Comparative Analysis of Water-Based Drilling Fluid’s Rheological

Properties and Its Temperature Effect

A Project Proposal
Presented To
The Faculty of Petroleum Engineering Department
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
Batangas State University
Alangilan, Batangas City

In Partial Fulfillment
of Requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering

By
REMOLACIO, REX ANTHONY B.
DOYOG, JEUNESSE DREW J.
PECHO, JEFFREY G.

June 2020
APPROVAL SHEET

This project proposal entitled, Comparative Analysis of Water-based

Drilling Fluid’s Rheological Properties and Its Temperature Effectprepared

and submitted by JEUNESSE DREW J. DOYOG, JEFFREY G. PECHO, and

REX ANTHONY B. REMOLACIO, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering has been examined and

recommended for Oral Examination.

Engr. Marvin A. Atienza

Adviser

PANEL OF EXAMINERS

Approved by the Committee on Oral Examination with a grade of __________.

Engr. Mercidita B. Garcia

Chairman

Engr. King Arrielle J. Lina Engr. Julie Pearl F. Marasigan

Member Member

Accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering.

June 2020 ______________________

Date DR. JESSIE A.MONTALBO
Dean, CEAFA
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

TITLE PAGE i

APPROVAL SHEET ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF TABLES viii

CHAPTER

I. THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction 1

Objectives of the Study 2

Significance of the Study 3

Scope and Delimitations of the Study 4

Conceptual Framework 5

Definition of terms 7

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Conceptual Literature

Newtonian Fluid 10
 Non-Newtonian Fluid 11

Non-Newtonian Behavior

Shear thickening fluid 11

Shear Thinning Fluid 12

Bingham plastic 12

Rheopectic or anti-Thixotropic 12

Drilling Fluid 13

Types of Drilling Fluids

Water-based fluid 15

Oil based Fluid 18

Synthetic based fluid 19

Pneumatic based fluid 21

Properties of Drilling Fluid

Compositions of Drilling Fluid 22

Viscosity 24

Apparent Viscosity 25

Gel Strength 26

Density 26
 Yield Point 27

Fluid Loss control 27

Chemical Composition 27

Factors affecting drilling fluid properties 28

Rheology 30

Research Literature 32

Synthesis 36

III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design 39

Data Gathering 40

Rheological Properties 40

Water Based Drilling Fluid Data 41

Types of Additives 41

Tabular Presentation of Data 42

Comparing the Different Drilling

Fluids considering the type of additives 42

Comparing the effects of

Temperature on Rheological properties 43

Graphical Presentation of the effects of temperature

in the rheological properties of drilling fluids 43

IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY 44
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page

1 Research Paradigm of the Study 6

2 Drilling mud 15

LIST OF TABLES

Figure No. Title Page

1 Mud Composition of drilling fluid 24

 CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Drilling mud, also known as drilling fluid, is one of the major components

of an oil rig in the upstream petroleum industry. It helps in the process of drilling a

borehole into the earth’s crust. It plays a major role in both the data gathering of

the formation under the surface and the safety and productivity of the rig. Drilling

mud is a mixtures of clay, water and weighing material and few chemicals. The

main use of the drilling fluids is to remove cuttings continuously. In enhancing the

usage of it numerous additives were introduced and simple fluid became a

complicated mixture of solids, liquids and chemicals. As the drilling fluids

evolved, their design changed to have common features that aid safe, economic

and satisfactory completion of the well.

Rheology is a branch of physics that deals with the flow of matter and its

deformation mostly in liquid state, especially the non-Newtonian flow of liquids

and the plastic flow of solids. The governing properties of this material in a

specific way that these deformation or flow behavior occurs are called rheological

properties. One of the rheological properties that are being measured are the pH

content of the mud, plastic viscosity, and gel strength and yield point.

Temperature is a measurement of how hot or cold something is and one of the

factors that influences the properties of drilling mud. The mixture of drilling fluids

stability depends on the additives which are the chemicals added in the mixture.
Temperature increases with depth as we drill through deeper formations;

therefore, it involves several challenges to petroleum engineers producing from

such high temperature zones in terms of drilling, completion, and production.

Among these challenges is the alteration of the rheological properties of drilling

mud.

Objectives of the Study

The main thrust of the study is to compare the rheological properties of

water-based drilling fluid and its temperature effect. Specifically, it aims the

following:

1. Gather secondary data from published paper and journals considering the

rheological properties of water-based drilling fluid and its temperature effect.

2. Present a tabular presentation of data which includes the following:

2.1 Type of additives used

2.2 Plastic viscosity

2.3 Yield Point

3. Compare the rheological properties of the three drilling fluids considering

the following type of additives:

3.1 Cement contamination

3.2 Barite and Ilmenite

3.3 Sodium bentonite

2
 4. Compare the effects of temperature on the rheological properties of the

three drilling fluids.

5. Present a graphical presentation showing the effect of temperature in the

rheological properties of the drilling fluids.

Significance of the study

Since the main purpose is to compare the selected properties of the water-

based mud with the use of secondary data from published paper and journals,

the researchers believed that this study is deemed significant to the following

groups of individuals.

For the Petroleum industry, by determining the properties of drilling mud, it

can help significantly on both the production, safety and efficiency of drilling

operations as well as decrease the contamination and damage it causes within

the formation.

To the Batangas State University, this will provide additional research study

and would be able to be of use in research, instruction, and reference, as well as

be of great help to the faculty members and students of the Petroleum

Engineering Department and other related courses in the university.

To the Petroleum Engineering Department, the results produced in this study

will help both the faculty and students in their field of specialization by providing

an understanding about the rheological properties of drilling muds on different

conditions specifically temperature. Also, the concepts and principles applied in

3
the study will enable them to be more knowledgeable about the properties of the

said fluid.

Furthermore, to the future researchers, this study will provide them a better

understanding about the effect of temperature in the rheological properties of

water-based drilling fluid for measuring properties of drilling fluids. This study

may also provide them significant information and theories that may help them to

develop another apparatus for measuring other properties.

