peroxides, aldehydes, free redicals and peroxiacetylnitrate (PAN).
Sources and effects of pollutants
Sulfur dioxide: The major anthropogenic source of Sulfur oxide (SO2) is the burning of
fossil fuels mostly coal in power plants. Adverse effects include corrosion of paint and
metals and injury or death to animals and plants. SO2 is an irritant gas with adverse effects
on the respiratory tract of humans and animals and also on the assimilation apparatus of
plants. Even after short-term influence SO2 conc. above 0.2 mg/m3 of air can cause serious
disorders in the assimilation organs of conifers and necrotic changes. Building materials
sensitive to acids such as lime stones, sand stone, marble etc. are corroded and destroyed.
Nitrogen oxides: They are emitted mainly in two forms: NO and NO2. Nearly all NO2 is
emitted from automobiles and power plants that burn fossil fuels. Nitrous oxides (NOx),
mixture of NO, NO2, N2O3 and N2O4, considerably contribute to air pollution. The human
seems more endangered by nitrous gases than plants. In case of low conc. there are only
scattered discolourations of leaves around the assimilation organs of coniferous and
deciduous trees. If nitrogen oxides are inhaled, they react with hemoglobin and produce
methamoglobin, but, after an initial irritant phase, they also bring about increased
respiratory activity and oedemass of the lungs. It causes irritation of eyes, nose, throat
and lungs and increase susceptibility to viral infections.
Carbon monoxide: Approximately 90% of the CO in atmosphere comes from the natural
sources and remaining 10% comes from incomplete burning of organic compounds, fires
and automobiles. It is hazardous to people with known heart disease, anemia or respiratory
disease. It may cause birth defects. It may also cause death on long exposure to high conc.
Photochemical oxidants: They results from atmospheric interactions of nitrogen oxide and
sun light. e.g. O3 and other photochemical oxidants such as PANs (peroxyacetylnitrates)
occur with photochemical smog. At high conc. O3 kills leaf tissue and even can kills whole
plant if pollutant level remains high. O3 effect on animals including human, involves
various kinds of damage, especially to eyes and the respiratory system. The consequences
of O3 or photo-oxidants exposure in plants become manifest as spot necroses, first blue
green, latter almost white. In tobacco plants, spot necroses appear on leaf surfaces and
these symptoms are so called ―Weather flecks‖ or ozone flecks. Tip necroses occur in other
plants eg., onion leaves.
Hydrocarbons: Over 80% of hydrocarbons such as methane, butane and propane etc. are
emitted through natural sources. The most important anthropogenic source is the
automobile. e.g. gasoline in car‘s tank may spill and evaporates in atmosphere. The adverse
effects of hydrocarbons are numerous. At specific concentration they are toxic to plants and
animals or may be converted into harmful compounds through chemical changes in the
atmosphere. It is true that very low amounts of ethylene are produced by many plants
themselves and that ethylene has the characteristics of a phyto-hormone and is increasingly
excreted under stress conditions. Ethylene exposure causes chloroses and necroses which
were accompanied by the leaf edges curling up often followed by a wrapping of the leaf

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stem in tomato. In many plants, the youngest leaves react first. Further symptoms are
growth depression and fading phenomena.
Hydrogen sulfide: It is produced from natural sources such as geysers, swamps and bogs
and as well as human sources such as petroleum refining and metal smelting. It is highly
toxic and corrosive gas. It causes health problem ranging from toxicity to death of humans
and other animals. Hydrogen sulfide is a cell and enzyme poison, which can cause severe
poisoning and nervous damage in human and animals. Moreover, it can also effect plant
enzymes and thus it produces irreversible damage.
Hydrogen fluoride: It is released from aluminium production, coal gasification and the
burning of coal in power plants. Even at very low concentration (1ppb) may cause
problems for plants and animals. Damage caused by hydrogen fluoride can be clearly
recognized by the discolouration of the edges and tip of leaves, mostly brown in popular
and black in birch leaves and leaves curling up at the edges. Hydrogen fluoride emissions
cause necroses at the apical part of fruits. They can result in deterioration in fruit flavour.
Chlorine and hydrogen chloride: They cause severe damage in plants. Elementary
chlorine and hydrogen chloride are used for the production of synthetic materials and
insecticides. There is an increasing production of hydrogen chloride containing waste gases
in the combustion of PVC containing plastic wastes. Chloride and hydrogen chloride
vapours sink to the ground and therefore affect in close vicinity of emitter. The inhalation
of these gases at higher concentrations leads to severe health damage. The mucous
membrane of the respiratory tract is destroyed.
Ammonia: In the vicinity of intensive animal keeping, conifers respond most sensitively to
ammonia and alkylamine containing waste gases produced by decomposition of urea and
uric acid or by the combustion of animal faeces. The needles of conifers turn red brown and
drop off. Ammonia often causes a dark brown to black colouring of the leaves of deciduous
trees and potato leaves. Turnip show bright spots on young shoots or leaves.
Particulate matter: Farming adds considerable particulates to the atmosphere, as do
desertification and volcanic eruptions. Particulate matters are smoke, soot or dust, air born
asbestos and small particles of heavy metals as arsenic, copper, lead and zinc, which are
usually emitted from industrial facilities such as smelters (Table 2). Among most fine
particulates (<2.5 µm diameter) are sulphates and nitrates.
Fine particles are easily inhaled into the lungs where they can be absorbed by the blood
stream or remain embedded for a long period of time. Particulate matter is particularly
hazardous to the elders, and those with respiratory problems such as asthma. Adverse effect
of fly ashes is mainly seen in the pollution of vegetables and fodder plants. Fly ash
sedimentation on fodder plants leads to a depreciation of feed-stuffs, reduced feed intake by
animals, decreased milk production and some times physiological damage in pasture
animals. In spite of the initial positive effects of their Ca and Mg content, long term dust
sedimentations can also leads to considerable disturbances in the nutrient balance of soils
used for agriculture and horticulture. The alkaline dust emitted by kilns and other sources
in cement plants are mixture of K, Ca and Al contain minerals. They cause imbalance in
nutrient content of soils and some time cause considerable yield reductions in orchards. The
dust containing heavy metal particles affect growth and yield in agriculture and horticulture.
The accumulation of lead, zinc and arsenic oxides in upper layers of soil leads to root
depression and thus growth disturbances in plants. In extreme cases the growth of
cultivated plants can be completely stunted.

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Sources of Air Pollution

The two major kinds of air pollution sources are stationary sources and mobile sources.
1. Stationary sources:
i) Point sources: These sources emit air pollutants from one or more controllable sites
such as smoke stacks of power plants at industrial sites.
ii) Fugitive sources: These sources generate air pollutants from open areas exposed to
wind processes. e.g. dirt roads, construction sites, farm lands, surface mines, storage piles
and other exposed areas from where particulates may be removed by wind.
iii) Area sources: These are the locations from which air pollutants are emitted from well
defined areas within which are several sources. e.g. small urban communities or areas of
intense industrialization within urban complexes or agricultural areas sprayed with
herbicides and pesticides.
2. Mobile sources: These are emitters of air pollutants which move from place to place
while yielding emissions. e.g. automobiles trucks, buses, aircrafts, trains etc.
Dispersion of air pollution
In the course of the transmission of air pollutants from source to the site where they take
effect as emissions, they are affected by emissions source parameters, meteorological and
geographical factors. These determine how far and where waste gases are transmitted and
which concs. are to be reckoned within the emission area.
A. Emission source parameters
ƒ Temperature of waste gases
ƒ Outlet speed of gases
ƒ Height of chimney
ƒ Physical-chemical properties of emission
B. Weather factors
i) Wind direction: All types of pollution are carried alongwith air stream in down wind
direction.
ii) Wind speed: In case of constant emission, the conc. of air pollution depends on wind
speed and exchange. The more air stream over the chimney within a period of time,
the lower the waste gases concentration per m3 air. Generally speaking, emission
exposure will therefore be lower in plain areas than in hilly and mountainous where
air exchange is impeded. The vertical exchange increases with wind speed and
irregular relief of the land.
iii) Thermic turbulence: Convection or thermic turbulence cause vertical exchange,
which helps in dispersion of pollutants in higher atmosphere.
iv) Inversion: Radiational cooling during night results in inverse temperature gradient
called as inversion. Temperature inversion stable atmosphere, which is a favourable
condition for air pollution. The plume of waste gases remains at chimney height.
v) Precipitation: It results in certain cleaning of the air. Rain drops absorbs pollutant
gases during their fall through air and carry them to ground, this form of emission is
called wet deposition. When gas and dust particles reach ground, vegetation without
help of rain called as dry deposition. When clouds are formed, gas and dust particles
are incorporated into the drops of water in the course of hours and carried in long
distances and fall to the ground with rain, called rain out.
C. Geographic conditions: Vegetation and buildings increase the irregularity of the
ground and thus turbulence. So, they promote sedimentation of air borne dusts. The relief

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influences the wind direction. Hills at night angles to wind direction and deeply cut
valleys are particularly problematic when low chimneys stand in front of or in them.
Control measures of air pollution
Air pollution control may be defined as the various measures taken to meet certain
emission standards. These measures may include changes in processes/raw materials or
modification of equipment. Another method is the installation of devices at the end of
process equipment to treat the exhaust gas stream. These devices are called air pollution
control equipment. In the coming section, we shall focus on the equipments that are used
for the control of particulate matter.
Particulate control devices:
1. Force field settlers: These are equipments that use a field of force for the collection
of particulate. There are three types of force fields: gravitational, centrifugal and
electrical. Gravitational settling chambers utilize gravitational force, centrifugal
collectors utilize centrifugal force and electrostatic precipitators utilize electric field.
2. Fabric filters: They are based on the principle of filtration for the removal of
particulates.
3. Scrubbers: They remove particulates from the exhaust gas stream by using water
droplets for capturing them.
Of the above, electrostatic precipitator and fabric filters possess the highest collection
efficiencies.
Some of the general control measures:
1. Tall chimneys should be installed in industries to reduce air pollution on ground.
2. Better designed fuel burning equipments should be used in homes and industries so
that complete burning of fuel takes place.
3. Renewable and non-polluting sources of energy like solar energy and wind energy
should be used e.g. solar cookers, wind machines etc.
4. Motor, vehicles should be maintained properly.
5. Strict emission control for automobiles e.g. Euro-II.
6. Zero pollutant automobiles should be manufactured and used. e.g. electric cars.
7. There should be increased control on industrial activities and household activities that
are known to contribute to air pollution.
8. More trees should be planted.
Effects of Air Pollution on Plants
Air pollution has long been known to adversely affect the plants. Initially, it was the
sulphur dioxide that was considered a dangerous pollutant. Now, with the advent of
different pesticides and new industrial processes, the range of harmful pollutants has
multiplied tremendously. Some-times, vegetation over hundreds of km away from the
source of the pollutant has been found to be affected.
Knowledge of leaf structure is essential to understand the damage on plants due to air
pollutants. Leaf has a network of denser structures, the veins, all interconnected to the
base or stem of the leaf. The leaf veins act as the transport system for water and food, just
like blood vessels in animals. The leaf tissue is in layers with a skin or epidermis layers
on top and bottom and the photosynthetic cells in between. The stomata are the entrances
in the leaf bottom (and in some leaves in the top) through which CO2 enters to play its
role in photo-synthesis. These openings are protected by pairs of specialized guard cells

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which open and close to allow gases to enter or leave the leaf. Such gases of course,
include pollutants like sulphur dioxide.
The primary factor, which controls gas absorption by the leaves, is the degree of opening
of the stomata. When the stomata are wide open, absorption is maximum and vice versa.
Consequently, the same conditions that enhance the absorption of the gas (CO2 for
photosynthesis), predispose the plant to injury (by absorbing a pollutant gas like SO2).
The conditions that cause the stomata to open are high light intensity (especially in the
morning hours), high relative humidity, and adequate moisture supply to the roots of the
plant and moderate temperatures.

