3.

1 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

Contents

 Protons, Neutrons and Electrons

 Defining Proton Number
 Defining Nucleon Number
 The Basis of the Periodic Table
 Defining Isotopes
 Types of Isotope
 Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
 Why Isotopes Share Properties
 Electron Build-Up and Structure

Protons, Neutrons and Electrons

Core:

 State the relative charges and approximate relative masses of protons,

neutrons and electrons

 Elements are made of tiny particles of matter called atoms.

 Each atom is made of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons.
 Their size is so tiny that we can’t really compare their masses in conventional units
such as kilograms or grams, so a unit called the relative atomic mass is used.
 One relative atomic mass unit is equal to 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
 All other elements are measured relative to the mass of a carbon-12 atom and since
these are ratios, the relative atomic mass has no units.
 Hydrogen for example has a relative atomic mass of 1, meaning that 12 atoms of
hydrogen would have exactly the same mass as 1 atom of carbon.
 The relative mass and charge of the subatomic particles are shown below:
Defining Proton Number

Core:

 Define proton number (atomic number) as the number of protons in the

nucleus of an atom

 The atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom. The symbol for this number is Z.
 It is also the number of electrons present in an atom and determines the position of
the element on the Periodic Table.

Defining Nucleon Number

Core:

 Define nucleon number (mass number) as the total number of protons

and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

 Nucleon number (or mass number) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom. The symbol for this number is A.
 The nucleon number minus the proton number gives you the number of neutrons of
an atom.
 Note that protons and neutrons can collectively be called nucleons.
 The atomic number and mass number for every element is on the Periodic Table.

Diagram showing the notation used on the Periodic Table

Electrons (symbol e–)

 These subatomic particles move very fast around the nucleus.

  They move in orbital paths called shells.
 The mass of the electron is negligible, hence the mass of an atom is contained within
the nucleus where the neutron and proton reside.

The structure of the carbon atom

The symbol key for carbon as represented on the Periodic Table

Exam Tip
Both the atomic number and the mass number are given on the Periodic Table but it can be
easy to confuse them.

Think MASS = MASSIVE, as the mass number is always the bigger of the two numbers, the
other smaller one is thus the atomic / proton number.
The Basis of the Periodic Table

Core:

 Use proton number and the simple structure of atoms to explain the basis
of the Periodic Table with special reference to the elements of proton
number 1 to 20

 Elements are arranged on the Periodic table in order of increasing atomic number
where each element has one proton more than the element preceding it.
 Hydrogen has 1 proton, helium has 2 protons, lithium has 3 etc.
 The table is arranged in vertical columns called Groups numbered I – VIII and in
rows called Periods.
 Elements in the same group have the same amount of electrons in their outer shell,
which gives them similar chemical properties.
Exam Tip
The proton number is unique to each element and could be considered as an element’s
“fingerprint”.

Electrons come and go during chemical processes but the proton number doesn’t change.

Defining Isotopes

Core:

 Define isotopes as atoms of the same element which have the same proton
number but a different nucleon number

 Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons and
electrons but a different number of neutrons.
 The symbol for an isotope is the chemical symbol (or word) followed by a dash and
then the mass number.
 So C-14 is the isotope of carbon which contains 6 protons, 6 electrons and 14 – 6 = 8
neutrons.
Types of Isotope

Core:

 State the two types of isotopes as being radioactive and non-radioactive

 Isotopes can be divided into two categories: radioactive and non-radioactive.

 Radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) are unstable due to the imbalance of neutrons
and protons, which causes the nucleus to decay over time through nuclear fission and
emit radiation. Examples of radioisotopes include tritium and carbon-14.
 Decay occurs at a different rate for each isotope, but the time taken for the
radioactivity of an isotope to decrease by 50% is constant for that particular isotope
and is known as the half-life.
 Radioactive isotopes have numerous medical and industrial uses.
 Non-radioactive isotopes are stable atoms which really only differ in their mass.