Scope and Delimitations of the study

The study focused on doing comparative analysis on the rheological

properties of water-based drilling fluid and its temperature effect. The data used

in this study were from published papers, journals and past studies. Parameters

that were considered gathering the data were plastic viscosity, yield point, drilling

fluid additives and contamination, amount or dosage of additives and

temperature. The three additives that were considered in this study were sodium

bentonite, ilmenite and barite and cement contamination. These additives were

based on the three studies conducted by Vryzas et.al., Mohamed et al., and

Broni-Bediako et.al. respectively. The temperature range from the three studies

were 25-80°C, 80- 250°F and 25-60°C respectively with their corresponding

plastic viscosity (PV) and yield point (YP).

The three studies were considered since it contains same performance

parameters for water-based drilling fluid. The collected data were presented in

tabular form to easily assess its applicability in this study. Comparison of the

4
three drilling fluids properties in terms of PV and YP was conducted to determine

the effect of each drilling fluid additives. Also, comparison the effects of

temperature on the rheological properties of the three drilling fluid and present a

graphical presentation showing the effect of temperature in the rheological

properties of the drilling fluids.

Conceptual Framework

To have an overview of the study, the researchers prepared a research

paradigm that illustrates the process to provide Comparative Analysis of Water-

Based Drilling Fluid’s Rheological Properties and Its Temperature Effect.

Figure 1 shows, the input stage presents the knowledge requirements which

includes the knowledge and background concepts about the study and the

secondary data from a published journal and other related past studies. The

process stage is to present the collected data particularly the type of additives

used and its the Plastic viscosity and Yield Point. The comparison, and analysis

of the results from the previous and published studies. The output was the

comparative analysis Water-Based Drilling Fluid’s Rheological Properties.

5
 INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

 Gather secondary data from published

KNOWLEDGE
paper and journals considering the
REQUIREMENT
rheological properties of water-based
 Drilling Fluid drilling fluid and its temperature effect.
 Rheological  Present a tabular presentation of data
which includes the following:
Properties
 Additives - Type of additives used
 Effect on - Plastic viscosity
Temperature in
Rheological - Yield Point Comparative Analysis of
Properties  Compare the rheological properties of the Water-Based Drilling
three drilling fluids considering the Fluid’s Rheological
SECONDARY DATA following type of additives: Properties and Its
Temperature Effect
 Published Paper - Cement contamination
 Journals
- Barite and Ilmenite
 Other Related
Past Study - Sodium bentonite
 Compare the effects of temperature on
the rheological properties of the three
drilling fluids.
 Present a graphical presentation showing
the effect of temperature in the
rheological properties of the drilling fluids.

Figure #1. Conceptual Paradigm

Definition of Terms

For a better understanding of the study, the following terms were defined:

Apparent Viscosity. It is a rheological property calculated from rheometer

readings performed by a mud engineer on drilling fluids. The viscosity at a given

shear rate and a given temperature. (PetroWiki, Sept. 2013)

Barite. In this study, it is one of the chemical agent used for the drilling fluid.

One of the many forms of barium sulfate mineral, used in drilling mud as a

weighing agent and can produce a slurry of over 20 lb / gal in water. (Petrowiki,

Sept 2013)

Bentonite. In this study, another chemical agent that will be used for the

drilling fluid. It is a colloidal clay, generates plastic viscosity due to their size and

electrostatic layer. (Petrowiki, Sept 2013)

Bingham Plastic. A rheological model used to describe flow in some fluids.

Bingham fluids have a linear shear stress, shear-rate behavior after an initial

shear-stress boundary has been crossed. Plastic viscosity or PV is the slope of

the line. Yield Point is the threshold. (PetroWiki, Sept. 2013)

Cement Contamination. This occurs in every well drilled. It is contamination

from calcium hydroxide which can result in increased pH, severe thickening and

increased fluid loss of bentonite based mud systems (flocculation of the bentonite

clay). (DrillingforGas, 2020)

7
 Drilling Mud. It refers to the fluid, water, oil or gas based that is used to

establish well control. Transport cuttings to the surface, provides fluid loss

control, lubricates the string and cools the bottom hole assembly. It has different

rheological properties that can be measured by a viscometer or a rheometer.

(PetroWiki, Feb. 2015)

Drilling/mud Additives. A material added to a drilling fluid to perform one or

more specific functions, such as a weighting agent, viscosifier or lubricant.

(Schlumberger, 2020)

Gel Strength. It refers to the ability of a fluid to suspend solids. It is

measured by a rheometer through the rotation of the bob. (PetroWiki, Sept.

2015)

Limenite. A dense mineral whose specific gravity is 4.67 g/cm3, composed

of FeO·TiO2. Ilmenite is used as a weighting agent for cement and mud.

(Schlumberger, 2020)

Newtonian Fluids. It is a fluid whose shear force and response is directly

proportional to shear rate. Yield point is zero. (PetroWiki, Oct. 2014)

Non-Newtonian Fluids. It pertains to the measure of a fluid’s ability to resist

gradual deformation by shear or tensile stress. The viscosity of non-newtonian

fluids is dependent on shear rate or shear rate history. (OnePetro, 1957)

Plastic Viscosity. It is a slope of the shear stress/shear rate line above the

yield point. The rheometer is utilized to measure shear rates at 300 and 600 rpm.

(Schlumberger, 2015)

8
 Rheology. It is the study of the deformation and flow of matter. Real fluids

include non-elastic solids, non-Newtonian fluids and viscoelastic substances. The

added materials that provide viscosity range from clays to polymers to complex

surfactant chemistry. (PetroWiki, Sept. 2013)

Shear Stress. In the context of viscosity, shear stress is the force required to

move a given area of fluid. Units are Newtons per sq. meter. Some rheometers

can control the applied shear stress. (PetroWiki, Sept. 2013)

Thixotropic. Fluid property for being a semi-solid get at rest and liquid when

pumped. Thixotropic fluids decrease in viscosity with time at shear stress.

