Poverty As A Challenge

Introduction: In our daily life, we come across many people who we think are poor.
They could be landless labourers in villages or people living in overcrowded jhuggis in
cities. They could be daily wage workers at construction sites or child workers in
dhabas. Roughly 260 million (or 26 crore) people in India live in poverty. India has the
largest single concentration of the poor in the world. This illustrates the seriousness of
the challenge.

Following issues are related to poverty:

 Landlessness
 Unemployment
 Size of families
 Illiteracy
 Poor health/malnutrition
 Child labour
 Helplessness

Poverty as seen by social scientists:-

Since poverty has many facets, social scientists look at it through a variety of indicators.
Usually the indicators used relate to the levels of income and consumption. But now
poverty is looked through other social indicators like illiteracy level, lack of general
resistance due to malnutrition, lack of access to healthcare, lack of job opportunities,
lack of access to safe drinking water, sanitation etc. Analysis of poverty based on social
exclusion and vulnerability is now becoming very common

Social exclusion

According to this concept, poverty must be seen in terms of the poor having to live only
in a poor surrounding with other poor people, excluded from enjoying social equality of
better -off people in better surroundings. Social exclusion can be both a cause as well
as a consequence of poverty in the usual sense. Broadly, it is a process through which
individuals or groups are excluded from facilities, benefits and opportunities that others
(their “betters”) enjoy.

Vulnerability:-

Vulnerability to poverty is a measure, which describes the greater probability of certain

communities (say, members of a backward caste) or individuals (such as a widow or a
physically handicapped person) of becoming, or remaining, poor in the coming years.
Vulnerability is determined by the options available to different communities for finding
an alternative living in terms of assets, education, health and job opportunities. Further,
it is analysed on the basis of the greater risks these groups face at the time of natural
disasters (earthquakes, tsunami), terrorism etc. In fact, vulnerability describes the
greater probability of being more adversely affected than other people when bad time
comes for everybody, whether a flood or an earthquake or simply a fall in the availability
of jobs!

Poverty Line:-

A common method used to measure poverty is based on the income or consumption

levels. A person is considered poor if his or her income or consumption level falls below
a given “minimum level” necessary to fulfill basic needs. What is necessary to satisfy
basic needs is different at different times and in different countries. Therefore, poverty
line may vary with time and place. Each country uses an imaginary line that is
considered appropriate for its existing level of development and its accepted minimum
social norms. While determining the poverty line in India, a minimum level of food
requirement, clothing, footwear, fuel and light, educational and medical requirement etc.
are determined for subsistence. The accepted average calorie requirement in India is
2400 calories per person per day in rural areas and 2100 calories per person per day in
urban areas. However, for making comparisons between developing countries, many
international organisations like the World Bank use a uniform standard for the poverty
line: minimum availability of the equivalent of $1 per person per day.

Poverty Estimates

There is substantial decline in poverty ratios in India from about 55 per cent in 1973 to
36 per cent in 1993. The proportion of people below poverty line further came down to
about 26 per cent in 2000. If the trend continues, people below poverty line may come
down to less than 20 per cent in the next few years. Although the percentage of people
living under poverty declined in the earlier two decades (1973– 1993), the number of
poor remained stable around 320 million for a fairly long period. The latest estimates
indicate a significant reduction in the number of poor to about 260 million.

Vulnerable Groups

The proportion of people below poverty line is also not same for all social groups and
economic categories in India. Social groups which are most vulnerable to poverty are
scheduled caste and scheduled tribe households. Similarly, among the economic
groups, the most vulnerable groups are the rural agricultural labour households and the
urban casual labour households. 51 out of 100 people belonging to scheduled tribes are
not able to meet their basic needs. Similarly, 50 per cent of casual workers in urban
areas are below poverty line. About 50 per cent of landless agricultural workers and 43
per cent of scheduled castes are also poor. Apart from these social groups, there is also
inequality of incomes within a family. In poor families all suffer, but some suffer more
than others. Women, elderly people and female infants are systematically denied equal
access to resources available to the family. Therefore women, children (especially the
girl child) and old people are poorest of the poor.

Inter-State Disparities
Poverty in India also has another aspect or dimension. Recent estimates show that in
20 states and union territories, the poverty ratio is less than the national average. On
the other hand, poverty is still a serious problem in Orissa, Bihar, Assam, Tripura and
Uttar Pradesh. Orissa and Bihar continue to be the two poorest states with poverty
ratios of 47 and 43 per cent respectively. Along with rural poverty urban poverty is also
high in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. In comparison, there has
been a significant decline in poverty in Kerala, Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh,
TamilNadu, Gujarat and West Bengal. States like Punjab and Haryana have traditionally
succeeded in reducing poverty with the help of high agricultural growth rates. Kerala
has focused more on human resource development. In West Bengal, land reform
measures have helped in reducing poverty. In Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu public
distribution of food grains could have been responsible for the improvement.