Most plants close their stomata at night and are therefore much more resistant at
night than in the day-time. But some plants like the potato, which do not close their
stomata at night are as sensitive in the dark as in the light.
Major hazards
i) A fog of three days occurred in Meuse valley ( Belgium) in 1930 due to the air
pollution caused by steel, power, sulphuric acid and zinc plants and resulted in
death of 60 people, hundreds of people became ill and cattle became sick.
ii) About 4000 people died and thousand hospitalized for respiratory troubles due to a
polluted fog (smoke and SO2) in December, 1952 at London (England).
iii) A severe smog caused by photochemical smoke and PAN occurred in 1945 at Los
Angles (U. S. A) and resulted in reduction in visibility, irritation to eyes and
damage to vegetation.
iv) Photochemical oxidant reacts with SO2, resulted in acid mist at Tokyo (Japan) in
June, 1970 and about 6000 people suffered with eye irritation, sore throat and
breathing difficulty.
v) In Bhopal (India), release of deadly methyl isocynate released due to failure of vent
scrubber system on 3rd December, 1984 as a result of poised air pollution about
2500 people died and one lac people severely affected by suffocation and cardiac
failure.
Water pollution
Water pollution involves any contaminated water, whether from chemical, particulate, or
bacterial matter that degrades the water‘s quality and purity. Water pollution can occur in

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oceans, rivers, lakes, and underground reservoirs, and as different water sources flow
together the pollution can spread.
Causes of water pollution include:
• Increased sediment from soil erosion
• Improper waste disposal and littering
• Leaching of soil pollution into water supplies
• Organic material decay in water supplies
The effects of water pollution include decreasing the quantity of drinkable water
available, lowering water supplies for crop irrigation, and impacting fish and wildlife
populations that require water of certain purity for survival. The sign of water pollution
are bad taste, massive weed growth in water bodies, emission of disgusting odour,
decrease in aquatic life, oil can be seen floating on surface of water bodies or deposited
as scum on breaches etc. Water pollution, pollutants will be classified into nine categories:
Oxygen demanding wastes, disease causing agents, plant nutrients, synthetic organic
compounds, oil, inorganic chemicals, sediments and radioactive materials.
Sources of water pollution
The sources which cause water pollution can be classified into four categories:
i) Municipal and domestic oxygen demanding wastes which contains decomposable
organic matter and pathogenic agents. Municipal and domestic wastes includes
waste water from homes, commercial establishment, consist of domestic refuge,
municipal garbage and other wastes like animal wastes, crops and yard wastes and
garbages are mainly of organic origin.
ii) Most of the Indian rivers and fresh water streams are seriously polluted by
industrial wastes or effluents which come along waste water of different industries
such as petrochemical complexes, fertilizer factories, oil refineries, pulp and paper,
textile, sugar and steel mills, tanneries, distilleries, coal washeries, synthetic
material plants for drugs, fibers, rubber etc.
iii) Agricultural wastes includes sediments, fertilizers, pesticides and farm animals
wastes which reach to water bodies through runoff and by leaching through soil to
groundwater. Excessive use of agrichemicals like fertilizers, pesticides such as
BHC, DDT etc. made them an integral part of chemical and biochemical cycles of
the earth. Even these pesticides have been detected in Arctic region.
Major hazards
i) The ―itai-itai‘ disease in Japan due to cadmium poisoning was traced due to
discharge of waste water from a mine processing Cu, Zn in ‗Jintsee River‘. The
river water is used in paddy crop irrigation. Similarly Minmata was caused in
1955 by mercury poisoning.
ii) Lake Zurich in Switzerland and lake Erie in Canada are classic examples of
induced eutrophication.
iii) Discharge of large quantities of oil along with the effluents from an oil refinery
set the river aflame and resulted in suspension of water supply to the town and the
refinery near Monghya, Bihar in 1968.
iv) Hoogly at Calcutta is receiving waste from power station, paper, jute, textile and
chemical mills at an average rate of 52 tones/day. The water quality is worst than
4th grade as proposed by WHO.

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v) The water of ‗Yamuna‘ at Okhala industrial area for about 48 kms stretch is unfit
ever for irrigation purposes.
vi) Discharge of untreated waste water from a group of dye industries into the Kalu
River near Mumbai, resulted in lowering of pH to 4.0.
Deforestation
The expansion of agricultural and industrial needs, population growth, poverty,
landlessness and consumer demand are the major driving forces behind deforestation.
Most deforestation is due to conversion of forests to agricultural land. According to the
World Resource Institute Washington DC (U.S.A.), rainforest destruction rates are
214000 acres per day and 78 million acres per year. Forests are extremely important to
the survival of human beings on earth. Plants and animals, along with microorganisms,
comprise life on Earth. Herbivorous animals sustain their life by consuming plants.
Carnivorous animals and birds kill herbivorous animals for food; therefore indirectly they
also depend on plants. Sea creatures eat aquatic plants and humans consume crop plants.
A large variety of birds feed on seeds. There would rarely be any animal or bird who do
not use plants directly or indirectly to satisfy their food requirements.
Deforestation is the process of cutting the forests and converts into arable land, wasteland,
industrial or urban area. In the ancient times, much of the earth's land surface had been
covered by forests. But through the years, there have been so many activities for the
development of societies. Agriculture has to be boosted because the growing population
needs more food. Land has to be converted into residential lots where people could build
shelters. Forests also had to be sacrificed for infrastructure. Some forests were converted
into large airports or urban centers. After mid 20th century Industrialization and
deforestation are interrelated. People had primarily slashed and burned forests so they
could convert the forested land into areas where they could plant rice, corn, and other
staple crops. Deforestation has had a negative impact on rainfall, resulting in droughts
and water shortage. The loss of forests also causes desertification. The roots of trees dig
deep into the ground, penetrating several layers. They hold together these layers and
prevent the formation of dust and thus maintain the topsoil intact. In the absence of trees,
dust is formed and heavy rainfall and high sunlight damage the topsoil in clearings of the
tropical rainforests. In this way with every rainfall, the availability of fertile land
decreases. The same effect is caused with heavy winds and storms. Therefore deforested

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areas appear desert-like. In such circumstances, the forest will take much longer to
regenerate itself and the land will not be suitable for agricultural use for quite some time.
It has also been established that deforestation has contributed to the current global
warming. Forests help in the reduction of carbon monoxide in the air. Aside from climate
change, landslides and flash floods are also attributed to deforestation. Because there are
not much enough trees to absorb rainfall in the land anymore, water from rain just flows
through the surface and further denudes land.
Forests and disaster vulnerability
World Research and experience have shown that forest ecosystem play an important role
in reducing the vulnerability of communities to disasters, both in terms of reducing their
physical exposure to natural hazards and providing them with the livelihood resources.
The degradation of these ecosystems is exacerbating vulnerabilities around the world, as
the following examples illustrate. Before the Indian Ocean tsunami, 2004 had seen the
deforestation-disaster vulnerability link given high profile following a series of natural
disasters. Scientists and the media were quick to highlight the link between these events
and the country‘s high level of deforestation that has cleared 98% of its forests. In the
Philippines, flash floods and landslides left more than 1,600 people dead or missing. The
powerful cyclone that hit India‘s Orissa coast in October1999 provided another powerful
example of deforestation and disaster vulnerability. Much of the damage caused by the
cyclone occurred in the extensively-deforested new settlement areas along Orissa‘s coast
as the storm surge ripped through a 100-km long denuded stretch, the Ersama block,
killing thousands of people within minutes. The calamity of the Indian Ocean tsunami
offers an opportunity to reassess the role of forests in natural disaster prevention and
mitigation. It also presents a policy space to make significant progress in the global
commitment to forest conservation.
Benefits of planting native trees
1. Plants help stop global warming by reducing the greenhouse gases
2. They reduce soil erosion and water pollution
3. They provide habitat for native wildlife
4. They improve human health by producing oxygen and improving the quality of air
Facts about the benefits by planting the tree
1. Absorbs more than a ton of harmful greenhouse gases over its lifetime (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency)
2. One tree produces enough oxygen for four people every day (Tree Canada
Foundation)
3. Tree provides the equivalent cooling effect of ten room-size air conditioners
operating 20 hours a day (U.S. Department of Agriculture)
4. Tree provides an estimated $273 of environmental benefits in every year of its life
(American Forests)
Industrial wastewater pollution
Industry is a huge source of water pollution, it produces pollutants that are extremely
harmful to people and the environment. Many industrial facilities use freshwater to carry
away waste from the plant and into rivers, lakes and oceans.
Pollutants from industrial sources include:

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o Asbestos – This pollutant is a serious health hazard and carcinogenic. Asbestos fibres
can be inhaled and cause illnesses such as asbestosis, lung cancer, intestinal cancer
and liver cancer.
o Lead – This is a metallic element and can cause health and environmental problems.
It is a non-biodegradable substance so is hard to clean up once the environment is
contaminated. It is harmful to the health of many animals, including humans, as it can
inhibit the action of bodily enzymes.
o Mercury - This is a metallic element and can cause soil health and environmental
problems. It is a non-biodegradable substance so is hard to clean up once the
environment is contaminated. It is also harmful to animal health as it can cause illness
through mercury poisoning.
o Nitrates – The increased use of fertilizers means that nitrates are more often being
washed from the soil and into rivers and lakes. This can be very problematic to
marine environments.
o Phosphates - The increased use of fertilizers means that phosphates are more often
being washed from the soil and into rivers and lakes which can be very problematic to
marine environments.
o Sulphur – This is a non-metallic substance that is harmful for marine life.
o Oils – Oil does not dissolve in water, instead it forms a thick layer on the water
surface. It is also harmful for fish and marine birds.
o Petrochemicals – This is formed from gas or petrol and can be toxic to marine life.
Accidents
Accidents are the most horrifying moments in the life of human beings. The life which
we are leading is always unpredictable. On account of accident there is sometimes death
of the persons and in some accidents the person suffers from serious injuries. Some of the
injured persons become incapacitated for the rest of the life. That is why the term
accident is defined as a specific, identifiable and unusual set of incidents in which the
human life has a deep impact. Accidents are off various types. The common types are
internal and external accidents. In the case of internal accident the accidents taking place
like burns due to sudden fires, sudden slippage, wound during cooking etc. As per the
external accidents are concerned, the sudden fire, road accident, air accident and others
are the possible causes. Carelessness, inexperience and attitude are associated with the
occurrence of accidents.
Road Accidents
The road infrastructure and its management are more advanced in western countries as
compared to the India. The roads are broader so that the chances of accidents are less.
India has a vast road network of 3.32 million km of which the national highways and
State highways together account for 195000 km. The number of vehicles has been
growing at a rapid pace of 12 per cent per annum since the Eighties and consequently
traffic on the roads is growing at 7 to 10 per cent per annum. The mostly road accidents
have occurred due to overtaking on two lane roads. Such accidents could occur at any
time and any place, and often involve multiple injuries or deaths. More than 20 million
people are severely injured or killed on the world‘s road each year. The mostly accidents
occurs due to rapid increase of vehicles, bad roads, untrained drivers, slackness of traffic
police, lack of obeying the traffic rules etc. The citizens of India are not aware about their
own safety and quite frequently meet with accidents. In India, more than 80000 people

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are killed and around 400000 people injured by the road accident in every year. The total
annual deaths due to road accidents have crossed 1.18 lakh, according to the latest report
of National Crime Records Bureau. The report also defined the period between 3-6pm
and early in the morning hours as the most accident prone phase during the day as drivers
felt stressed out and were often half-asleep while driving.
Causes of Road accidents: The road accidents occurs due to fault of drivers pedestrian,
mechanical defect in vehicles, bad conditions of road, bad weather and other reasons like
non functioning of signals, absence of reflectors, cattle/animals on the road during night
etc. The lack of knowledge of traffic rules to drivers and road users, over speeding,
overloading, drunken driving are the major reasons of road accidents in the country.