(PetroWiki, Sept.2013)

Viscosity. It is a measurement of the internal resistance of a fluid to flow

against itself. It is expressed as the ratio of shear stress to a shear rate.

(PetroWiki, Sept. 2013)

Yield Point. In the context of a drilling point, yield point is the resistance to

initial flow of a fluid or stress required to start a fluid moving. In the context of

metal, yield point is the stress on a metal at which the first significant permanent

or plastic deformation occurs without an increase in stress. The value of yield

point is calculated through the result of 300 rpm reading minus the plastic

viscosity. (PetroWiki, Oct. 2014)

9
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents some related information provided as guides and to

enhance and enrich the content of the study.

I. Conceptual literature

1. Newtonian Fluid

Newtonian fluid is a fluid in which the viscous stresses arising from

its flow, at every point, are linearly proportional to the local strain rate

the rate of change of its deformation over time. That is equivalent to

saying that those forces are proportional to the rates of change of the

fluid’s velocity vector as one move away from the point in question in

various directions. (wisegeek, n.d)

More precisely, a fluid is newtonian only if the tensors that describe

the viscous stress and strain rate are related by a constant viscosity

tensor that does not depend on the stress state and velocity of the

flow. If the fluid is also isotropic (that is, its mechanical properties are

the same along any direction), the viscosity tensor reduces to two real

coefficients, describing the fluid’s resistance to continuous

compression or expansion, respectively. (wisegeek, n.d)

Newtonian fluids are the simplest mathematical models of fluids that

account for viscosity. While no real fluid fits the definition perfectly, ma
 common liquids and gasses, such as water and air, can be assumed to be

newtonian for practical calculations under ordinary conditions. (PetroWiki, Mar.

2014)

2. Non-Newtonian Fluid Description

Non-newtonian fluid is a fluid whose flow properties differ in any

way from those of newtonian fluids. Most commonly, the viscosity (the

measure of a fluid’s ability to resist gradual deformation by shear or

tensile stresses) of non-newtonian fluids is dependent on shear rate

or shear rate history. Some non-newtonian fluids with shear-

independent viscosity, however, still exhibit normal stress-differences

or other non-newtonian behaviour. In a newtonian fluid, the relation

between the shear stress and shear rate is linear, passing through the

origin, the constant of proportionality being the coefficient of viscosity.

In a non-newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and

the shear rate is different and can even be time-dependent (Time

dependent viscosity). (sciencelearn, 2010)

A.Types of Non-Newtonian Behavior

A.1.Shear Thickening fluid

Shear thickening fluids are concentrated colloidal

suspensions composing of non-aggregating solid particles

suspended in fluids, which exhibit a marked increase in

viscosity beyond a critical shear rate. This increased viscosity is

11
 seen as being both field activated due to dependency on

shearing rate as well as reversible. (Weihua Li, 2012)

A.2. Shear Thinning Fluid

Shear thinning is usually attributed to structural breakdown in the

fluid, but analogy with the dynamic viscous response to oscillatory

shear suggest a close association with visco-elasticity. (Dr. Dietrich

Steinkopff Verlag, 2010)

A.3. Bingham plastic

Fluids that have a linear shear stress/shear strain relationship

require a finite yield stress before they begin to flow. Many of these

materials have a yield stress, a critical value of stress below which

they do not flow; they are sometimes called viscoplastic materials

of Bingham plastics. Several examples are clay suspensions,

drilling mud, toothpaste, mayonnaise, chocolate, and mustard. The

surface of a Bingham plastic can hold peaks when it is still. By

contrast Newtonian fluids have flat featureless surfaces when still.

(Zografou, 2007)

A.4. Rheopectic or anti-Thixotropic

A rheopectic fluid is a fluid that will increase its viscosity as the

amount of constant force applied to it increases. There are also

fluids whose strain rate is a function of time. Fluids that require a

gradually increasing shear stress to maintain a constant strain rate

12
 are referred to as rheopectic. An opposite case of this is a fluid that

thins out with time and requires a decreasing stress to maintain a

constant strain rate. (Amy Atwell, 2013)

3. Drilling Fluid

A. Description

Any of a number of liquid and gaseous fluids and mixtures of

fluids and solids (as solid suspensions, mixtures and emulsions of

liquids, gases and solids) used in operations to drill boreholes into

the earth. Synonymous with "drilling mud" in general usage,

although some prefer to reserve the term "drilling fluid" for more

sophisticated and well-defined "muds." (Schlumberger Glossary,

n.d)

Drilling-fluid systems are designed and formulated to perform

efficiently under expected wellbore conditions. Advances in drilling-

fluid technology have made it possible to implement a cost-

effective, fit-for-purpose system for each interval in the well-

construction process. (PetroWiki, 2012-2019)

Drilling-fluid selection remains one of the most important

components of a successful well-construction operation. Drilling-

fluid service companies help operators to overcome the familiar

issues (e.g., lost circulation) as well as the challenges that are

13
 brought on by drilling in ultradeep waters, extreme HP/HT

formations, or remote environmentally sensitive areas by providing:

1. Analytical tools

2. Test equipment

3. Stock point facilities

4. Innovative materials

The ability to simulate downhole conditions and optimize fluid design

will continue to help reduce nonproductive time, and real-time

management of hole conditions through data feed from downhole

tools allows the operator and drilling-fluid specialist to fine-tune

drilling parameters.

The demand for drilling-waste-management services that are

dedicated to reducing, recovering, and recycling the volume of spent

fluids and drilled cuttings continues to grow rapidly. These services

and the related equipment have demonstrated their worth by helping

operators achieve environmental compliance, reducing disposal

costs, and returning more fluid and water for reuse in multiple

applications. (PetroWiki, 2012-2019). A sample of drilling fluid is

shown in figure 2 to provide additional information of what the drilling

fluid looks like.