Uses of Radioactive Isotopes

Core:

 State one medical and one industrial use of radioactive isotopes

Medical uses

 Radiation is extremely harmful and kills cells so isotopes are used to treat cancer.
The isotope cobalt-60 is frequently used for this purpose.
 Medical tracers as certain parts of the body absorb isotopes and others do not. In this
way an isotope can be injected into the blood and its path through the body traced
with a radiation-detecting camera, revealing the flow of blood through bodily
systems.
 Medical instruments and materials are routinely sterilized by exposure to radiation,
which kills any bacteria present.

Industrial uses

 Radioactive dating uses the carbon-14 isotope to date carbon-containing materials

such as organic matter, rocks and other artefacts. The half-life of C-14 is 5730 years
and so this technique is often used to date very old historical objects.
 Similar to the medical use, radioactive tracers are deployed for detecting leaks in gas
or oil pipes.
 The radioactive isotope uranium-235 is used as fuel for controlled fission reactions in
nuclear power plants.

Exam Tip
Radioactive decay is a random process which occurs inside the nucleus and is independent of
temperature, pressure, pH etc.

It is a nuclear process and is not considered a chemical reaction.

Extended Subject Content
Why Isotopes Share Properties

Supplement:

 Understand that isotopes have the same properties because they have the
same number of electrons in the outer shell

 Isotopes of the same element display the same chemical characteristics.

 This is because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shells and this is
what determines an atoms chemistry.
 The difference between isotopes is the neutrons which are neutral particles within the
nucleus and add mass only.

Electron Build-Up and Structure

Core:

 Describe the build-up of electrons in shells and understand the

significance of the noble gas electronic structures and of the outer shell
electrons

Electronic structure

 We can represent the structure of the atom in two ways: using diagrams called
electron shell diagrams or by writing out a special notation called the electronic
configuration.

Electron shell diagrams

 Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells (or energy levels) and each shell has a different
amount of energy associated with it.
 The further away from the nucleus then the more energy a shell has.
 Electrons occupy the shell closest to the nucleus which can hold only 2 electrons and
which go in separately.
 When a shell becomes full electrons then fill the next shell.
 The second shell can hold 8 electrons and the third shell can hold 18 electrons and the
electrons organise themselves in pairs in these shells.
 The outermost shell of an atom is called the valence shell and an atom is much more
stable if it can manage to completely fill this shell with electrons.
 The electron shells

Electronic configuration

 The arrangement of electrons in shells can also be explained using numbers.

 There is a clear relationship between the outer shell electrons and how the Periodic
Table is designed.
 The number of notations in the electronic configuration will show the number of
shells of electrons the atom has, showing the Period in which that element is in.
 The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom has, showing the
Group that element is in.
 Elements in the same Group have the same number of outer shell electrons.

The electronic configuration for chlorine

Period: The red numbers at the bottom show the number of notations, which is 3, showing
that a chlorine atom has 3 shells of electrons.

Group: The green box highlights the last notation, which is 7, showing that a chlorine atom
has 7 outer electrons.
 The position of chlorine on the Periodic Table

The noble gases

 The atoms of the Group 8/0 elements all have 8 electrons in their outer shells, with the
exception of helium which has 2. But since helium has only 2 electrons in total and
thus the first shell is full (which is the only shell), it is thus the outer shell so helium
also has a full valency shell.
 All of the noble gases are unreactive as they have full outer shells and are thus very
stable.
 All elements wish to fill their outer shells with electrons as this is a much more stable
and desirable configuration.

The noble gases are on the Periodic Table in Group 8/0

Electronic configuration of the first twenty elements:

Note: although the third shell can hold up to 18 electrons, the filling of the shells follows a
more complicated pattern after potassium and calcium. For these two elements, the third shell
holds 8 and the remaining electrons (for reasons of stability) occupy the fourth shell first
before filling the third shell.
3.2.1 Structure and Bonding: Bonding: The

Structure of Matter

Types of Substance and Properties

Core:

 Describe the differences between elements, mixtures and compounds, and

between metals and nonmetals

Elements, compounds and mixtures

 All substances can be classified into one of these three types.