Global Poverty Scenario

The proportion of people in developing countries living in extreme economic poverty—

defined by the World Bank as living on less than $1 per day—has fallen from 28 per
cent in 1990 to 21 per cent in 2001. Although there has been a substantial reduction in
global poverty, it is marked with great regional differences. Poverty declined
substantially in China and Southeast Asian countries as a result of rapid economic
growth and massive investments in human resource development. Number of poors in
China has come down from 606 million in 1981 to 212 million in 2001. In the countries
of South Asia (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan) the decline has
not been as rapid. Despite decline in the percentage of the poor, the number of poor
has declined marginally from 475 million in 1981 to 428 million in 2001. Because of
different poverty line definition, poverty in India is also shown higher than the national
estimates. In Sub-Saharan Africa, poverty in fact rose from 41 per cent in 1981 to 46
per cent in 2001. The Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations calls for
reducing the proportion of people living on less than $1 a day to half the 1990 level by
2015.

Causes of Poverty

1. Less job opportunity & low growth rate of incomes.

2. High growth rate of population.

3. Huge income inequalities.

4. Unequal distribution of land & other resources.

5. Lack of proper implementation of policy

Anti-Poverty Measures
Removal of poverty has been one of the major objectives of Indian developmental
strategy. The current anti-poverty strategy of the government is based broadly on two
planks

(1) promotion of economic growth

(2) targeted anti-poverty programmes.

Although there are so many schemes which are formulated to affect poverty directly or
indirectly, some of them are worth mentioning.

National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) 2005: was passed in

September 2005. The Act provides 100 days assured employment every year to every
rural household in 200 districts. Later, the scheme will be extended to 600 districts. One
third of the proposed jobs would be reserved for women. The central government will
also establish National Employment Guarantee Funds. Similarly state governments will
establish State Employment Guarantee Funds for implementation of the scheme. Under
the programme if an applicant is not provided employment within fifteen days s/he will
be entitled to a daily unemployment allowance.

National Food for Work Programme(NFWP): was launched in 2004 in 150 most

backward districts of the country. The programme is open to all rural poor who are in
need of wage employment and desire to do manual unskilled work. It is implemented as
a 100 per cent centrally sponsored scheme and foodgrains are provided free of cost to
the states. Once the NREGA is in force, the NFWP will be subsumed within this
programme.

Prime Minister Rozgar Yozana (PMRY): was started in 1993. The aim of the
programme is to create self employment opportunities for educated unemployed youth
in rural areas and small towns. They are helped in setting up small business and
industries.

Rural Employment Generation Programme(REGP): was launched in 1995. The aim

of the programme is to create selfemployment opportunities in rural areas and small
towns. A target for creating 25 lakh new jobs has been set for the programme under the
Tenth Five Year plan.

Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY): was launched in 1999. The

programme aims at bringing the assisted poor families above the poverty line by
organising them into self help groups through a mix of bank credit and government
subsidy.

Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yozana (PMGY): launched in 2000, additional central

assistance is given to states for basic services such as primary health, primary
education, rural shelter, rural drinking water and rural electrification.
 CLIMATE

Climate

Climate:- Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a
large area for a long period of time (more than thirty years).

Weather:- Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of
time.

The elements of weather and climate are the same, i.e. temperature, atmospheric
pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation. The weather conditions fluctuate very often
even within a day. But there is some common pattern over a few weeks or months, i.e.
days are cool or hot, windy or calm, cloudy or bright, and wet or dry. On the basis of the
generalized monthly atmospheric conditions, the year is divided into seasons such as
winter, summer or rainy seasons.

Monsoon

The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type. The word monsoon is derived
from the Arabic word ‘mausim’ which literally means season. ‘Monsoon’ refers to the
seasonal reversal in the wind direction during a year.

This type of climate is found mainly in the south and the Southeast Asia. Despite an
overall unity in the general pattern, there are perceptible regional variations in climatic
conditions within the country. In summer, the mercury occasionally touches 50°C in
some parts of the Rajasthan desert, whereas it may be around 20°C in Pahalgam in
Jammu and Kashmir. On a winter night, temperature at Drass in Jammu and Kashmir
may be as low as minus 45°C. Tiruvananthapuram, on the other hand, may have a
temperature of 20°C. In certain places.