14
 Drilling fluids can be created by more than 250 chemicals, some

can cause grave illnesses and that includes cancer. The exact recipe

is usually a closely guarded secret. That makes it difficult to know

what chemical exposure workers have had. (Worksafe BC, 2019) A

sample of drilling fluid is shown in figure 2 to provide additional

information of what the drilling fluid looks like.

Figure 2 Drilling Mud

Source: The Crypto News, Feb. 2, 2019

B. Types of Drilling Fluids

1. Water-based fluid

Most water-based muds are composed of a combination of

water, specific types of clays, and chemicals used to enhance

parameters related to drilling performance/well bore stability in the

well. Although some of the chemicals added to water-based muds

are toxic on their own, once they are combined with the other fluids

15
and clays that make up WBMs, the toxicity of the resultant mud is

greatly reduced. (Zachary Pisciotta, Mar. 2, 2017)

Many water-based muds consist of Native clays, which are clays

that are commonly present in the area in which the well is being

drilled. As drilling progresses, these Native clay’s become

suspended in the drilling fluid, serving as both a viscosifier and a

cuttings transportation enhancer. In addition, specific clays such

as Attapulgite and Bentonite can be added to the mud, depending

on the drilling situation encountered. It is important to note that

perhaps the most important purpose of adding clays to drilling fluids

is to increase the viscosity of the mud. Viscosity of a drilling fluid is

a very important parameter to consider during the fluid design, as it

is needed to transport the cuttings generated by the bit from the

bottom of the wellbore to the surface. (Zachary Pisciotta, Mar. 2,

2017)

Another important function of the clay additives present in the

mud is to seal off the wellbore from the surrounding formations by

forming a thin, impermeable filter cake on the borehole wall. The

purpose of this filter cake is to seal off outside permeable

formations and prevent fluid loss from the wellbore to the

surrounding permeable formations during drilling. Without the use

of a filter cake, an overbalanced well that is drilled through

permeable formations would encounter situations where the

16
wellbore would lose drilling fluid to the surrounding formations. This

occurrence is referred to as “fluid loss” and can can result in

situations such as a kick and/or a loss of wellbore stability.

(Zachary Pisciotta, Mar. 2, 2017)

A.Non dispersed System

Simple gel-and-water systems used for top hole drilling are

non-dispersed, as are many of the advanced polymer systems

that contain little or no bentonite. The natural clays that are

incorporated into non dispersed systems are managed through

dilution, encapsulation, and/or flocculation. A properly designed

solids-control system can be used to remove fine solids from the

mud system and help maintain drilling efficiency.

The low-solids, non-dispersed (LSND) polymer systems rely

on high- and low-molecular-weight long-chain polymers to

provide viscosity and fluid-loss control. Low-colloidal solids are

encapsulated and flocculated for more efficient removal at the

surface, which in turn decreases dilution requirements. Specially

developed high-temperature polymers are available to help

overcome gelation issues that might occur on high-pressure,

high-temperature (HP/HT) wells. With proper treatment, some

LSND systems can be weighted to 17.0 to 18.0 ppg and run at

350°F and higher. (PetroWiki, 2012-2019)

17
 B.Dispersed System

Dispersed systems are treated with chemical dispersants that

are designed to de-flocculate clay particles to allow improved

rheology control in higher-density muds. Widely used dispersants

include lignosulfonates, lignitic additives, and tannins. Dispersed

systems typically require additions of caustic soda (NaOH) to

maintain a pH level of 10.0 to 11.0. Dispersing a system can

increase its tolerance for solids, making it possible to weight up

to 20.0 ppg. The commonly used lignosulfonate system relies on

relatively inexpensive additives and is familiar to most operator

and rig personnel. Additional commonly used dispersed muds

include lime and other cationic systems. A solids-laden dispersed

system also can decrease the rate of penetration significantly

and contribute to hole erosion. (PetroWiki, 2012-2019)

2. Oil based Fluid

A. Description

Oil-based systems were developed and introduced in the

1960s to help address several drilling problems:

1.) Formation clays that react, swell, or slough after exposure

to WBFs

18
 2.) Increasing downhole temperatures

3.) Contaminants

4.) Stuck pipe and torque and drag

Oil-based fluids (OBFs) in use today are formulated with

diesel, mineral oil, or low-toxicity linear olefins and paraffins. The

olefins and paraffins are often referred to as "synthetics" although

some are derived from distillation of crude oil and some are

chemically synthesized from smaller molecules. The electrical

stability of the internal brine or water phase is monitored to help

ensure that the strength of the emulsion is maintained at or near

a predetermined value. The emulsion should be stable enough to

incorporate additional water volume if a downhole water flow is

encountered.

Barite is used to increase system density, and specially-

treated organophilic bentonite is the primary viscosifier in most

oil-based systems. The emulsified water phase also contributes

to fluid viscosity. Organophilic lignitic, asphaltic and polymeric

materials are added to help control HP/HT(High pressure/High

temperature) fluid loss. Oil-wetting is essential for ensuring that

particulate materials remain in suspension. The surfactants used

for oil-wetting also can work as thinners. Oil-based systems

usually contain lime to maintain an elevated pH, resist adverse

19
 effects of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2)

gases, and enhance emulsion stability. (PetroWiki, 2012-2019)

3. Synthetic based fluids

Synthetic-based fluids were developed out of an increasing

desire to reduce the environmental impact of offshore drilling

operations, but without sacrificing the cost-effectiveness of oil-

based systems.

Like traditional OBFs, SBFs can be used to:

1.) Maximize rate of penetrations (ROPs)

2.) Increase lubricity in directional and horizontal wells

3.) Minimize wellbore-stability problems, such as those

caused by reactive shales.

Field data gathered since the early 1990s confirm that SBFs

provide exceptional drilling performance, easily equaling that of

diesel- and mineral-oil-based fluids.