Element

 A substance made of atoms that all contain the same number of protons (one type of
atom) and cannot be split into anything simpler.
 There is a limited number of elements and all elements are found on the Periodic
Table.
 E.g. hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen.

Compound

 A pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined together.

 There is an unlimited number of compounds.
 Compounds cannot be separated into their elements by physical means.
 E.g. copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), carbon dioxide (CO2).

Mixture

 A combination of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds) that are not
chemically combined.
 Mixtures can be separated by physical methods such as filtration or evaporation.
 E.g. sand and water, oil and water, sulphur powder and iron filings.
 Elements, compounds and mixtures

Metals and nonmetals

 The Periodic Table contains over 100 different elements.

 They can be divided into two broad types: metals and nonmetals.
 Most of the elements are metals and a small number of elements display properties of
both types. These elements are called metalloids or semimetals.
 The metallic character diminishes moving left to right across the Periodic Table

Properties of metals

 Conduct heat and electricity.

 Are malleable and ductile (can be hammered and pulled into different shapes).
 Tend to be lustrous (shiny).
 Have high density and usually have high melting points.
 Form positive ions through electron loss.
 Form basic oxides.

Properties of nonmetals

 Do not conduct heat and electricity.

 Are brittle and delicate when solid and easily break up.
 Tend to be dull and nonreflective.
 Have low density and low melting points (many are gases at room temperature).
 Form negative ions through electron gain (except for hydrogen).
 Form acidic oxides.

Describing Alloys

Core:

 Describe an alloy, such as brass, as a mixture of a metal with other

elements

 Alloys are mixtures of metals, where the metals are mixed together but are not
chemically combined.
 They can be made from metals mixed with nonmetals such as carbon.
 Alloys often have properties that can be very different to the metals they contain, for
example they can have more strength, hardness or resistance to corrosion or
extreme temperatures.
 Alloys contain atoms of different sizes, which distorts the regular arrangements of
atoms.
 This makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over each other, so they are usually
much harder than the pure metal.
 Brass is a common
example of an
alloy which contains
70% copper and
30% zinc.
 Particle diagram showing a mixture of elements in an alloy

3.2.2 Structure and Bonding: Ions and Ionic

Bonds

The Formation of Ions

Core:

 Describe the formation of ions by electron loss or gain

Ions

 An ion is an electrically charged atom or a group of atoms formed by the loss or

gain of electrons.
 This loss or gain of electrons takes place to gain a full outer shell of electrons.
 The electronic structure of an ion will be the same as that of a noble gas – such as
helium, neon and argon.

Ionisation of metals and non-metals

 Metals: all metals lose electrons to another atom and become positively charged ions.
 Non-metals: all non-metals gain electrons from another atom to become negatively
charged ions.

Formation of positively charged Sodium ion

 Formation of negatively charged Chloride ion

Electrostatic attraction

 The positive and negative charges are held together by the strong electrostatic forces
of attraction between opposite charges.
 This is what holds ionic compounds together.

Electrostatic forces between the positive Na ion and negative Cl ion

The Formation of Ionic Bonds, Groups I to VII

Core:

 Describe the formation of ionic bonds between elements from Groups I

and VII

Example:  Sodium Chloride, NaCl

Explanation

 Sodium is a group 1 metal so will lose one outer electron to another atom to gain a
full outer shell of electrons.
 A positive ion with the charge +1 is formed.
 Chlorine is a group 7 non-metal so will need to gain an electron to have a full outer
shell of electrons.
 One electron will be transferred from the outer shell of the Sodium atom to the outer
shell of the Chlorine atom.
 Chlorine atom will gain an electron to form a negative ion with charge -1.

