Chapter 8: Waves and Water Dynamics
Chapter 8: Waves and Water Dynamics
Waves and
Water Dynamics
Wave Generation
• Disturbing force causes waves to form.
• Wind blowing across ocean surface
• Interface of fluids with different densities
• Air—ocean interface
• Ocean waves are caused by the movements of air across the ocean surface.
• Air—air interface
• Atmospheric waves are generated by the movement of a variety of air masses,
particularly when cold fronts move into an area.
• Water—water interface
• Internal waves are generated by the movement of water with different
densities.
Internal Waves
• Associated with pycnocline
• Larger than surface waves
• Caused by tides, turbidity currents, winds, and
ships
• Possible hazard for submarines
Wave Movement
• Waves transmit energy
• Cyclic motion of particles in ocean
• Particles may move:
• Up and down
• Back and forth
• Around and around
Introduction to Waves Video
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qogWcsW1eMg
• Crest
• Trough
• Still water level
Wave Terminology •
•
Zero energy level
Wave height (H)
• Wavelength (L)
• Wave base
Orbital Wave Characteristics
• Wave steepness = Wave Height / Wave Length
• If wave steepness > 1
7 , wave breaks (spills forward).
• Wave period (T) = time for one wavelength to pass fixed point
• Wave frequency = inverse of period or 1/Period (T)
Longitudinal Waves
• Also called push–pull waves
• Compress and decompress as they travel, like a coiled spring
• Energy transmitted through solids, liquids, or gases via longitudinal particle movement
Transverse Waves
• Also called side‐to‐side waves
• Energy travels at right angles to direction of moving particles.
• Generally only transmit through solids, not liquids
Orbital Waves
• Also called interface waves
• Waves on ocean surface
• Progressive waves oscillate uniformly and progress without
breaking.
Progressive Waves • Longitudinal
• Transverse
• Orbital
Circular Orbital Motion
• Wave particles move in a circle.
• Waveform travels forward.
• Wave energy advances.
• There is a slightly forward movement of the
particles (wave drift).
• Diameter of orbital motion decreases with depth of water.
Circular Orbital Motion • Wave base—depth where orbital movement of water particles
stops
Deep Water Waves
• If water depth is greater than wave
base wave is a deep water wave. Deep
water waves face no interreference at
the ocean bottom, so they include all
wind‐generated waves in the open
ocean where water depths far exceed
the wave base.
• Lack of orbital motion at depth useful
for floating runways and other
structures
Deep Water Waves
• All wind‐generated waves in
open ocean
• Wave speed = wavelength
(L)/period (T)
• Speed called celerity (C)
Speed of
Deep Water
Waves
Shallow‐Water Waves
• Water depth (d) is less than 1/20 of the wavelength (L/20). They are also
known as long waves.
• Water “feels” seafloor (touch bottom).
• The speed of shallow‐water waves is influences only by gravitational
acceleration (g) and water deptyh (d)
• C (meters/sec) = 3.13 √ d(meters) or
• C (feet/sec) = 5.67 √d (feet)
• Wind‐generated waves in shallow
nearshore areas
• Tsunami
Shallow‐Water • Tides
• Particle motion in flat elliptical orbit that
Waves approaches horizontal (back‐and‐forth)
oscillation. The vertical components of
particle motion decreases with increasing
depth below sea level, causing the orbits to
become even more flattened.
Transitional Waves
• Characteristics of both
deep‐ and shallow‐water
waves
• Celerity depends on both
water depth and
wavelength.
Wind‐Generated
Wave Development
• Capillary Waves
• Wind generates stress on
sea surface
• V‐shaped troughs
• Wavelengths less than 1.74
centimeter (0.7 i nch)
• Gravity Waves
• Increasing wave energy
• Pointed crests, rounded
troughs
• Wavelengths greater than • Sea
1.74 centimeter • Where wind‐driven waves are generated
• Also called sea area.
• Characterized by choppiness and waves
moving in many directions.