Table: Road Accidents Statistics of India: 1970-2004

Sr # Year Total # of road Total # of persons # of accidents per # of persons killed

accidents killed 10000 vehicles per 10000 vehicles

1 1970 114100 14500 814.42 103.50

2 1980 153200 24000 338.86 53.09
3 1990 282600 54100 147.56 28.25
4 1991 295131 56278 138.08 26.33
5 1992 275541 60113 117.22 25.57
6 1993 284646 60380 111.60 23.67
7 1994 325864 64463 117.81 23.31
8 1995 351999 70781 116.19 23.36
9 1996 371204 74665 109.87 22.10
10 1997 373671 76977 100.09 20.62
11 1998 385018 79919 93.07 19.32
12 1999 386456 81966 86.12 18.27
13 2000 391449 78911 80.12 16.15
14 2001 405637 80888 73.76 14.71
15 2002 407497 84674 69.16 14.37
16 2003 406726 85998 60.70 12.83
17 2004 429910 92618 59.12 12.74

Source: Website of The Department of Road Transport and Highway, GoI

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One can avoid the accidents by following the safety rules mentioned below:
1. Drivers should keep to the vehicle in left side, allow the traffic in the opposite side to
pass you on the right side.
2. Overtake only on the right side.
3. Do not raise the speed when being overtaken by another vehicle.
2. Slow down the vehicle when passing the road junctions, railway crossing, and
villages/town.
3. Drive slowly when passing a procession, repairs of the roads, near the schools.
4. Stop the vehicle when passing the zebra crossing by the pedestrians.
5. Drive the vehicle with the speed limit as per issued by the Motor vehicle act.
6. Always obey the traffic or safety rules.
Government should also take steps for minimizing the road accidents such as:
1. Provide the assistance for setting up the Driving schools.
2. Provision of refresher courses to drivers or general public of heavy motor vehicles.
3. More stringent in issuing licenses.
4. Reduce the number of vehicles on the roads.
5. Be strict about usage of helmets.
6. Make separate lanes for heavy vehicles.
7. Awareness campaign on road safety rules among road users through audio visual
print media.
8. Speed controlling measures such as speed bumps, rumble strips, road markings,
traffic signs, and roundabouts.
9. School children need to be imparted road safety education specifying the various
safety measures to be adopted while on the road.
10. Government should care the improvements of road and facilities for road users on
highways.
Rail accidents
Indian Railways, over 63,000 km long, is the world‘s fourth largest network behind the
US, Russia and China. Considering the huge number of passengers, the frequency of
travel and the vast distances covered, rail transport are very safe. The rail accidents may
be caused by human or system failure, which may affect normal movement of rail
services with loss of human life or property. An analysis of the accident statistics reveals

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that derailments constitute a majority of the accidents followed by unmanned level

crossing accidents.
In Railways, disaster is defined as a major train accident leading to heavy causalities and
disruption to traffic for a long period. Train accidents are further classified as
consequential train accidents and other train accidents. Consequential train accidents
include train accidents having serious repercussion in terms of loss of human life/ human
injury/ loss of Railway property/ interruption to rail traffic. Some worst accidents
occurred in India where trains have collided, gone off the tracks or fallen in the river.

Major train accidents since 2006

18 August 2006: Two carriages caught fire on Chennai-Hyderabad Express near
Secundrabad railway station.
9 November 2006: About 40 died and 15 injured in a West Bengal rail accident.
1 December 2006: A portion of 150-year-old bridge being dismantled collapsed over a
passing train in Bihar‘s Bhagalpur district, killing 35 and injuring 17.
14 November 2009: The Delhi-bound Mandore Express derailed with some portion of
the track piercing its AC compartment, leaving seven passengers dead and over 60
injured in in Bassi town near Jaipur.
21 October 2009: 22 people were killed and 26 injured when the Goa Express rammed
the Mewar Express at Banjana on the Mathura-Vrindavan section of the Northern
Railway in Uttar Pradesh.
19 July 2010: 89 people were killed and more than hundred others injured when
Bhagalpur-Ranchi Vananchal Express was hit from behind by the speeding Sealdah-
bound Uttarbanga Express at Sainthia station in Birbhum district of West Bengal.
Air Accidents
The data for the air accidents that have taken place across the globe clearly project fewer
deaths when compared to any other modes of transport. Of all the means, air travel is
considered the safest to travel. There have been a few major air accidents over the Indian
skies. The recent Air India Express flight from Dubai to Mangalore…people who never
thought that this would be the very end of their life the moment they boarded the flight. It
is definitely one of the worst crashes in the decade. At the same time, there have been
road accidents and rail mishaps which have claimed even more lives.

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Causes of plane crash/air accident may occur

Although air travel is one of the safest forms of transportation, accidents do happen with
dramatic and terrifying results. The causes of these aviation accidents vary greatly
depending on specific circumstances and problems that may develop during the flight
process.
• Piloting errors
• Faulty equipment
• Violations of FAA regulations
• Design or structural problems
• Flight service negligence
• Air traffic controller error
• Third party carrier selection negligence
• Maintenance or repair negligence
• Fueling error
• Inclement weather
Other causes of aviation accidents include bird hazards, mid-air collisions, air traffic
control errors, structural defects, lack of maintenance, air show accidents, and search and
rescue operations. These incidents can be completely avoided through careful preparation
and effective safety techniques. When flight crew and pilots do their jobs correctly,
aviation accidents
Air accidents due to Inclement Weather
Sometimes Aircraft accidents occur due to inclement weather. Although poor weather
conditions are beyond the control of pilots, airlines, and flight crew, these people have a
responsibility for the safety of their passengers. When the decision is made to go ahead
with a flight despite weather advisories, the lives of others are put at risk.
Light aircraft are most affected by winds, larger aircrafts can be unexpectedly moved
around as well. When this occurs a sense of panic may fill the cabin as passengers
question their own safety and the competence of their pilots.
Turbulence is a stream of irregular winds that can influence the steadiness of an airplane
flight. Although it is usually impossible to predict, turbulence and other wind conditions
can be avoided or managed effectively by experienced pilots.
As anyone might suspect, flying in the snow can be a dangerous adventure. Pilots should
not fly in whiteout conditions such as blizzards. At these times visibility is often so poor
that instruments must be relied upon almost exclusively to determine one‘s position and
surroundings. Extreme temperatures can cause some mechanical operations to jam and
cause ice to form on aircraft.
When pilots attempt to fly in unsafe weather conditions they not only endanger their own
lives, but also the lives of passengers and people on the ground.
Rain and thunderstorms can be extremely hazardous to aviation. Turbulence, cumulus
clouds, high winds, ice, hail, lightning, loss of visibility, electrostatic discharge,
tornadoes, altimetry errors, and wet runways often accompany rain and must be managed
by pilots and flight crews. In most situations, pilots are instructed to avoid severe
thunderstorms and rain due to the risks they may pose for passengers and crew. In 1999,
American Airlines Flight 1420 crashed while attempting to land in a thunderstorm in
Little Rock, Arkansas. The large amount of rainfall had made the runway slick, causing
the plane to lose control and break apart.

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Following is the chronology of accidents involving aircraft in the country:

• Jul 7, 1962: Alitalia flight from Sydney crashes into a hill near Mumbai, 94 killed
• Jan 1, 1978: Air India flight crashes into Arabian Sea; 213 killed
• Jun 21, 1982 : Air India flight crashes at Mumbai airport, 17 of 111 passengers
killed
• Oct 19, 1988 : Air India flight crashes at Ahmedabad, 124 out of 129 passengers
killed
• Feb 14, 1990: Air India flight crashes at Bangalore, 92 out of 146 passengers
killed
• Aug 16, 1991: Air India flight crashes at Imphal, 69 killed
• Apr 26, 1993: Air India flight crashes at Aurangabad airport, 55 of 118
passengers killed
• Nov 12, 1996: Saudi Arabian Airlines flight collides midair with Kazakhastan
Airlines plane near Charki Dadri in Haryana, all 349 on board killed
• July 17, 2000: Alliance Air flight crashed at Patna Airport, killing 60 passengers.
• Sep 4, 2009: One of the engines of Air India flight catches fire at Mumbai airport,
21 injured
• May 22, 2010: AIR INDIA crashes at Mangalore, India, killing 166 passengers.

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Unit-III
Disaster Management System
It is the action that deals with reducing human suffering and property loss. Disaster
management is a complex process that requires a system to be in place at the national,
state, district and local level, comprising of different components and participating
stakeholders. The disaster management department should coordinate among different
components.

Disaster Management Cycle

The efforts at the local level may not be enough, in terms of expertise, equipment and
finances, thus disaster management assistance is needed from outside the region, usually
from the national level and international agencies, including the Red Cross and foreign
government.
I. Disaster Management Components: The five important components of disaster
management are:
1. Prevention: It is the action taken to eliminate/avoid natural hazards and their effects.
2. Preparedness: Disaster preparedness encompasses those actions, which are taken to
limit the impact of natural hazard by structuring response and establishing a
mechanism for effecting a quick and orderly reaction.
3. Mitigation: It includes the measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard and
vulnerable conditions to it in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster. Therefore,
mitigation measures can be focused on the hazard itself or the elements exposed to
the threat.
4. Response: It includes emergency management by various organizations to be taken
in responding disaster. Many services that need to be mobilized at a moment‘s notice
and functioning for an indeterminate period in coordinate manner under stressful
circumstances. The ability of agency to manage crises is critically dependent on the
availability and flow of real time information from monitory systems, thematic data
bases and decision support systems that are linked through national network.