          Formula of Ionic Compound:    NaCl

Extended Subject Content

Ionic Bonds between Metallic and Non-Metallic Elements

Supplement:

 Describe the formation of ionic bonds between metallic and non-metallic

elements

Example:  Magnesium Oxide, MgO

Diagram Showing the Dot-and-Cross Diagram of Magnesium Oxide

Explanation

 Magnesium is a group 2 metal so will lose two outer electrons to another atom to have
a full outer shell of electrons.
 A positive ion with the charge +2 is formed.
  Oxygen is a group 6 non-metal so will need to gain two electrons to have a full outer
shell of electrons.
 Two electrons will be transferred from the outer shell of the Magnesium atom to the
outer shell of the Oxygen atom.
 Oxygen atom will gain two electrons to form a negative ion with charge -2.

          Formula of ionic compound:    MgO

The Lattice Structure of Ionic Compounds

Supplement:

 Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds as a regular

arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions

 Lattice structure refers to the arrangement of the atoms of a substance in 3D space.

 In these structures the atoms are arranged in an ordered and repeating fashion.
 The lattices formed by ionic compounds consist of a regular arrangement of
alternating positive and negative ions.

The lattice structure of NaCl

3.2.3 Structure and Bonding: Molecules and
Covalent Bonds
Single Covalent Bonds

Core:

 Describe the formation of single covalent bonds in H2, Cl2, H2O, CH4, NH3
and HCl as the sharing of pairs of electrons leading to the noble gas
configuration

Covalent compounds

 Covalent compounds are formed when electrons are shared between atoms.
 Only non-metal elements participate in covalent bonding.
 As in ionic bonding, each atom gains a full outer shell of electrons.
 When two or more atoms are chemically bonded together, we describe them as
‘molecules’.

Covalent bonding in non-metals

Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Core:

 Describe the differences in volatility, solubility and electrical conductivity

between ionic and covalent compounds

 Ionic compounds:
 o Have high melting and boiling points so ionic compounds are usually solid at
room temperature.
o Not volatile so they don’t evaporate easily.
o Usually water soluble as both ionic compounds and water are polar (see
polarity in Glossary).
o Conduct electricity in molten state or in solution as they have ions that can
move and carry charge.

 Covalent compounds:


o Have low melting and boiling points so covalent compounds are usually
liquids or gases at room temperature.
o Usually volatile which is why many covalent organic compounds have
distinct aromas.
o Usually not water soluble as covalent compounds tend to be nonpolar but can
dissolve in organic solvents.
o Cannot conduct electricity as all electrons are involved in bonding so there are
no free electrons or ions to carry the charge.

Extended Subject Content

Electron Arrangement in Complex Covalent Molecules

Supplement:

 Describe the electron arrangement in more complex covalent molecules

such as N2, C2H4, CH3OH and CO2

Nitrogen:
C2H4 (ethene):

CH3OH (methanol):

CO2:
Melting and Boiling Points of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Supplement:

 Explain the differences in the melting point and boiling point of ionic and
covalent compounds in terms of attractive forces

 Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.

 This is because the ions in the lattice structure are attracted to each other by strong
electrostatic forces which hold them firmly in place.
 Large amounts of energy are needed to overcome these forces so the m.p. and b.p. are
high.
 Covalent substances have very strong covalent bonds between the atoms, but much
weaker intermolecular forces holding the molecules together.
 When one of these substances melts or boils, it is these weak intermolecular forces
that break, not the strong covalent bonds.
 So less energy is needed to break the molecules apart so they have lower m.p. and b.p
than ionic compounds.