Factors Affecting Wave Energy
• Wind speed
• Wind duration
• Fetch—distance over which
wind blows
Wave heights
Directly related usually less
to wave energy than 2 meters
(6.6 feet)
Wave Height
Breakers called
Beaufort Wind
whitecaps form
Scale describes
when wave
appearance of
reaches critical
sea surface.
steepness.
TOPEX/Poseidon Satellite Wave Heights
Beaufort
Wind Scale
SmartTable 8.1 Beaufort wind
scale and the state of the sea
Maximum Wave
Height
• U S Ramapo (1933): 152‐
meters (500 feet) long ship
caught in Pacific typhoon
• Waves 34 meters (112 feet)
high
• Previously thought waves
could not exceed 60 feet
Wave Damage
• U S Ramapo undamaged
• Other craft not as lucky, for
example, aircraft carrier
Bennington (1945)
• Ships are damaged or
disappear annually due to
high storm waves.
• Fully developed sea
• Equilibrium condition for a given wind
speed.
• Waves can grow no further because
they lose as much energy breaking as
whitecaps under the force of gravity as
Wave Energy they receive from the wind.
• Swell
• Uniform, symmetrical waves that travel
outward from storm area
• Long crests
• Transport energy long distances
Fully Developed Sea
Wind Fetch in Duration Average height Average Average Highest 10% of
speed in k m (mi )
ilo eter les in hours in m (f t)
eter ee wavelength in m eter period waves in m (f t)
eter ee
k m /h r
ilo eter ou (f t)
ee in seconds
(mi /h r)
les ou
Table 8.2 Conditions necessary to produce a fully developed sea at various wind speeds and the
characteristics of the resulting waves
• Longer wavelength waves travel faster and
outdistance other waves.
• Wave train—a group of waves with
similar characteristics
• Wave dispersion—sorting of waves by
Swells wavelengths
• Decay distance—distance over which
waves change from choppy sea to
uniform swell
• Wave train speed is ½ speed of individual
wave.
Wave Train
Movement
Wave Interference Patterns
• Collision of two or more wave systems
• Constructive interference
• In‐phase wave trains with about the same
wavelengths
• Destructive interference
• Out‐of‐phase wave trains with about the same
wavelengths
Wave Interference
Patterns
• Mixed interference
• Two swells with different wavelengths
and different wave heights
• Massive, spontaneous, solitary
ocean waves
• Reach abnormal heights, enormous
Rogue Waves destructive power
• Luxury liner Michelangelo damaged
in 1966
• Basis of The Perfect Storm
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ylOpbW1H‐I
Rogue Waves
Rogue Waves • Difficult to forecast
• Occur more near weather fronts and
downwind of islands
• Strong ocean currents amplify opposing swells
Surf zone—zone of breaking waves near
shore
Waves in Surf Shoaling water—water becoming gradually
more shallow
Zone
When deep water waves encounter shoaling
water less than ½ their wavelength, they
become transitional waves.
Waves
Approaching
Shore
• As a deep‐water wave becomes a shallow‐water wave:
• Wave speed decreases
• Wavelength decreases
• Wave height increases
• Wave steepness (height/wavelength) increases
• When steepness > 1/7 wave breaks.
Surf as swell from distant storms
• Waves break close to shore.
• Uniform breakers
Breakers in
Surf Zone Surf generated by local winds
• Choppy, high energy, unstable water
Shallow water waves
Three • Spilling
Types of • Plunging
• Surging
Breakers
Spilling Breakers
• Gently sloping sea floor
• Wave energy expended
over longer distance
• Water slides down
front slope of wave
Plunging
Breakers
• Moderately steep sea
floor
• Wave energy expended
over shorter distance
• Best for board surfers
• Curling wave crest
Surging
Breakers
• Steepest sea floor
• Energy spread over
shortest distance
• Best for body surfing
• Waves break on the shore
• Waves rarely approach shore at a
perfect 90‐degree angle.
• As waves approach shore, they
Wave bend so wave crests are nearly
parallel to shore.
• Wave speed is proportional to the
Refraction depth of water (shallow‐water
wave).
• Different segments of the wave
crest travel at different speeds.