In many offshore areas, regulations that prohibit the

discharge of cuttings drilled with OBFs do not apply to some of the

synthetic-based systems. SBFs’ cost per barrel can be higher, but

they have proved economical in many offshore applications for the

same reasons that traditional OBFs have: fast penetration rates

and less mud-related nonproductive time (NPT). SBFs that are

20
 formulated with linear alphaolefins (LAO) and isomerized olefins

(IO) exhibit the lower kinematic viscosities that are required in

response to the increasing importance of viscosity issues as

operators move into deeper waters.

Early ester-based systems exhibited high kinematic

viscosity, a condition that is magnified in the cold temperatures

encountered in deepwater risers. However, a shorter-chain-length

(C8), low-viscosity ester that was developed in 2000 exhibits

viscosity similar to or lower than that of the other base fluids,

specifically the heavily used IO systems. Because of their high

biodegradability and low toxicity, esters are universally recognized

as the best base fluid for environmental performance. (PetroWiki,

2012-2019)

4. Pneumatic based fluid

Compressed air or gas can be used in place of drilling

fluid to circulate cuttings out of the wellbore. Pneumatic

fluids fall into one of three categories:

1.) Air or gas only

2.) Aerated fluid

3.) Foam

21
 Pneumatic-drilling operations require specialized

equipment to help ensure safe management of the cuttings

and formation fluids that return to surface, as well as tanks,

compressors, lines, and valves associated with the gas used

for drilling or aerating the drilling fluid or foam. (PetroWiki,

2012-2019)

Except when drilling through high-pressure

hydrocarbon- or fluid-laden formations that demand a high-

density fluid to prevent well-control issues, using pneumatic

fluids offers several advantages:

1.) Little or no formation damage

2.) Rapid evaluation of cuttings for the presence of

hydrocarbons

3.) Prevention of lost circulation

4.) Significantly higher penetration rates in hard-rock

formations

C. Properties of Drilling Fluid

a. Compositions of Drilling Fluids

Drilling muds fulfil several functions, and because

they may be used in a very wide variety of rock formations

22
and circumstances, their specific composition varies from

site to site, and with different depths in the same well.

Since offshore oil and gas exploration began, many

different types of substances have been, and are being,

used in the formulation and modification of drilling muds

and included emulsifiers, lubricants, wetting agents,

corrosion inhibitors, surfactants, detergent, caustic soda,

salts, and organic polymers (Bell et al., 1998).

In fact, it is more correct to consider drilling mud

as a mud system—a combination of different substances

that can used and modified to suit particular conditions

encountered during drilling. In addition to the chemicals

mentioned above, drilling muds also consist of gelling and

deflocculating agents (bentonite clays) filtration control

agents, pH and ion-control substances, barites, biocides,

corrosion inhibitors, lubricants, defoaming agents, and

trace elements of heavy metals (such as arsenic, barium,

chromium, cadmium, lead, and mercury) which can be

retained in the marine environment (Neff et al., 1987;

Annis, 1997; Patin, 1999; Wills, 2000; CAPP, 2001).

Table 1 indicates a typical composition of drilling mud.

23
 Table 1

Drilling Mud Composition

Quantit %
Component Mass (Kg) % Mass Volume (L)
y Volume
Water 1 bbl 159 65.33 1588.99 84.92
Bentonite 20 ppb 9.1 3.73 9.07 4.85
Caustic soda 0.5 ppb 0.23 0.9 0.22 0.12
Soda ash 0.5 ppb 0.23 0.9 0.1 0.5
High viscosity CMC 1.5 ppb 0.68 0.28 0.47 0.25
Low viscosity CMC 3.5 ppb 1.59 0.65 1.09 0.58
Barite 160 ppb 72.58 29.82 17.28 9.23
Source: Petrolyte 2011)

b. Viscosity

Viscosity, resistance of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a

change in shape, or movement of neighbouring portions

relative to one another. Viscosity denotes opposition to

flow. The reciprocal of the viscosity is called the fluidity, a

measure of the ease of flow. Because part of a fluid that is

forced to move carries along to some extent adjacent

parts, viscosity may be thought of as internal friction

between the molecules; such friction opposes the

development of velocity differences within a fluid.

Viscosity is a major factor in determining the forces that

must be overcome when fluids are used in lubrication and

transported in pipelines. It controls the liquid flow in such

24
processes as spraying, injection molding, and surface

coating. The viscosity of liquids decreases rapidly with an

increase in temperature, and the viscosity of gases

increases with an increase in temperature. Thus, upon

heating, liquids flow more easily, whereas gases flow

more sluggishly. (Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2019)

c. Apparent Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid measured at a given shear

rate at a fixed temperature. In order for a viscosity

measurement to be meaningful, the shear rate must be

stated or defined. (Schlumberger Glossary, 2019)

d. Gel Strength

The time-dependent forces in the drilling mud

cause an increase in viscosity as the fluid remains

quiescent for a certain period of time. The gel strength is

a measurement of the electrochemical forces within the

fluid under static conditions. Its field unit is the same as

that of the yield strength. The strength is a function of

suspended solids, solid contents, temperature, chemical

content and time. Usually it is caused by the high

concentration of clay. (SigmaQuadrant, 2019)

25
e. Density

Density, mass of a unit volume of a material

substance. The formula for density is d = M/V, where d is

density, M is mass, and V is volume. Density is commonly

expressed in units of grams per cubic centimetre. The

densities of common solids, liquids, and gases are listed

in textbooks and handbooks. Density offers a convenient

means of obtaining the mass of a body from its volume or

vice versa; the mass is equal to the volume multiplied by

the density (M = Vd), while the volume is equal to the

mass divided by the density (V = M/d). The expression

particle density refers to the number of particles per unit

volume, not to the density of a single particle, and it is

usually expressed as n. (Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

2019)

f. Yield Point

Yield Point (YP) is resistance of initial flow of fluid

or the stress required in order to move the fluid. It can be

simply stated that the Yield Point (YP) is the attractive

force among colloidal particles in drilling fluid. As per

Bingham plastic model, YP is the shear stress

extrapolated to a shear rate of zero. (Drilling Formulas,

January 21, 2016)

26
 g. Fluid Loss Control

The act or means of controlling (usually lowering)

the volume of filtrate that passes through a filter medium.