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5. Recovery: It is concerned with providing relief after the disaster has occurred. It
deals with providing food and shelter to the disaster victims, restoring normal
conditions and providing financial and technical assistance to rebuild.
Collective and participative action is required over a long period of time for disaster
management in all stages from the pre-disaster stage to relief, rehabilitation and re-
construction. Various stake-holders who must work together in this include government
departments, NGO‘s, local population, community based organizations, panchayats,
paramilitary organization, military services, media and even the common people.
The steps required under different components of disaster management system for
effective results have been outlined in the following text:
1. Prevention/Mitigation:
• Preventing disasters construction of flood control dams
• Plantations
• Establishment of seismic stations
• Forewarning systems
• Training of disaster management personnel.
• Minimizing the effect of disaster
• Meteorological stations
• Tsunami warning system
2. Preparedness:
• Mock drills need to be conducted
• Safe places to be identified and made known to local population of area
• Volunteers who would respond to be identified & trained them
• Local disaster management teams to be formed
• Trained as many as people as possible particularly in disaster prove areas
• Establishment of disaster protection centre
• Communication system including hotlines not affected by breakdown in
electric supply and other disturbances
• Essential equipments should be ready
• Air transport should be ready
3. Response:
- Temporary shelters in the form of tents or tin sheds, large enough to
accommodate one family
- Food is provided to people living in the relief camps, initially in cooked form
and later on as rations when facilities of cooking become available
- Safe drinking water facilities are provided, usually starting with tankers and
afterwards through pipes
- Water is also needed for cooking food, washing and bathing and these facilities
have to be arranged so that the people living in the relief camps begin to lead
near normal lives as early as possible
- Relief camps are also provided with electric supply with the help of generators
- A medical centre is started in the camp itself to attend to the health problems of
the people

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- Livelihood options such as employment in road and building construction help

the people in earning money so that they can start looking after themselves and
not continue to depend on the government and other aid agencies
- Education for children, particularly the young ones who cannot go to far places
is arranged in or near the camp itself
4. Recovery: Rehabilitation and reconstruction is a long term activity that starts
soon after the beginning of relief operations. It is advisable to prepare a comprehensive
plan to address these issues so that an integrated effort is put in place. This plan is
formulated on the basis of the post-impact survey and damage assessment that is carried
out in the aftermath of the disaster. It indicates the physical activities, time frame,
finances required and the probable sources from where this will come. The steps under
this component include:
- Activities such as reconstruction of roads, buildings, bridges and other
infrastructure, in respect of both public as well as private property that has been
damaged or destroyed
- Existing roads may be widened, earthquake resistant structures constructed,
underground cables laid, deeper foundations of bridges dug and other measures of
similar nature taken
- Restoring water pipelines and relaying new ones in a planed manner for meeting the
needs of the present population and to meet the projected increase in future
- Electric supply lines and telephone cables are laid
- New enterprises involving employment generation are encouraged in the affected
area
- Educational facilities need to be strengthened, existing buildings of schools and
colleges repaired and expanded
- Medical facilities are strengthened to provide improved health care for the affected
population
- The rehabilitation plan must include improved agriculture and horticulture activities,
animal husbandry, soil and water conservation
II. Efforts to mitigate natural disasters at international / global level: The
United Nations General Assembly through as resolution launched the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR, 1990-2008) in
1989. The decade, it was envisaged, would enable governments to focus on
hazard vulnerability and risk assessment, disaster prevention, sustainable
development, effective early warning systems, sharing of knowledge and transfer
of technology. It emphasized on concerted international action, particularly in
developing countries to handle loss of life, property damage, social and economic
disruption caused by natural disaster. The IDNDR secretariat located in Geneva is
a part of the United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs. The IDNDR
Scientific and Technical committee is an advisory body with experts in different
fields such as economics, social science, engineering, public health, industry,
geology, meteorology etc. A group of well-known personalities, the special high-
level council promote global awareness of disaster reduction. A United Nations
inter-agency group work regularly with the IDNDR secretariat, as well as a
contact group of Geneva based diplomatic missions. IDNDR publishes a quarterly
magazine ‗Stop Disasters‘ and conducts a promotional campaign on the second

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Wednesday of each October, designated as the ‗International Day for Natural

Disaster Reduction.
1. Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for safer world: World conference on
Natural Disaster Reduction Guidelines for Natural Disaster prevention, preparedness and
mitigation was held at Yokohama, Japan, during 23-27 May, 1994. The conference
adopted Yokohama strategy and related plan of action for the rest of decade and beyond.
Organization for Disaster Management
( IDNDR, 1990 – 2000 and Department of Humanitarians Affairs (DHA)
- Secretariat at Geneva, Switzerland
- Scientific and Technical committee
( National Organization for Disaster Management
- Advisory Committee
- National Disaster Management Authority
- National Executive Committee
- Sub-Committees
( State Level Organization
- State Executive Committee
- State Disaster Management Authority
- Sub-committee
- Advisory Committee
( District Level Organization
- Local Authority
- District Disaster Management Authority
- Sub Committee
- Advisory Committee
1. Hyogo Framework for Action: The world conference on Disaster Reduction was
held at Kobe, Japan during 18-22 January, 2005. The conference had adopted the Hyogo
Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-15: Building the Resilience of Nations and
Communities to disasters. HFA prescribed 5 Priorities for Action (PFA), further divided
into a set of 11 Activities and 51 sub-activity and at least 148 action points.
HFA mandated the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) to develop
―generic, realistic and measurable indications‖ for assessing the progress in the
implementation of the framework, keeping in mind available resources of individual
states. Once the first stage has been completed, states shall be encouraged to develop or
refine indicators at the national level reflecting their individual disaster risk reduction
priorities, drawing upon the generic indicators.
2. International strategy for disaster reduction: ISDR was set-up at the end of
International Decade for National Disaster Reduction, observed by the global community
during the 1990s, to carry forward the mission ―building disaster resilient communities
by promoting increased awareness of the importance of disaster reduction as integral
component of sustainable development with the goal of reducing human, social,
economic and environmental losses due to the natural hazards and related technological
and environmental disasters.‖
3. Inter-Agency Task Force (IATF): An Inter-Agency Task Force comprising
representatives of 16 agencies, organizations and programs of United Nation System, a
regional entities and eight civil society and professional organizations provide the policy

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guidance to the International Strategy for disaster reduction secretariat for the discharge
of its functions.
A working group of ISDR prepared a draft paper on the development of indicators which
was discussed in the 11th IATF meeting held on 25th May, 2005. The draft of paper
developed tentative global benchmarks and indicators without indicating how data on
various processes shall be collected and compiled. It was decided that an online dialogue
may be held to obtain views and comments on the draft. Mr. Philip Buckle and Mr.
Graham Marsh, who moderate this dialogue and submitted general endorsement of the
draft. Technical session of ITAF was held on 21st November, 2005 during its 12th
meeting to discuss a few national perspectives. The Indian perspective was presented by
National Institute for Disaster Management (NIDM) to further carry forward the dialogue
of development of indicators. It was emphasized that most of the activities and sub
activities of the ‗Priorities for Action‘ are to be implemented by the member countries
and therefore, the global indicators must be developed on the basis of realistic national
indicators.
III. Efforts for Disaster Management at National Level: The subject of disaster
management does not find mention directly in any of the three lists, i.e. Union (National),
State and Concurrent list in the 7th schedule of constitution. However the governments
are provided financial assistance for meeting expenditure on identified natural calamities
on the basis of the recommendations of the Finance Commission in order to ensure that
the assistance is used only for calamity relief. A calamity Relief Fund has been
constituted by each state, where annual assistance is credited and utilized on the basis of
guidelines issued by the Union Ministry of Finance.
However, the legislation on disaster management has been related to entry 23 (social
security and social insurance) in the concurrent list of the constitution and the states
would also be able to enact their own legislation on the subject. In fact, the states of
Gujarat and Bihar have already enacted their respective disaster management legislations.
The environment (Protection) Act 1986 which was passed for the protection and
improvement of environment and the prevention of hazards to human beings, other living
creatures, plants and property. The ministry of Environment and forest prepared and
published the Rules on ‗Emergency Planning, Preparedness and Response for chemical
accidents in 1996 only.
The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 cast a responsibility on the owner of a unit
producing hazardous substance, as defined in the environment (Protection) Act, 1986, to
provide immediate relief where death or injury to any person or damage to any property
due to any accident to the extent indicated in the schedule to the Act.
On the basis of the recommendation of the group of ministers on Internal Security, the
subject of disaster management (including man made disasters) was transferred from the
ministry of agriculture to the ministry of home affairs in February, 2002 (except drought
and epidemics which remain with the ministry of agriculture and ministry of health,
respectively and the specific disasters allocated to other ministries/Departments).
Since the existing machinery was adhoc in nature and was created by executive order
therefore, a need was felt to provide statutory machinery which can be more effective and
efficient. For this purpose disaster management Act has been passed in 2005 by the
parliament which specifies the role of Nation, State, District administration in planning
and management of disasters.

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1. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

(A) Composition, Tenure and Conditions of Service
( The National Authority consists of the Chairperson and such number of other
members, not exceeding nine, as may be prescribed by the Central Government
and, unless the rules otherwise provide, the National Authority shall consist of the
following :
- the Prime Minister of India is the Chairperson of the National Authority, Ex-
officio;
- other members, not exceeding nine, to be nominated by the Chairperson of the
National Authority; and
- the Chairperson of the National Authority may designate one of the members
nominated to be the Vice-Chairperson of the National Authority.
(B) Powers and functions of National Authority
( Subject to the provisions of this Act, the National Authority has the responsibility
for laying down the policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management for
ensuring timely and effective response to disaster.
( The National Authority may-
- lay down policies on disaster management;
- approve the National Plan;
- approve plans prepared by the Ministries or Departments of the Government
of India in accordance with the National Plan;
- lay down guidelines to be followed by the State Authorities in drawing up the
State Plan;
- lay down guidelines to be followed by the different Ministries or Departments
of the Government of India for the purpose of integrating the measures for
prevention of disaster or the mitigation of its effects in their development
plans and projects;
- coordinate the enforcement and implementation of the policy and plan for
disaster management;
- recommend provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation;
- provide such support to other countries affected by major disasters as may be
determined by the Central Government;
- take such other measures for the prevention of disaster, or the mitigation, or
preparedness and capacity building for dealing with the threatening disaster
situation or disaster as it may consider necessary; and
- lay down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of the National
Institute of Disaster Management.
( The Chairperson of the National Authority shall, in the case of emergency, have
power to exercise all or any of the powers of the National Authority but exercise
of such powers shall be subject to ex-post facto ratification by the National
Authority.
(C) Appointment of officers and other employees of the National Authority
The Central Government shall provide the National Authority with such officers,
consultants and employees, as it considers necessary for carrying out the functions of the
National Authority.
(D) Meetings of National Authority

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The National Authority shall meet as and when necessary and at such time and
place as the Chairperson of the National Authority may think fit.
2. State Disaster Management Authority
(A) Establishment of State Disaster Management Authority
1. Every State Government shall, establish a State Disaster Management Authority
for the State with such name as may be specified in the notification of the State
Government.
2. A State Authority shall consist of the Chairperson and such number of other
members, not exceeding nine, as may be prescribed by the State Government and,
unless the rules otherwise provide, the State Authority shall consist of the
following members :
- the Chief Minister of the State, who shall be Chairperson, ex-officio;
- other members, not exceeding eight, to be nominated by the Chairperson of
the State Authority; and
- the Chairperson of the State Executive Committee, ex-officio.
3. The Chairperson of the State Authority may designate one of the members
nominated under clause (b) of sub-section (2) to be the Vice-Chairperson of the
State Authority.
4. The Chairperson of the state Executive Committee shall be the Chief Executive
Officer of the State Authority, ex, officio;
Provided that in the case of a Union territory having Legislative Assembly, except
the Union territory of Delhi, the Chief Minister shall be the Chairperson of the
Authority established under this section and in case of other Union territories, the
Lieutenant Governor or the Administrator shall be the Chairperson of that
Authority:
Provided further that the Lieutenant Governor of the Union territory of Delhi shall
be the Chairperson and the Chief Minister thereof shall be the Vice-Chairperson
of the State Authority.
5. The term of office and conditions of service of members of the State Authority
shall be such as may be prescribed.
(B) Powers and functions of State Authority
(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, a State Authority shall have the
responsibility for laying down policies and plans for disaster management in the
State.
(2) Without prejudice to the generality of provisions contained in sub-section (1), the
State Authority may-
(a) lay down the State disaster management policy;
(b) approve the State Plan in accordance with. the guidelines laid down by the
National Authority,
(c) approve the disaster management plans prepared by the departments of the
Government of the State;
(d) lay down guidelines to be followed by the departments of the Government
of the State for the purposes of integration of measures for prevention of
disasters and mitigation in their development plans and projects and provide
necessary technical assistance therefore;
(e) coordinate the implementation of the State Plan;