Wave Refraction
Wave
Refraction
• Wave energy unevenly
distributed on shore
• Orthogonal lines or wave
rays—drawn perpendicular
to wave crests
• More energy released
on headlands
• Energy more dissipated
in bays
Wave
Refraction
• Gradually erodes
headlands
• Sediment accumulates in
bays
Wave Reflection • Waves and wave energy bounced back from barrier
• Reflected wave can interfere with next incoming
wave.
• With constructive interference, can create dangerous
plunging breakers
• Two waves with the same
Standing wavelength moving in opposite
directions
• Water particles move vertically and
Waves horizontally.
• Water sloshes back and forth.
Standing Waves
• Nodes have no vertical movement.
• Antinodes are alternating crests and
troughs.
• Seismic sea waves
• Originate from sudden sea floor
topography changes
• Earthquakes—most common
Tsunami cause
• Underwater landslides
• Underwater volcano collapse
• Underwater volcanic eruption
• Meteorite impact—splash
waves
Tsunami • Long wavelengths (> 200 kilometers or
Characteristics 125 miles)
• Behaves as a shallow‐water wave
• Encompasses entire water column,
regardless of ocean depth
• Can pass undetected under boats in
open ocean
• Speed proportional to water depth
• Very fast in open ocean
Tsunami
versus Wind‐
Generated
Waves
Tsunami Generation and Propagation
Tsunami Destruction
• Sea level can rise up to 40 meters (131 feet) when a tsunami
reaches shore.
Tsunami
• Most occur in Pacific
Ocean
• More earthquakes
and volcanic
eruptions
• Damaging to coastal
areas
• Loss of human lives
• Example: Hilo, Hawaii
in 1946
• $25 million
damage
• 159 deaths
Historical Tsunami
• Krakatau—1883
• Indonesian volcanic eruption
• Indian Ocean—2004
• Sumatra–Andaman Earthquake, magnitude 9.2
• 300,000 fatalities
• Japan—2011
• Magnitude 9.0 earthquake
• Damages of $235 billion—most expensive natural disaster in world history
Historical
Large Tsunami
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z‐2khcTHIgs
Indian Ocean
Tsunami
• December 26, 2004
• Magnitude 9.2
earthquake off coast of
Sumatra
• 1200 kilometers
seafloor displaced
between two tectonic
plates
• Deadliest tsunami in
history
• Coastal villages
completely wiped out
• Detected by Jason‐1 satellite
• Traveled more than 5000 kilometers (3000
miles)
Indian Ocean • Wavelength about 500 kilometers (300
miles)
Tsunami • 230,000–300,000 people in 11 countries
killed
• Lack of warning system in Indian Ocean
Jason‐1 Satellite Detection of Indian Ocean Tsunami
• March 11, 2011—Tohoku Earthquake
• Magnitude 9.0 earthquake in Japan
Trench
• Felt throughout Pacific basin
Japan Tsunami • Most expensive tsunami in history
• Initial surge 15 meters (49 fee t)
• Topped harbor‐protecting tsunami
walls
• Amplified by local topography
• Killed 19,508 people
Japan • Disrupted power at Fukushima Daiichi
nuclear power plant
Tsunami • Reactors exploded
• Radioactivity problem initiated
Tsunami Warning System
• Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (P T W C) —
Honolulu, H I
• Uses seismic wave recordings to forecast
tsunami
• Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami
(D A R T)
• System of buoys
• Detects pulse of tsunami passing
Tsunami Watches and
Warnings
• Tsunami Watch—issued when potential for
tsunami exists
• Tsunami Warning—unusual wave activity verified
• Evacuate people
• Move ships from harbors
Waves as Source of Energy
• Lots of energy associated with waves
• Mostly with large storm waves
• How to protect power plants
• How to produce power consistently
• Environmental issues
• Building power plants close to shore
• Interfering with life and sediment movement
Wave Power Plant
Wave Power Plant
• First commercial wave power plant began operating in 2000.
• L I M P E T 500—Land Installed Marine Powered Energy Transformer
• Coast of Scotland
Wave Farms
• Portugal—2008
• Ocean Power Delivery
• First wave farm
• About 50 wave power development projects
globally
Global Wave
Energy
Resources