Control of fluid loss for a mud is achieved by several

means, one of which is by addition of fluid-loss-control

materials to the mud system. Another is to change the

mud chemistry to make the materials already present

work better. Adding a clay deflocculant to freshwater mud

typically improves fluid-loss control. (Schlumberger

Glossary, 2019)

h. Chemical Composition

Drilling fluids are two-phase compounds: a fluid

and solid phase. The character of the fluid phase is

determined by chemically analyzing the concentrations of

calcium, chlorides, hydroxols, bicarbonate, and carbonate

ions, sodium, potassium, and nitrates. The character of

the solid phase is tested to determine solid concentration,

specific densities, and particle sizes. The primary means

of controlling solids are by removal via shale shakers,

desanders, desilters, and/or dilution.

4. Factors Affecting Drilling Fluid Properties

27
 Drilling fluids (muds) are complex mixtures of interacting

components and their properties markedly change during

drilling, with change in temperature and pressure, time, solid

content, rate of penetration, formation zone being drilled and so

on. It’s significant to understand drilling fluid properties changes

to eliminate any drilling problems which may arise. Numerous

studies have been conducted to effectively understand change

in fluid properties under down-hole conditions.

One of these studies reported that major cause of flocculation,

is a process wherein colloids come out of suspension, in drilling

mud was high temperature (Annis & ESSO, 1967). Flocculation

causes variation in drilling mud properties; it results in high yield

point at low shear rate and high viscosities at high gel strengths.

Flocculated mud shows normal plastic viscosity but an

abnormally high yield point (Bourgoyne Jr., Millheim, Chenevert,

& Young Jr., 1986). Bourgoyne Jr. (1986) reported major cause

of flocculation in drilling mud as high active solids, high

electrolyte concentration and high temperature. Annis and

ESSO (1967) reported proper treatment of mud with NaOH and

ligmosulfonate reduces the effects of dispersion and flocculation

at high temperature. It was also reported that if temperature of

the mud is not excessive then the cause of flocculation is

probably a high electrolyte concentration in the mud (Bourgoyne

28
 Jr., Millheim, Chenevert, & Young Jr., 1986). Alderman (1988)

reported that rheological properties of drilling mud, under

temperature of 130oC and pressure up to 1000 bar, can be best

fitted using three parameter HB power law for low temperature

and high pressure conditions. It was also reported that model

behaviour of the continuous phase is weakly pressure

dependent and an exponential temperature dependent. The

pressure dependence increased with mud density. In all cases

the fluid yield stress was essentially independent of pressure.

(Alderman, Gavignet, Guillot, & Maitland, 1988). Similarly Ali &

Al-Marhoun (1990) conducted an extensive research on the

effects of temperature, pressure and aging on water based

muds, they reported that high pressure increases the values of

the rheological properties of the drilling fluids.

5. Rheology

a. Description

The science and study of the deformation and flow of

matter. The term is also used to indicate the properties of a

given fluid, as in mud rheology. Rheology is an extremely

important property of drilling muds, drill-in fluids, work over and

completion fluids, cements and specialty fluids and pills. Mud

rheology is measured on a continual basis while drilling and

adjusted with additives or dilution to meet the needs of the

29
operation. In water-base fluids, water quality plays an important

role in how additives perform. Temperature affects behavior

and interactions of the water, clay, polymers and solids in a

mud. Downhole pressure must be taken into account in

evaluating the rheology of oil muds. (Schlumberger Glossary,

2019)

b. Examples of Rheological Measurements Include:

1. Viscosity profiling for non-Newtonian shear-dependent

behavior to simulate processing or use conditions.

2. Viscoelastic fingerprinting for material classification to

determine extent of solid-like or liquid-like behavior.

3. Optimizing dispersion stability.

4. Determination of thixotropy of paints and coatings for

product application and final finish quality.

5. Impact of molecular architecture of polymers on

viscoelasticity for processing and end-use performance.

6. Benchmarking Food and Personal Care products for

ability to pump or spread.

7. Full cure profiling for bonding or gelling systems.

8. Pre-formulation screening for therapeutics, particularly

biopharmaceuticals.

30
 c. Application of Rheology and Area of Uses:

The following application and area of uses of rheology were

define by the central chemical consulting:

1.Pumping slurries - materials transport.

2.Thickening and de-watering of mineral slurries.

3.Filtration - more viscous, less speed.

4.Forming materials e.g. brick & ceramic products.

5.Paint manufactures e.g. non-drip paints.

6.Reactions involving mineral slurries e.g. gold

extraction.

7.Food chemistry and manufacture - texture of ice

cream, pasta, desserts, processed meats.

8.Cosmetics chemistry.

9.Drilling muds for the petroleum industry.

10.Polymer chemistry - solutions and melts.

Research Literature

Relevant to this research are the previous studies which are highly

considered in order to restore the previous design and enhance future

31
experiments. The existing literatures on rheometer are also reviewed in this

chapter.

In the study of Hans Petter Rønningsen, Statoil, Norway in Rheology of

Petroleum Fluids (2012). They revealed the variety of rheological behavoir, and

corresponding techniques for investigation, encountered among petroleum fluids.

Rheology plays a very important role in the petroleum industry, in drillings as well

as production. The focus Rønningsen, Statoil, Norway is on crude oil rheology

related to production.

In the study of P. Matthew Spiecker and Peter K. Kilpatrick (2004) in

Interfacial Rheology of petroleum Asphaltenes at the oil-water interface they

used a rheometer to study the mechanical properties of asphaltenic films

adsorbed at the oil-water interface. The solutions of asphaltenes isolated from

four crude oils were dissolved in a model oil of heptanes and toluene and allowed

to adsorb and age in contact with water. Film elasticity values were measured

over a period of several days, and yield stresses and film masses were

determined at the end of testing.