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(f) recommend provision of funds for mitigation and preparedness measures;

(g) review the development plans of the different departments of the State and
ensure that prevention and mitigation measures are integrated therein, and
(h) review the measures being taken for mitigation, capacity building and
preparedness by the departments of the Government of the State and issue
such guidelines as may be necessary.
(3) The Chairperson of the State Authority shall, in the case of emergency, have
power to exercise all or any of the powers of the State Authority but the exercise
of such powers shall be subject to ex postfacto ratification of the State Authority.
(C) Guidelines for minimum standard of relief by State Authority
The State Authority shall lay down detailed guidelines for providing standards of
relief to persons affected by disaster in the State:
Provided that such standards shall in no case be less than the minimum standards
in the guidelines laid down by the National Authority in this regard.
(D) Meetings of the State Authority
(1) The State Authority. shall meet as and when necessary and at. such time and place
as the Chairperson of the. State Authority may think fit.
(2) The Chairperson. of the State Authority shall preside over the meetings of the
State Authority.
(3) If for any reason, the Chairperson of the State Authority is unable to attend the
meeting of the State Authority, the Vice-Chairperson of the State Authority shall
preside at the meeting.
(E) Appointment of officers and other employees of State Authority
The State Government shall provide the State Authority with such officers,
consultants and employees, as it considers necessary, for carrying out the
functions of the State Authority.
(F) Constitution of advisory committee by the State Authority-
(1) A State Authority may, as and when it considers necessary, constitute an advisory
committee, consisting of experts in the field of disaster management and having
practical experience of disaster management to make recommendations on
different aspects of disaster management.
(2) The members of the advisory committee shall be paid such allowances as may be
prescribed by the State Government.
2. (A) Constitution of State Executive Committee
(1) The State Government shall, immediately after issue of notification under
sub-section (1) of section 14, constitute a State Executive Committee to assist the
State Authority in the performance of its functions and to coordinate action in
accordance with the guidelines laid down by the State Authority and ensure the
compliance of directions issued by the State Government under this Act.
(2) The State Executive Committee shall consist of the following members, namely:
(a) the Chief. Secretary to the State Government, who shall be Chairperson,
ex-officio,
(b) four Secretaries to the Government of the State of such departments as the
State Government may think fit, ex-officio.
(3) The Chairperson of the State Executive Committee shall exercise such powers
and perform such functions as may be prescribed by the State Government and

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such other powers and functions as may be delegated to him by the State
Authority.
(4) The procedure to be followed by the State Executive Committee exercise of its
powers and discharge of its functions shall be such as be prescribed by the State
Government.
2. (B) Functions of the State Executive Committee
(1) The State Executive Committee shall have the responsibility for implementing the
National Plan and State Plan and act as the coordinating and monitoring body for
management of disaster in the state.
(2) Without prejudice to the generality of the provisions of sub-section (1), the State
Executive Committee may -
(a) coordinate and monitor the implementation of the National Policy, the
National Plan and the State Plan,
(b) examine the vulnerability of different parts of the State to different forms of
disasters and specify measures to be taken for their prevention or mitigation;
(c) lay down guidelines for preparation of disaster management plans by the
departments of the Government of the State and the District Authorities;
(d) monitor the implementation of disaster management plans prepared by the
departments of the Government of the State and District Authorities,
(e) monitor the implementation of the guidelines laid down by the State Authority
for integrating of measures for prevention of disasters and mitigation by the
departments in their development plans and projects,
(f) evaluate preparedness at all governmental or nongovernmental levels to
respond to any threatening disaster situation or disaster and give directions,
where necessary, for enhancing such preparedness;
(g) coordinate response in the event of any threatening disaster
situation or disaster;
(h) give directions to any Department of the Government of the State or any other
authority or body in the State regarding actions to be taken in response to any
threatening disaster situation or disaster;
(i) promote general education, awareness and community training in regard
to the forms of disasters to which different gard parts of the State are
vulnerable and the measures that may be taken by such community to prevent
the disaster, mitigate and respond to such disaster;
(j) advised assist and coordinate the activities of the Departments of the
Government of the State, District Authorities, statutory bodies and other
governmental and non-governmental organizations engaged in disaster
management;
(k) provide necessary technical assistance or give advice to District Authorities
and local authorities for carrying out their functions effectively;
(l) advise the State Government regarding all financial matters in relation to
disaster management;
(m)examine the construction, in any local area in the State and, if it is of' the
opinion that the standards laid for such construction, for the prevention of
disaster is not being or has not been followed, may direct the District

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Authority or the local authority, as the case may be, to take such action as may
be necessary to secure compliance of such standards;
(n) provide information to the National Authority relating to different aspects of
disaster management;
(o) lay down, review and update State level response plans and guidelines and
ensure that the district level plans are prepared, reviewed and updated;
(p) ensure that communication systems are in order and the disaster management
drills are carried out periodically; and
(q) perform such other functions as may be assigned to it by the State Authority
or as it may consider necessary.
2. (C) Powers and functions of State Executive Committee in the event of
threatening disaster situation
For the purpose of, assisting and protecting the community affected by disaster or
providing relief to such community or, preventing or combating disruption or
dealing with the effects of any threatening disaster situation, the State Executive
Committee may
(a) control and restrict, vehicular traffic to, from or within, the vulnerable or
affected area;
(b) control and restrict the entry of any person into, his movement within and
departure from a vulnerable or affected area;
(c) remove debris, conduct search and carry out rescue operations;
(d) provide shelter, food, drinking water, essential provisions, healthcare and
services in accordance with the standards laid down by the National Authority
and State Authority;
(e) give direction to the concerned Department of the Government of the State,
any District Authority or other authority, within the local limits of the State to
take such measure or steps for rescue, evacuation or providing immediate
relief saving lives or property, as may be necessary in its opinion;
(f) require any department of the Government of the State or any other body or
authority or person in charge of any relevant resources to make available the
resources for the purposes of emergency response, rescue and relief;
(g) require experts and consultants in the field of disasters to provide advice and
assistance for rescue and relief;
(h) procure exclusive or preferential use of amenities from any authority or
person as and when required;
(i) construct temporary bridges or other necessary structures and demolish unsafe
structures which may be hazardous to public;
(j) ensure that non-governmental organisations carry out their activities in an
equitable and non-discriminatory manner;
(k) disseminate information to, public to deal with any threatening disaster
situation or disaster; and
(1) take such steps as the Central Government or the State Government may
direct in this regard or take such other steps as are required or warranted by
the form of any threatening disaster situation or disaster.

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2. (D) State Plan

(1) There shall be a plan for disaster management for every State to be called the
State Disaster Management Plan.
(2) The State Plan shall be prepared by the State Executive Committee having regard
to the guidelines laid down by the National Authority and after such consultation
with local authorities, district authorities and the people's representatives as the
State Executive Committee may deem fit.
(3) The State Plan prepared by the State Executive Committee under sub-section (2)
shall be approved by the State Authority.
(4) The State Plan shall include-
(a) the vulnerability of different parts of the State to different forms of disasters;
(b) the measures to be adopted for prevention and mitigation of disasters;
(c) the manner in which the mitigation measures shall be integrated with the
development plans and projects;
(d) the capacity building and preparedness measures to be taken;
(e) the roles and responsibilities of each Department of the Government of the State
in relation to the measures specified in clauses (b), (c) and (d) above; and
(f) the roles and responsibilities of different Departments of the Government of the
State in responding to any threatening disaster situation or disaster.
(5) The State Plan shall be reviewed and updated annually.
(6) Appropriate provisions shall be made by the State Government for financing for
the measures to be carried out under the State Plan.
(7) Copies of the State Plan referred to in sub-sections (2) and (5) shall be made
available to the Departments of the Government of the State and such
Departments shall draw up their own plans in accordance with the State Plan.
2. (E) Constitution of sub-committees by State Executive Committee
(1) The State Executive Committee may, as and when it considers necessary,
constitute one or more sub-committees, for efficient discharge of its functions.
(2) The State Executive Committee shall, from amongst its members, appoint the
Chairperson of the sub-committee referred to in sub-section (1)
(3) Any person associated as an expert with any sub-committee may be paid such
allowances as may be prescribed by the State Government.
3. (A) Establishment of Funds by State Government
(1) The State Government shall, immediately after notifications issued for
constituting the State Authority and the District Authorities, establish for the
purposes of this Act the following funds, namely:
(a) the fund to be called the State Disaster Response Fund;
(b) the fund to be called the District Disaster Response Fund;
(c) the fund to be called the State Disaster Mitigation Fund; and
(d) the fund. to be called the District Disaster Mitigation Fund.
(2) The State Government shall ensure that the funds established:
- under clause (a) of sub-section Executive Committee (1) is available to the State
- under sub-clause (c) of sub-section (1) is available to the State Authority, and
- under clauses (b) and (d) of sub-section (1) are available to the District Authority.

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3. (B) State Government to take Measures

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, each State Government shall take all
measures specified in the guidelines laid down by the National Authority and such
other measures as it deems necessary or expedient, for the purpose of disaster
management.
(2) The measures which the State Government may take under subsection (1) include
measures with respect to all or any of the following matters, namely:
(a) coordination of actions of different departments of the Government of the
State, the State Authority, District Authorities, local authority and other
non-governmental organisations;
(b) cooperation and assistance in the disaster management to the National
Authority and National Executive Committee, the State Authority and the
State Executive Committee, and the District Authorities;
(c) cooperation with, and assistance to, the Ministries or Departments of the
Government of India in disaster management, as requested by them or
otherwise deemed appropriate by it;
(d) allocation of funds for measures for prevention of disaster mitigation,
capacity-building and preparedness by the departments of the Government of
the State in accordance with the provisions of the State Plan and the District
Plans;
(e) ensure that the integration of measures for prevention of disaster or mitigation
by the departments of the Government of the State in their development plans
and projects;
(f) integrate in the State development plan, measures to reduce or mitigate the
vulnerability of different parts of the State to different disasters,
(g) ensure the preparation of disaster management plans by different departments
of the State in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the National
Authority and the State Authority,
(h) establishment of adequate warning systems up to the level of vulnerable
communities;
(i) ensure that different departments of the Government of the State and the
District Authorities take appropriate preparedness measures; ensure that in a
threatening disaster situation or disaster, the resources of different
departments of the, Government of the State are made available to the
National Executive Committee or the State Executive Committee or the
District Authorities, as the case may be, for the purposes of effective response,
rescue and relief in any threatening disaster situation or disaster;
(k) provide rehabilitation and reconstruction assistance to the victims of any
disaster; and
(l) such other matters as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of
securing effective implementation of provisions of this Act.
Responsibilities of Departments of the State Government
It shall be the responsibility of every department of the Government of a State to:
(a) take measures necessary for prevention of disasters, mitigation, preparedness and
capacity-building in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the National
Authority and the State Authority;