3.2.4 Structure and Bonding:

Macromolecules
Giant Covalent Structures

Core:

 Describe the giant covalent structure of graphite and diamond

 Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon which have giant covalent
structures.
 These classes of substance contain a lot of non-metal atoms, each joined to adjacent
atoms by covalent bonds forming a giant lattice structure.
 Giant covalent structures have high melting and boiling points as they have many
strong covalent bonds that need to be broken down.
 Large amounts of heat energy are needed to overcome these forces and break down
bonds.
Diamond, graphite and fullerene are examples of Giant Covalent Structures

Uses of Giant Covalent Structures

Core:

 Relate their structures to their uses, e.g. graphite as a lubricant and a

conductor, and diamond in cutting tools

Diamond

 Each carbon atom bonds with four other carbons, forming a tetrahedron.
 All the covalent bonds are identical and strong with no weak intermolecular forces.
 Diamond thus:
o Does not conduct electricity.
o Has a very high melting point.
o Is extremely hard and dense (3.51 g/cm3).
 Diamond is used in jewellery and as cutting tools.
 The cutting edges of discs used to cut bricks and concrete are tipped with diamonds.
 Heavy-duty drill bits and tooling equipment are also diamond tipped.

Graphite

 Each carbon atom is bonded to three others forming layers of hexagonal shaped
forms, leaving one free electron per carbon atom.
 These free electrons exist in between the layers and are free to move and carry
charge, hence graphite can conduct electricity.
 The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong but the layers are connected to
each other by weak intermolecular forces only, hence the layers can slide over each
other making graphite slippery and smooth.
 Graphite thus:
o Conducts electricity.
o Has a very high melting point.
o Is soft and slippery, less dense than diamond (2.25 g/cm3).
 Graphite is used in pencils and as an industrial lubricant, in engines and in locks.
 It is also used to make non-reactive electrodes for electrolysis.

Extended Subject Content

The Structure of Silicon(IV) Oxide (Silicon Dioxide)

Supplement:

 Describe the macromolecular structure of silicon(IV) oxide (silicon

dioxide)

 SiO2 is a macromolecular compound which occurs naturally as sand and quartz.

  Each oxygen atom forms covalent bonds with 2 silicon atoms and each silicon atom in
turn forms covalent bonds with 4 oxygen atoms.
 A tetrahedron is formed with one silicon atom and four oxygen atoms, similar as in
diamond.

Diagram showing the structure of SiO2 with the silicon atoms in blue and the oxygen
atoms in red

Diamond and Silicon(IV) Properties

Supplement:

 Describe the similarity in properties between diamond and silicon(IV),

related to their structures

 SiO2 has lots of very strong covalent bonds and no intermolecular forces so it has
similar properties as diamond.
 It is very hard, has a very high boiling point, is insoluble in water and does not
conduct electricity.
 SiO2 is cheap since it is available naturally and is used to make sandpaper and to line
the inside of furnaces.
3.2.5 Structure and Bonding:

Metallic Bonding

Extended Subject Content

Electrical Conductivity and Malleability of Metals

Supplement:

 Describe metallic bonding as a lattice of positive ions in a ‘sea of

electrons’ and use this to describe the electrical conductivity and
malleability of metals

 Metal atoms are held together strongly by metallic bonding.

 Within the metal lattice, the atoms lose their valence electrons and become positively
charged.
 The valence electrons no longer belong to any metal atom and are said to be
delocalised.
 They move freely between the positive metal ions like a sea of electrons.
 Metallic bonds are strong and are a result of the attraction between the positive metal
ions and the negatively charged delocalised electrons.
 Diagram showing Metallic Lattice structure with delocalised electrons

The link between metallic bonding and the properties of metals:

 Metals have high melting and boiling points:


o There are many strong metallic bonds in giant metallic structures.
o A lot of heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break these bonds.

 Metals conduct electricity:

o There are free electrons available to move and carry charge.  
o Electrons entering one end of the metal cause a delocalised electron to
displace itself from the other end.
o Hence electrons can flow so electricity is conducted.

 Metals are malleable and ductile:

o Layers of positive ions can slide over one another and take up different
positions.
o Metallic bonding is not disrupted as the valence electrons do not belong to any
particular metal atom so the delocalised electrons will move with them.
o Metallic bonds are thus not broken and as a result metals are strong but
flexible.
o They can be hammered and bent into different shapes without breaking.