As indicated to the study of Ajugwe.C, Oloro. J and Akpotu. D. of

determination of the rheological properties of drilling fluid from locally sourced

clay from various geographical areas they use a rheometer apparatus to identify

the plastic viscosity, yield point and gel strength with a speed of 3 rpm. They also

used this formula for determining the plastic viscosity and yield point;

Formula 1.

32
 Plastic viscosity (PV) = 600rpm dial reading – 300rpm dial reading

Formula 2.

Yield point (YP) = 300 rpm dial reading – plastic viscosity

From FANN RheoVADR variable automated digital Rheometer which is

shown in figure 5 is a direct-reading instrument for evaluating the rheological

properties of fluid, Newtonian and non-Newtonian. The advantages of this

rheometer are its digital display, pre-programmed API tests data recording

feature, and speed range – 12 preset and variables speeds from 0.01 rpm to

999rpm.

The Rheometer has three settings: 300 RPM: Turn the shift cam all the

way clockwise and turn the crank fast enough to cause slipping. 600 RPM: Set

the shift cam between the 300 RPM and Stir settings and turn the crank fast

enough to cause slipping. Stir: Turn the shift cam all the way counter-clockwise

and turn the crank vigorously.

1. Place a recently agitated sample of fluid in a suitable container. Be

sure to leave enough empty volume in the cup for the displacement of the bob

and rotor (approximately 100 mL). It is very important that you take the

measurements as soon as possible after you retrieve the sample. Record the

location the sample was obtained on the Mud Report.

2. Immerse the rotor exactly to the scribed line and then tighten the leg

lock nut to hold it in position.

33
 3. Set the shift cam to the “Stir” position (all the way counter-clockwise)

and turn the crank for about 15 seconds. While stirring, place a thermometer in

the sample and record the temperature.

4. Set the shift cam to the 600 RPM setting (middle) and continue

cranking until the dial reading becomes steady. The time for this is dependent

upon the mud characteristics. Record the dial reading.

5. Switch the shift cam to 300 RPM (all the way clockwise) and turn the

crank until the dial reading becomes steady. Record the dial reading. To

measure gel strength:

1. Stir the sample by setting the shift cam all the way counter-

clockwise and turn the crank at high speed for about 10

seconds.

2. Allow the fluid to stand undisturbed for 10 seconds. Slowly and

steadily turn the gel knob clockwise and note the maximum dial

reading before the gel breaks. Record this reading as “Initial Gel

Strength (10-Second Gel)” in lbs/100 ft 2

34
 Figure 5: RheoVADR

Source: fann, 2013-2019

From the studies of Effect of Temperature on Drilling Mud Raed H. Allawi,

et.al., ( 2019) stated that the main functions of drilling fluids include providing

hydrostatic pressure to prevent formation fluids from entering into the well bore,

cooling drilling bit, cleaning borehole while drilling and Stability of borehole. While

drilling, the drilling mud transport drilling cuttings to surface and suspending the

cuttings while drilling stop. There are many factors that effect on drilling mud,

including the borehole temperature. Therefore, with increasing in drilling depth

the wellbore temperature increases that effect on drilling mud properties

(viscosity) include yield point (YP) and plastic viscosity (PV)). The temperature is

the original temperature of the drilling fluids the others are dependent on the

original temperature by adding 10 degrees more to the original temperature.

Ebikapaye, JP (2018) in his study, Effects of Temperature on the Density

of Water Based Drilling Mud, revealed that it can be generally concluded that

temperature has an undoubted huge effect on drilling mud property as drilling

through high temperature zone in a formation with water based mud constitutes a

problem of significant proportion in the petroleum industry. This is as a result of

the significant decrease and loss in the mud density.

Synthesis

35
 The conceptual literature shows that there are existing studies that give

the proponents a better understanding and analysis of the design used by the

previous study. While the related literature serves as the basis of foundation for

the design of the proposed apparatus of the previous study of the apparatus. It

gives the information needed to understand the concept of rheometers and will

also serve as a guide in restoring the apparatus. The previous studies and

existing methods are considered to come up with the design by the previous

researchers.

The existing automated mud rheometer apparatus designed by Casas

et.al (2016), will be rehabilitated, and the calibration, materials, and other matters

like the drilling fluid samples, cost estimation and fabrication will be the basis of

the rehabilitation.

The study of Casas et.al. (2016), had used a water-based drilling fluid with

CR650 and an rpm of 300-600 and 3. For comparison of results between the

previous efficiency and the rehabilitated efficiency of the rheometer a CR650 and

300-600, 3 rpm will be used.

In the past study of Casas et.al. (2016), they didn’t get to include the

effects of temperature on their study. Based on the study of the Effect of

Temperature on Drilling Mud conducted by Raed H. Allawi, et.al, (2019) pointed

out that There are many factors that effect on drilling mud, including the borehole

temperature. Therefore, with increasing in drilling depth the wellbore temperature

increases that effect on drilling mud properties (viscosity) include yield point (YP)

and plastic viscosity (PV)). And their studies had used the temperature, is the

36
original temperature of the drilling fluids the others are dependent on the original

temperature by adding 10 degrees more to the original temperature.

In relation to the existing design by Casas et.al. (2016), relates to the

present study in a way that the drilling mud rheometer is automated for

convenient and more practical to use. The improvement of the design is that It

measures a lot of properties like plastic viscosity, gel strength and yield point that

is important in drilling operations. Furthermore, the proponents added a pH meter

to the design of the apparatus for the measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of

the drilling fluid. However, it differs from the present study for an additional

parameter that affects the drilling fluid property which is temperature.