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(b) integrate into its development plans and projects, the measures for prevention of
disaster and mitigation;
(c) allocate funds for prevention of disaster, mitigation, capacity building and
preparedness;
(d) respond effectively and promptly to any threatening disaster situation or disaster
in accordance with the State Plan, and in accordance with the guidelines or
directions of the National. Executive Committee and the State Executive
Committee;
(e) review the enactments administered by it, its policies, rules and regulations with a
view to incorporate therein the provisions necessary for prevention of disasters,
mitigation or preparedness;
(f) provide assistance, as required by the National Executive Committee, the State
Executive Committee and District Authorities, for
- drawing up mitigation, preparedness and response plans, capacity building, data
collection and identification and training of personnel in relation to disaster
management;
- assessing the damage from any disaster;
- carrying out rehabilitation and reconstruction
(g) make provision for resources in consultation with the State Authority for the
implementation of the District Plan by its authorities at the district level.
(h) make available its resources to the National Executive Committee or the State
Executive Committee or the District Authorities for the purposes of responding
promptly and effectively to any disaster in the State, including measures for:
- providing emergency communication with a vulnerable or affected area,
- transporting personnel and relief goods to and from the affected area,
- providing evacuation, rescue, temporary shelter or other immediate relief,
- carrying out evacuation of persons or live-stock from an area of any threatening
disaster situation or disaster,
- setting up temporary bridges, jetties and landing places, and
- providing drinking water, essential provisions, healthcare and services in an
affected area;
(i) such other actions as may be necessary for disaster management.
(C) Disaster Management Plan of Departments of State
(1) Every department of the State Government, in conformity with the guidelines laid
down by the State Authority, shall
(a) Prepare a disaster management plan which shall lay down the following:
- the types of disasters to which different parts of the State are vulnerable;
- integration of strategies for the prevention of disaster or the mitigation of its
effects or both with the development plans and programmes by the department;
- the roles and responsibilities of the department of the State in the event of any
threatening disaster situation or disaster and emergency support function it is
required to perform;
- present status of its preparedness to perform such roles or responsibilities or
emergency support function under subclause (iii);

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- the capacity-building and preparedness measures proposed to be put into

effect in order to enable the Ministries or Departments of the Government of
India to discharge their responsibilities under section 37;
(b) annually review and update the plan referred to in clause (a); and
(c) furnish a copy of the plan referred to in clause (a) or clause (b), as the case
may be, to the State Authority.
(2) Every department of the State Government, while preparing the plan under
sub-section (1), shall make provisions for financing the activities specified therein.
(3) Every department of the State Government shall furnish an implementation status
report to the State Executive Committee regarding the implementation of the
disaster management plan referred to in subsection (1).
3. District Disaster Management Authority
(A) Constitution of District Disaster Management Authority
(1) Every State Government shall, as soon as may be after issue of notification under
sub-section (1) of section 14, by notification in the Official Gazette, establish a
District Disaster Management Authority for every district in the State with such
name as may be specified in that notification.
(2) The District Authority shall consist of the Chairperson and such number of other
members, not exceeding seven, as may be prescribed by the State Government,
and unless the rules otherwise provide, it shall consist of the following :
(a) the Collector or District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner, as the case may
be, of the district who shall be Chairperson, ex-officio;
(b) the elected representative of the local authority who shall be the
co-Chairperson, ex-officio:
Provided that in the Tribal Areas, as referred in the Sixth Schedule to the
Constitution, the Chief Executive Member of the district council of
autonomous district, shall be the Co-Chairperson, ex-officio;
(c) the Chief Executive Officer of the District Authority, ex-officio,
(d) the Superintendent of Police, ex-officio;
(e) the Chief Medical Officer of the district, ex-officio;
(f) not exceeding two other district level officers, to be appointed by the State
Government.
(3) In any district where Zila Parishad exists, the Chairperson thereof shall be the
co-Chairperson of the District Authority.
(4) The State Government shall appoint an officer not below the rank of Additional
Collector or Additional District Magistrate or Additional Deputy Commissioner,
as the case may be, of the district to be the Chief Executive Officer of the District
Authority to exercise such powers and perform such functions as may be
prescribed by the State Government and such other powers and functions as may
be delegated to him by the District Authority.
(B) Powers of Chairperson of District Authority
(1) The Chairperson of the District Authority shall, in addition to presiding over the
meetings of the District Authority, exercise and discharge such powers and
functions of the District Authority as the District Authority may delegate to him.
(2) The Chairperson of the District Authority shall, in case of an emergency, have
power to exercise all or any of the powers of the District Authority but the

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exercise of such powers shall be subject to ex-post facto ratification of the District
Authority.
(3) The District Authority or the Chairperson of the District Authority may, by
general or special order, in writing delegate such of its or his powers and
functions, under sub-section (1) or (2), as the case may be, to the Chief Executive
Officer of the District Authority, subject to such conditions and limitations, if any,
as it or he deems fit.
(C) Meetings: The District Authority shall meet as and when necessary and at such
time and place as the Chairperson may think fit.
(D) Constitution of Advisory Committees and other Committees
(1) The District Authority may, as and when it considers necessary, constitute one or
more advisory committees and other committees for the efficient discharge of its
functions.
(2) The District Authority shall, from amongst its members, appoint Chairperson of
the Committee referred to in sub-section (1).
(3) Any person associated as an expert with any committee or sub-committee
constituted under sub-section (1) may be paid such allowances as may be
prescribed by the State Government.
(E) Appointment of Officers and other Employees of District Authority
The State Government shall provide the District Authority with officers,
consultants and other employees as it considers necessary carrying out the
functions of District Authority.
(F) Powers and functions of District Authority
(1) The District Authority shall act as the district planning, coordinating and
implementing body for disaster management and take measures for the purposes
of disaster management in the district in accordance with the guidelines laid down
by the National Authority and state Authority.
(2) Without prejudice to the generality of the provisions of sub-section (1), the
District Authority may
• prepare a disaster management plan including district response plan for the
district,
• coordinate and monitor the implementation of the National Policy, State
Policy, National Plan, State Plan, and District Plan;
• ensure that the areas in the district vulnerable to disasters are identified and
measures for the prevention of disasters and the mitigation of its effects are
undertaken by the departments of the Government at the district level as well
as by the local authorities;
• ensure that the guidelines for prevention of disasters, mitigation of its effects,
preparedness and response measures as laid down by the National Authority
and the State Authority are followed by all departments of the Government at
the district level and the local authorities in the district;
• give directions to different authorities at the district level and local authorities
to take such other measures for the prevention or mitigation of disasters as
may be necessary;

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• lay down guidelines for prevention of disaster management plans by the

department of the Government at the districts level and local authorities in the
district,
• Monitor the implementation of disaster management plans prepared by the
Departments of the Government at the district level;
• lay down guidelines to be followed by the Departments of the Government at
the district level for purposes of integration of measures for prevention of
disasters and mitigation in their development plans and projects and provide
necessary technical assistance therefore;
• monitor the implementation of measures referred to in clause (viii);
• review the state of capabilities for responding to any disaster or threatening
disaster situation in the district and give directions to the relevant departments
or authorities at the district level for their upgradation as may be necessary;
• review the preparedness measures and give directions to the concerned
departments at the district level or other concerned authorities where
necessary for bringing the preparedness measures to the levels required for
responding effectively to any disaster or threatening disaster situation;
• organise and coordinate specialised. training programmes for different levels
of officers, employees and voluntary rescue workers in the district;
• facilitate community training and awareness programmes for prevention of
disaster or mitigation with the support of local authorities, governmental and
non-governmental organisations;
• set-up, maintain, review and upgrade the mechanism for early warnings and
dissemination of proper information to public;
• prepare, review and update district level response plan and guidelines;
• coordinate response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster;
• ensure that the Departments of the Government at the district level and the
local authorities prepare their response plans in accordance with the district
response plan;
• lay down guidelines for, or give direction to, the concerned Department of the
Government at the district level or any other authorities within the local limits
of the district to take measures to respond effectively to any threatening
disaster situation or disaster;
• advise, assist and coordinate the activities of the Government at the district
level, statutory governmental and nongovernmental organisations in the
disaster management; of the Departments bodies and other districts engaged;
• coordinate with, and give guidelines to, local authorities in the district to
ensure that measures for the prevention or mitigation of threatening disaster
situation or disaster in the district are carried out promptly and effectively;
• provide necessary technical assistance or give advise to the local authorities in
the district for carrying out their functions;
• review development plans prepared by the Departments of the Government at
the district level, statutory authorities or local authorities with a view to make
necessary provisions therein for prevention of disaster or mitigation;

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• examine the construction in any area in the district and, if it is of the opinion
that the standards for the prevention of disaster or mitigation laid down for
such construction is not being or has not been followed, may direct the
concerned authority to take such action as may be necessary to secure
compliance of such standards;
• identify buildings and places which could, in the event of any threatening
disaster situation or disaster, be used as relief centers or camps and make
arrangements for water supply and sanitation in such buildings or places;
• establish stockpiles of relief and rescue materials or ensure preparedness to
make such materials available at a short notice;
• provide information to the State Authority relating to different aspects of
disaster management;
• encourage the involvement of non-governmental organisations and voluntary
social-welfare institutions working at the grassroots level in the district for
disaster management;
• ensure communication systems are in order, and disaster management drills
are carried out periodically; and
• perform such other functions as the State Government or State Authority may
assign to it or as it deems necessary for disaster management in the District.
(G) Powers and Functions of District Authority in the Event of any Threatening
Disaster Situation or disaster
For the purpose of assisting, protecting or providing relief to the community, in
response to any threatening disaster situation, the District Authority may-
(a) give directions for the release and use of resources available with any
Department of the Government and the local authority in the district;
(b) control and restrict vehicular traffic to, from and within, the vulnerable or
affected area;
(c) control and restrict the entry of any person into, his movement within and
departure from, a vulnerable or affected area;
(d) remove debris, conduct search and carry out rescue operations;
(e) provide shelter, food, drinking water and essential provisions, healthcare and
services;
(f) establish emergency communication systems in the affected area;
(g) make arrangements for the disposal of the unclaimed dead bodies;
(h) recommend to any Department of the Government of the State or any authority
or body under that Government at the district level to take such measures as are
necessary in its opinion;
(i) require experts and consultants in the relevant fields to advise and assist as it
may deem necessary;
(j) procure exclusive or preferential use of amenities from any authority or person;
(k) construct temporary bridges or other necessary structures and demolish
structures which may be hazardous to public or aggravate the effects of the
disaster;
(l) ensure that the non-governmental organisations carry out their activities in an
equitable and non-discriminatory manner; and

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(m) take such other steps as may be required or warranted. to be taken in such a
situation.
(H) District Plan
(1) There shall be a plan for disaster management for every district of the State.
(2) The District Plan shall after consultation with the National Plan and the State
Authority be prepared by the District Authority, local authorities and having
regard to the Plan, to be approved by the State.
(3) The District Plan shall include
(a) the areas in the district vulnerable to different forms of disasters;
(b) the measures to be taken, for prevention and mitigation of disaster, by the
Departments of the Government at the district level and local authorities in the
district;
(c) the capacity-building and preparedness measures required to be taken by the
Departments of the Government at the district level and the local authorities in
the district to respond to any threatening disaster situation-or disaster;
(d) the response plans and procedures in the event of a disaster,
providing for
• allocation of responsibilities to the Departments of the Government at the
district level and the local authorities in the district;
• prompt response to disaster and relief thereof;
• procurement of essential resources;
• establishment of communication links; and
• the dissemination of information to the public;
(e) such other matters as may be required by the State Authority.
(4) The District Plan shall be reviewed and updated annually.
(5) The copies of the District Plan referred to in sub-sections (2) and (4) shall be
made available to the Departments of the Government in district.
(6) The District Authority shall send a copy of the District Plan to state Authority
which shall forward it to the State Government.
(7) The District Authority shall, review from time to time, the implementation of the
Plan and issue such instructions to different departments of the Government in the
district as it may deem necessary for the implementation thereof.
(I) Plans by different authorities at district level and their implementation
Every office of the Government of India and of the State Government at the
district level & local authorities shall, subject to prevision of District Authority,
(a) prepare a disaster management plan setting out the following, namely:
• provisions for prevention and mitigation measures as provided for in the
District Plan and as is assigned to the department or agency concerned;
• provisions for taking measures relating to capacity-building and preparedness
as laid down in the District Plan;
• the response plans and procedures, in the event of, any threatening disaster
situation or disaster;
(b) coordinate the preparation and the implementation of its plan with those of the
other organisations at the district level including local authority, communities and
other stakeholders;
(c) regularly review and update the plan, and

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(d) submit a copy of its disaster management plan, and of any amendment thereto, to
the District Authority.
(J) Requisition by the District Authority
The District Authority may by order require any officer or any department at the
district level or any local authority to take such measure for the prevention or
mitigation of disaster, or to effectively respond to it, as may be necessary, and
such officer or department shall be bound to carry out such order.
4. Local Authorities
Functions of the Local Authority
(1) Subject to the directions of the District Authority, a local authority shall-
(a) ensure that its officers and employees are trained for disaster management;
(b) ensure that resources relating to disaster management are so maintained as to
be readily available for use in the event of any threatening disaster situation or
disaster;
(c) ensure all construction projects under it or within its jurisdiction conform to
the standards and specifications laid down for prevention of disasters and
mitigation by the National Authority, State Authority and the District
Authority;
(d) carry out relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction activities in the affected area
in accordance with the State Plan and the District Plan.
(2) The local authority may take such other measures as may be necessary for the
disaster management.
National Training Institute for Disaster Management
Government has created few institutes for planning for disasters and emergency
preparedness training that offer short-term courses. Notable amongst them being,
the National Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM) set-up by the Indian
Institute of Public Administration and the Centre for Disaster Management set-up
by Y.S. Chavan Academy of Development Administration conduct workshops
and seminars for civil servants and government officials. Similarly, the Disaster
Management Institute, Bhopal set-up after the gas tragedy conducts awareness
programmes for NGOs and the public at large. Some other Training Institutes
offering courses in the field are listed below:
ƒ Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi
ƒ Centre for Disaster Management, Pune
ƒ PRT Institute of Post-graduate Environmental Education, Bhopal
ƒ National Civil Defence College, Nagpur
ƒ Sikkim Manipal University of Health, Medical and Technology
ƒ The Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) was the first to offer a six
month certificate course in disaster management for +2 students. A Diploma
Course in Disaster Management has also been started. The programme is offered
through distance mode.
ƒ IGNOU also offers a comprehensive programme on community awareness in
disaster preparedness.
ƒ Himachal Pradesh University offer Diploma in Diaster Management

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National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)

NIDM set-up by Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, is a centre for
excellence and learning in the field of disaster management. It is a premier resource
institution for human resource development, training, capacity building, applied research,
implementation and dissemination of information and knowledge for holistic disaster
mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery, towards sustainable development.
1. Objectives:
- Professionalizing disaster risk management in India and the region by developing an
independent cadre of trained emergency and mitigation managers.
- Building disaster-resilient communities by promoting public awareness to instill a
culture of preparedness.
- Filling knowledge gaps by providing a common platform for collation and sharing of
information and experiences with practitioners of disaster management.
- Providing policy assistance to facilitate multi-disciplinary and sectoral support for
prevention strategies, technical assistance, implementation techniques and know-how
dissemination with respect to natural and man-made disasters.
- Networking and building partnerships with governments, institutions of learning and
training the corporate sector, international agencies, NGOs and civil society
organizations, to synergize disaster mitigation efforts.
- Developing mechanisms for risk financing risk transfer and insurance for effective
disaster management.
- Mainstreaming disaster risk management into development planning.
- Working as a resource institution for the national and state governments for policy,
planning and capacity building.
2. Mobilizing HRD Resources: NIDM‘s efforts at human resources development in
key areas of disaster risk training have been initiated and include:
- Nation-wide Training Need Analysis for the National Human Resource Plan.
- National Human Resource Development Plan on Disaster Management.
- Development of Capacity-building Framework for Disaster Management Centers at
State-level institutions.
- Partnerships with National and International Training Institute.
- Professional Course on Disaster Management.
3. Looking Ahead: NIDM has identified the following key areas for intervention and
expansion:
- disaster management policy, planning and techno-legal regime.
- Framework for NGOs and civil society capacity building.
- Framework and training modules for reconstruction and rehabilitation of disaster
affected areas.
- Socio-psychological issues in disaster management.
- Gender issue in disaster management.
- Urban risk mitigation.
- Launching a mass awareness campaign.
- Focusing on school awareness and safety programmes.
- Programmes addressing special needs to vulnerable groups.
- Risk financing and cost-benefit analysis of disaster mitigation schemes.
- Strengthening the national GIS laboratory.

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- Knowledge management and dissemination at the national level.

- Establishing a disaster management laboratory for simulation.
- Setting up a model emergency operation centre for training.
- Mainstreaming disaster management into the education sector.
- Developing a national-level dynamic database of trained human resource personnel in
the field of disaster management.
4. NIDM Partners: NIDM works in close association with the following national and
international organizations:
- Ministers of the government of India
- State Governments
- Centre for Disaster Management (CDM)/State Administrative Training Institute
(ATIs)
- State Institute of Rural Development (SIRDs)
- Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)
- National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA)
- Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)
- National Council for Education, Research and Training (NCERT)
- Indian Institute of Technology (Pawai, Kharagpur, Roorkee)
- Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Laboratories, Structural
Engineering Research Centre (SERC) Chennai
- Institute of Insurance and Risk Management (IIRM), Hyderabad
- All India Institute of Local Self-Government, Pune
- Federation of India Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI)
- Financial Institutions
- The World Bank Institute, Washington, DC
- United Nations Development Program (UNDP), India
- United Nations Children‘s Fund, India
- United States Agency for International Development (USAID)
- Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), USA
- India Meteorological Department (IMD)
IV. National Disaster Management Framework
Expected Outputs Areas of intervention Agencies to be
involved and
resource linkages
1. Institutional Mechanisms
Nodal agency for (i) Constitution of National Emergency Ministries/
disaster management Management Authority with appropriate Departments of
at the national level legal, financial and administrative powers Health, Water
with appropriate (ii) Roles and responsibilities of the NEMA resources,
system - Coordinating multihazard mitigation, Environment and
prevention, preparedness and response Forests, Agriculture
programmers. Railways, Atomic
- Policies for disasters risk reduction and energy, Defenses,
mitigation. Chemicals, Science
- Preparedness at all levels. and Technology,
- Coordination of response. Rural Development,

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- Coordination of post-disaster relief and Road Transport and

rehabilitation. Highways, etc.
- Amendment of existing laws, procedures,
instructions.
Creation of State Departments of Relief and Rehabilitation to State government /
Departments of be predestinated as Department of Disaster UT Administration
Disaster Management with enhanced areas of
Management responsibility to include mitigation
prevention and preparedness.
Setting up State (i) State Disaster Management authority to Ministers of Agri,
Disaster be headed by the Chief Minister Home, Disaster
Management (ii) The authority to lay down policies and Management, Water
Authorities monitor mitigation, prevention and Resources, Health,
preparedness as also oversee response. Road and Transport,
Civil Supplies,
Environment and
Forests, Rural
Development, Urban
Development and
Public Health
Engineering
Departments as
members.
II. Disaster Mitigation / Prevention
Disaster mitigation / i) Each ministry/Department which has Ministries /
prevention to be a role in mitigation / prevention will Department of
mainstreamed into the make, appropriate outlays for schemes Government of in
development process. addressing mitigation / prevention. India/State Govt. /UT
ii) Where there is a shelf of Administration
projects/schemes, projects/schemes
contributing to mitigation to be given
apriority.
iii) Wherever possible schemes /
projects in areas prone to natural hazards
to be so designed as to contribute to
mitigation and preparedness.
iv) Projects in vulnerable areas / areas
prone to natural hazards to be designed to
withstand natural hazards.
Techno-legal regime i) Regular review of building codes and Bureau of Indian
its dissemination. Standards/ Ministry of
Urban Development.
ii) Construction in seismic zones III, IV State Urban
and V to be as per BIS codes / Development
National Building codes. Department / Urban
Local Bodies.

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iii) Construction in vulnerable to State Urban

designed as to withstand the wind Development
hazards as per BIS codes / National Department / Urban
Building codes. Local Bodies.
iv) Comprehensive review and State Urban
compliance of : Development
- Town and Country Planning Acts Department / Urban
- Development Control Regulations. Local Bodies.
- Planning Building Standards
Regulations.
v) Put in place appropriate techno-
financial regime.
vi) Capacity enhancement of Urban
local bodies to enforce compliance of
techno-legal regimes
Land-use Planning i) Legal framework for land-use Ministry of Urban
and Zoning planning and zoning regulations toDevelopment,
regulations be reviewed Department of Land
Resources
ii) Zoning regulations to be enforced. Ministry of
Environment and
forests (GOI)
Plan schemes for State Government to formulate Plan State Governments
vulnerability schemes and submit to planning
reduction and commission
preparedness
III. Legal/Policy Framework
Disaster Management i) Bill to be drafted. Ministry of Home
to be listed in List-III ii) Bill to be brought before parliament Affairs / Ministry of
[Con-current List] of Law (Legislative
Seventh Schedule to Department)
the Constitution
State disaster Model act to be circulated to the stateMinistry of Home
management Acts Affairs, State
Government.
National Policy on i) Mainstreaming disaster management Ministry of Home
Disaster Management into planning and development affairs, Ministry of
process. Finance, Planning
ii) Mandate safe construction. Commission, Ministry
iii) Coordinated action by all relevant of Environment and
departments as per policy Forests, Rural
Development, Urban
Development and
other relevant
Ministers to be
consulted.

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PGS-505 (e-Course) Disaster Management

State to enunciate i) Mainstreaming disaster management State Government.

Policy on disaster into planning and development
management process.
ii) Mandate safe construction.
State disaster iii) Coordinated action by all relevant
management codes departments as per policy
amendment of existing relief codes /
scarcity codes / famine codes to
incorporate mitigation, preparedness
and planning measures at all levels
from community to state,
constitution of emergency support
teams / disaster management teams
committee / state disaster
management authorities, delegation
of administrative and financial
powers to disaster incident managers,
etc. protocol to update the inventory
of resources and plans.
IV. Preparedness and Response
National Emergency i) Designation of units for conversation Ministry of Home
response Force / into specialist response teams. Affairs Central
Specialist Response ii) Designation training centers Industrial Security
Teams iii) Training of trainers Force / Indo - Tibetan
iv) Procurement of equipment. Borders Police /
v) Training of teams Boarder Security
Force / Central
Reserve Policy Force.