The study of Casas et.al. (2016) is similar to the present study that it will

also construct new objectives which enhanced the existing apparatus. The study

concentrated on rheological properties of the drilling fluid. The researchers will

use a water-based drilling mud. The apparatus design was mostly based to the

FANN and OFITE rheometer concept; meanwhile, it will differ from the present

study because the study used only pH meter adding new determination of fluid

property while the present study is going to add a thermocouple to determine and

monitor the temperature of the drilling fluid.

The study of Casas et.al. (2016), somehow relate to the present study for

it had used a water-based drilling fluid with CR650 and an rpm of 300-600 and 3.

On the other hand, it differs from the present study because it focused mainly on

one type of drilling fluid while the present study will use three types of drilling

fluid.

37
38
 CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

This chapter presents the procedures and methods that will be applied for

this study. The research must take in necessary procedures and considerations

laid out by the researcher to satisfy the objectives of this study. To achieve the

goals and objectives of the study, the following methods and procedures were

followed.

Research Design

The study will employ data gathering from different published

papers and journals and this will be used to present a graphical

presentation showing the effect of temperature in the rheological

properties of the drilling fluids. Figure 6 presents the flow of the study.

Data Gathering from published paper and journals.

Present a tabular presentation of data.

Comparing the rheological properties of the three drilling fluids.

Comparing the effect of temperature on the rheological properties

of the three drilling fluids.

Present a graphical presentation showing the effect of temperature

in the rheological properties of the drilling fluids.

Figure 6. Schematic Diagram

 Shown in Figure 6, presents the schematic diagram. The first step

is that the researches will gather data from published papers and journals

these include the: Rheological Properties, Water-Based Drilling Fluid,

Types of Additives. Using the gathered data, researchers will present a

tabular presentation of data that includes the Type of Additives used,

Plastic Viscosity and Yield Point. In order to compare the rheological

properties of the drilling three fluids the researchers will consider the

following types of additives, Cement Contamination, Barite and Ilimenite

and Sodium Bentonite.

After comparing the rheological properties, researchers will then be

comparing the effects of temperature on the said rheological properties. Last is to

present a graphical presentation showing the effect of temperature in the

rheological properties of the drilling fluids.

3.1 Data Gathering

Related studies and literatures were considered as the source of

data for this paper. All the data were validated and by making sure that all

the data that will be used have the same parameters. Data with stability

(stable or unstable) based on operational experience was also considered

to validate the accuracy of the developed correlation.

3.1.1 Rheological Properties

Three rheological properties that the researchers gathered in

the published papers and journals are the Yield Point, Gel Strength

40
and Plastic Viscosity. The said properties were then be compared

for the three drilling fluids used in this study.

3.1.2 Water - Based Drilling Fluids

Water based drilling fluids are the most common drilling fluid that

is used in the oil and gas industry. Also, water based drilling fluids

has the most number of published studies. Water based drilling

fluids (WBFs) are used to drill approximately 80% of all wells. The

base fluid may be fresh water, seawater, brine, saturated brine, or a

formate brine. These systems incorporate natural clays in the

course of the drilling operation. Some commercial bentonite or

attapulgite also may be added to aid in fluid-loss control and to

enhance hole-cleaning effectiveness. After surface casing is set

and cemented, the operator often continues drilling with a WBF

unless well conditions require displacing to an oil- or synthetic-

based system.

3.1.3 Types of Additives

The additives that are used in the data gathered from the

published papers and journals are the Cement Contamination,

Barite and Ilimenite and Sodium Bentonite. For the cement

contamination, occurs in every well drilled. It is contamination from

calcium hydroxide which can result in increased pH, severe

thickening and increased fluid loss of bentonite

based mud systems. Barite and Ilemenite, increases the hydrostatic

41
 pressure of the drilling mud allowing it to compensate for high-

pressure zones experienced during drilling. The softness of the

mineral also prevents it from damaging drilling tools

during drilling and enables it to serve as a lubricant. Lastly, sodium

bentonite, expands when wet, absorbing as much as several times

its dry mass in water. Because of its excellent colloidal properties, it

is often used in drilling mud for oil and gas wells and boreholes for

geotechnical and environmental investigations.

3.2 Tabular Presentation of Data

After gathering the data from the said published papers and

journals, the researchers will it in tabular presentation. The table will

includes the type of additives, the rheological properties: plastic viscosity,

gel strength and yield point. In the study, of E. Bediako and Abdelmjeed

Mohamed, the rheological properties that are measured are the three

properties stated above. But in the study of Zisis Vryza, the rheological

properties that are obtained are the plastic viscosity and yield point only.

3.3 Comparing the Different Drilling Fluids Considering the Type of

Additives

The rheological properties of the three different drilling fluids with

different types of additives which are discussed in the section 3.1.3 of this

paper are then be compared. The amount of additives used in the study of

E. Bediako, 0, 10, 20 and 30 grams of Cement Contamination were used.

On the other hand, in the study of Zisis Vryza the additive that has been

42
used is the Sodium Bentonite. Lastly, Barite and Ilmenite were the

additives that are used Abdelmjeed Mohamed, the concentrations used

are 100% barite, 75% barite, 25% ilmenite and 50% barite, 50% ilmenite.

3.4 Comparing the Effect of Temperature on the Rheological

Properties

With the used of the additives in the three drilling fluids the effect of

the temperatures on the said drilling fluids will then be compared. For the

first drilling fluid, from the study of E. Bediako, temperatures are 25, 45

and 60 degree Celcius for each amout of Cement Concentration used. For

the second drilling fluid, the study of Zisis Vryza, the temperatures used

are 25, 40, 60 and 80 degree Celsius for each amount of Sodium

Bentonite used. Lastly, in the study of Abdelmjeed Mohamed, the

temperatures used for each concentrations of Barite and Ileminite are 120

and 250 degree Celsius.

3.5 Graphical Presentation of the Effects of Temperature in the

Rheological Properties of Drilling Fluids

The data obtained from the three studies stated above will then be

presented into a graph in order to determine the effects of the

temperatures in the rheological properties of the three different drilling

fluids.

43
44