Specialized Response i) Designation of units for conversion State Department of

Teams at State-level into specialist response teams Disaster Management /
ii) Designation of training centers. State Home
iii) Training of trainers. Department.
iv) Procurement of equipment using
CRF resources. State Police Training
v) Training of teams. College / State Fire
Training Institute.
V. National Network of Emergency Operation Centers (NNEOCs)
Setting up emergency i) Multi-hazard resistant construction Central Public Works
operations Centre ii) Communication system linkages Department for
(EOC) at national iii) Mobile EOCs for on site disaster Central Public Works
level information management Ministry of Home
Affairs

State level EOC i) Multi-hazard resistant construction State Governments

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ii) Communication system linkages

District level EOC iii) Mobile EOCs for on site disaster
information management
Putting incident i) Multi-hazard resistant construction Ministry of Home
Command system in ii) Communication system linkages Affairs / Department
Place of Personal and
training / Lal Bahadur
Shastri National
Academy of
Administration / State
Governments /
Administrative
Training Institutes.
Emergency Support i) Designate nodal training centers. Central Governments
Function Plan ii) Putting in place protocols SOP for Ministries /
Incident command system. Departments, State
Governments.
India Disaster i) Department/agencies which perform Ministry of Home
Resource Network emergency support functions to draw affairs
up ESF plans, constitute teams, and
set apart resources in advance so that
post-disaster response is prompt.
Communication i) A web enabled GIS-based resource Affairs State Govt.
linkages which will inventory listing out all the necessary
be functional even resources for emergency response
post-disaster available at the district and state
level throughout the country so that
resources can be mobilized at short
notice.
ii) Set-up services, draw up and install
programmes.
iii) Half yearly updating
Regional Response i) Draw up communication plan. Ministry of Home
Centers ii) Obtain sanctions. Affairs Directorate
iii) Put communication network in place Coordination of Police
Wireless

Training in response i) Identify location of regional response State Govt.

to be made a part of centers.
training curriculum of ii) Identify caches of equipment
CPMFS and state required.
police forces iii) Obtain sanctions.
iv) Put teams and caches of equipments
in place.

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State Disaster i) Draw up capsules Ministry of Home

Management Plans ii) Train trainers. Affairs, Boarder
Security Force/ Indo-
Tibetan Boarder
Police/Central Reserve
Police Force / Central
Industrial Security
Force.

District Disaster i) Plan to be drafted under the Ministry of Home

Management Plans supervision of the Chief Secretary. affairs, State
ii) Plan will include mitigation, Government
preparedness and response elements.
iii) The plan will be multi-disciplinary to State Government /
be drawn up in conjunction / State Disaster
consultation with all relevant Management
department concerned with Authorities.
mitigation, preparedness and State
response. Governments/State
Disaster Management
Authorities.

V. Financial Arrangements: Financial assistance from national and international

agencies is very vital for post-disaster management as in the absence of funds, relief,
rehabilitation and reconstruction suffers. This form of assistance is useful for providing
food and medical facilities to the effected people and for other activities including
establishment and operation relief camps over a long period of time.
National and international assistance is used for providing building materials,
technical equipment, facilitating agriculture re-establishment, feeding programmes,
launching food for work programmes and extending support for livelihood opportunities.
Reconstruction also needs outside assistance for planning and implementing interventions.
Agencies: National organizations and department agencies that can provide technical,
equipment, training and financial assistance in disaster management in an area includes
the following:
1. Central Government departments and organizations, like disaster management,
agriculture, rural development, transport, science and technology, space and earth
science etc.
2. Non-governmental organizations.
3. Technical and research organizations and institutes like the National Institute of
Disaster Management
4. Red Cross Society.
International assistance for disaster management can be obtained from the
following agencies and organizations:
1. Foreign governments or their departments.
2. United Nations Organization and its organs like the Food and Agriculture
Organization and United Nations Development Programme.

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3. International aid agencies like the International Red Cross Society and World Vision.
4. International funding agencies like the World Bank and Asian Development Bank.
5. International technical agencies like the World Meteorological Organization.
VI. National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
1. There shall be constituted a National Disaster Response Force for the purpose of
specialist response to a threatening disaster situation or disaster.
2. Subject to the provisions of Disaster Management 2005 Act, the Force shall be
constituted in such manner and, the conditions of service of the members of the Force,
including disciplinary provisions therefore, be such as may be prescribed.
Control, direction etc.: The general superintendence, direction and control of the Force
shall be vested and exercised by the National Authority and the command and
supervision of the Force shall vest in an officer to be appointed by the Central
Government as the Director General of the National Disaster Response Force.
Disaster Management Cycle

C
Disaster C
R
I Impact R
S I
I S
S I
Preparedness S
Response
M
A M
N A
A N
Rehabilitation
G Mitigation A
E G
M E
E M
N E
T Reconstruction N
T
Prevention

Development

Government of India [GoI], Ministry of Home Affairs [MHA] and United Nations
Development Programme [UNDP] have signed an agreement on August 2002 for
implementation of “Disaster Risk Management” Programme to reduce the vulnerability
of the communities to natural disasters, in identified multi–hazard disaster prone areas.
Goal : ‘Sustainable Reduction in Natural Disaster Risk” in some of the most hazard
prone districts in selected states of India’.
The four main objectives of this program are:
1. National capacity building support to the Ministry of Home Affairs

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2. Environment building, education, awareness programme and strengthening the

capacity at all levels in natural disaster risk management and sustainable recovery
3. Multi-hazard preparedness, response and mitigation plans for the programme at
state, district, block and village/ward levels in select programme states and
districts
4. Networking knowledge on effective approaches, methods and tools for natural
disaster risk management, developing and promoting policy frameworks
Hazard: ―Is the potential for a natural or human-caused event to occur with negative
consequences‖. A hazard can become an emergency; when the emergency moves beyond
the control of the population, it becomes a disaster.
Emergency: ―Is a situation generated by the real or imminent occurrence of an event that
requires immediate attention‖. Paying immediate attention to an event or situation as
described above is important as the event/situation can generate negative consequences
and escalate into an emergency. The purpose of planning is to minimize those
consequences.
Disaster: ―Is a natural or human-caused event which causes intensive negative impacts
on people, goods, services and/or the environment, exceeding the affected community‘s
capability to respond‖ .
Risk: ―Is the probability that loss will occur as the result of an adverse event, given the
hazard and the vulnerability‖ (key words) Risk (R) can be determined as a product of
hazard (H) and vulnerability (V). i.e. R = H x V
Vulnerability: ―Is the extent to which a community‘s structure, services or environment
is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of a hazard‖.
Disaster Management: Is more than just response and relief (i.e., it assumes a more
proactive approach) Is a systematic process (i.e., is based on the key management
principles of planning, organizing, and leading which includes coordinating and
controlling) Aims to reduce the negative impact or consequences of adverse events (i.e.,
disasters cannot always be prevented, but the adverse effects can be minimized) Is a
system with many components.
Twelve most common challenges for any Disaster Management Plan
1. Inter-organizational coordination: Collaboration between intervening
emergency response agencies cannot be stressed enough.
2. Sharing information: This task can become complicated by the amount of
equipment needed and the number of people involved. In most incidences, two-
way radios are the only reliable form of communications across distances between
mobilized response units. Landline and mobile phones can become overloaded
and communication via radio frequency is unreliable due to differing band usage
amongst responding agencies.
3. Resource management: A command centre must be established to take control
of the distribution of supplemental personnel, equipment, and supplies among
multiple organizations and identify which resources have arrived or are en
route. Command must also determine where those resources are most needed and
brief all agencies or volunteers before entering the disaster scene.
4. When advance warnings are possible: Evacuation from areas of danger can be
the most effective life-saving strategy before and during a disaster.
Communication channels must be in place to allow numerous agencies access to

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information about detected potential threats. And clearly defined criteria must be
established as to when and where to evacuate so all agencies understand the
procedure.
5. The public tends to underestimate risks and downplay warnings: This is
especially true if messages are ambiguous or inconsistent. All warnings should be
issued from a credible source and information on how to determine individual risk
factors must be conveyed to members of the affected population with clear
guidelines on what actions should be taken.
6. Search and rescue: This is an important aspect of post-disaster response. But
due to it‘s very nature, cannot be planned for in advance as casualties are often
treated at the scene. Efforts for search and rescue teams can also become
complicated by multiple jurisdictions involved during a disaster as well as by the
efforts of bystanders who are trying to help.
7. Using the mass media to deliver warnings to the public: Local media agencies
should be tasked with educating the public on how to avoid health problems post
disaster. Information on food and water safety, injury and disease prevention
should be disseminated through TV and radio.
8. Triage: Untrained personnel and bystanders involved with the initial search and
rescue often bypass established field triage and first aid stations because they do
not know where these posts are located or because they want to get the victims to
the closest hospital. Established protocols between emergency medical services
and area hospitals will ensure more even distribution of casualties.
9. Patient tracking: This issue can arises because most people who are evacuating a
scene do not use local shelters and therefore their whereabouts are not recorded
through official agencies.
10. Hospital or healthcare agency damage: In the event that local medical facilities
are incapacitated or overloaded with disaster related casualties, an alternate site
should be determined prior to an emergency.
11. Volunteer management: Donation and volunteer management can become
problematic during a disaster since most efforts are focused on mobilizing all
available participants and the available resources may exceed needs.
12. Plan for organized improvisation: Be prepared to respond to the disruption of
shelters, utilities, communication systems, and transportation. Regardless of how
thorough your disaster management plan may be, preplanning must always
anticipate the unexpected. And Public health officials must develop mutually
agreed procedures, maintaining frequent training exercises to keep their systems
coordinated.

International Day for Risk Reduction

Every year, on the 2nd Wednesday of October, the world marks the
International Day for Risk Reduction

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Suggested Readings
• Disaster Management By Gupta HK
• Coping with Catastrophe: A Handbook of Disaster Management By Hodgkinson PE
& Stewart M
• Disaster Management. By Sharma VK
• Disaster Management By G.K. Ghosh
• Disaster Management By RB Singh
• Disaster Management: Through the New Millennium By Ayaz Ahmad
• Disaster Management By B Narayan
• Modern Encyclopedia of Disaster and Hazard Management By BC Bose
• Disaster Management By Nikuj Kumar
• Disaster Management - Recent Approaches By Arvind Kumar
• Disasters: A quick FAQ by Srinivas, H (2005)
• The Disaster Management Cycle by Warfield, C (2005)
• Alibek, K and Handelman, S (1999). Biohazards. Random House: New York
• Roberts, B (1993). New Challenges and new policy properties for the 1990s. In
Biological Weapons: Weapons of the Future. Washington: Centre for Strategic &
International Studies.
• Acharya, SK; Sarkar, A; Roy, P and Sharangi, AB (2009) Disaster management:
Concept, people and perception. Agrotech Publishing Academy, Udaipur, pp 176.
• Disaster Management: Future Challenges and Opportunities (Eds) Jagbir Singh, IK
International Publishing House, New Delhi, 2007 pp 351
• Negi, SS; Singh, B and Singh, NP (2009) Principal and practices of disaster
management. Dehradun, pp 254
• Goyal, SL (2007) Disaster administration and management, Deep & Deep
Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi pp 626
Web Resources
• http://www.revenueharyana.gov.in/
• http://www.ndmindia.nic.in/
• http://www.nidm.net/
• http://saarc-sdmc.nic.in/index.asp
• http://www.unisdr.org/
• http://www.disastermgmt.org/http://www.drmonline.net/
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Disaster_management
• http://www.ifrc.org/what/disasters/reducing/day.asp
• http://www.gdrc.org/uem/disasters/1-what_is.html
• http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.5/ca/
• www.cdc.gov * www.fema.org
• www.nbc-med.org

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