There are variations not only in the form and types of precipitation but also in its amount
and the seasonal distribution. While precipitation is mostly in the form of snowfall in the
upper parts of Himalayas, it rains over the rest of the country. The annual precipitation
varies from over 400 cm in Meghalaya to less than 10 cm in Ladakh and western
Rajasthan. Most parts of the country receive rainfall from June to September. But some
parts like the Tamil Nadu coast get most of its rain during October and November. In
general, coastal areas experience less contrasts in temperature conditions. Seasonal
contrasts are more in the interior of the country. There is decrease in rainfall generally
from east to west in the Northern Plains. These variations have given rise to variety in
lives of people – in terms of the food they eat, the clothes they wear and also the kind of
houses they live in.
CLIMATIC CONTROLS

There are six major controls of the climate of any place. They are:

1. Latitude

2. Altitude

3. Pressure and wind system

4. Distance from the sea

5. Ocean currents and

6. Relief features

FACTORS AFFECTING INDIA’S CLIMATE

Latitude:- The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country from the
Rann of Kuchchh in the west to Mizoram in the east. Almost half of the country, lying
south of the Tropic of Cancer, belongs to the tropical area. All the remaining area, north
of the Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics. Therefore, India’s climate has characteristics of
tropical as well as subtropical climates.

Altitude: India has mountains to the north, which have an average height of about
6,000 metres. India also has a vast coastal area where the maximum elevation is about
30 metres. The Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the
subcontinent. It is because of these mountains that this subcontinent experiences
comparatively milder winters as compared to central Asia.

Pressure and Winds: The climate and associated weather conditions in India are
governed by the following atmospheric conditions:

Pressure and surface winds;

Upper air circulation; and

Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones.

India lies in the region of north easterly winds. These winds originate from the
subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern hemisphere. They blow south, get
deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force, and move on towards the equatorial low-
pressure area. Generally, these winds carry very little moisture as they originate and
blow over land. Therefore, they bring little or no rain. Hence, India should have been an
arid land, but, it is not so.
The pressure and wind conditions over India are unique. During winter, there is a high-
pressure area north of the Himalayas. Cold dry winds blow from this region to the low-
pressure areas over the oceans to the south. In summer, a low-pressure area develops
over interior Asia as well as over northwestern India. This causes a complete reversal of
the direction of winds during summer. Air moves from the high-pressure area over the
southern Indian Ocean, in a south-easterly direction, crosses the equator, and turns
right towards the low-pressure areas over the Indian subcontinent. These are known as
the Southwest Monsoon winds. These winds blow over the warm oceans, gather
moisture and bring widespread rainfall over the mainland of India. The upper air
circulation in this region is dominated by a westerly flow. An important component of this
flow is the jet stream. These jet streams are located approximately over 27°-30° north
latitude, therefore, they are known as subtropical westerly jet streams. Over India, these
jet streams blow south of the Himalayas, all through the year except in summer. The
western cyclonic disturbances experienced in the north and north-western parts of the
country are brought in by this westerly flow. In summer, the subtropical westerly jet
stream moves north of the Himalayas with the apparent movement of the sun. An
easterly jet stream, called the tropical easterly jet stream blows over peninsular India,
approximately over 14°N during the summer months.

THE INDIAN MONSOON

The climate of India is strongly influenced by monsoon winds. The sailors who came to
India in historic times were one of the first to have noticed the phenomenon of the
monsoon. They benefited from the reversal of the wind system as they came by sailing
ships at the mercy of winds. The Arabs, who had also come to India as traders named
this seasonal reversal of the wind system ‘monsoon’. The monsoons are experienced in
the tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20° S. To understand the mechanism of
the monsoons, the following facts are important.

(a) The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on
the landmass of India while the seas around experience comparatively high pressure.

(b) The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer,
over the Ganga plain (this is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of the
equator – also known as the monsoon trough during the monsoon season).

(c) The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at

20°S over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high-pressure area
affects the Indian Monsoon.

(d) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong
vertical air currents and the formation of high pressure over the plateau at about 9 km
above sea level.

(e) The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the
presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer.
Apart from this, it has also been noticed that changes in the pressure conditions over
the southern oceans also affect the monsoons. Normally when the tropical eastern
south Pacific Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical eastern Indian Ocean
experiences low pressure. But in certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure
conditions and the eastern Pacific has lower pressure in comparison to the eastern
Indian Ocean. This periodic change in pressure conditions is known as the Southern
Oscillation or SO. The difference in pressure over Tahiti (Pacific Ocean, 18°S/149°W)
and Darwin in northern Australia (Indian Ocean, 12°30’S/131°E) is computed to predict
the intensity of the monsoons. If the pressure differences were negative, it would mean
below average and late monsoons. A feature connected with the SO is the El Nino, a
warm ocean current that flows past the Peruvian Coast, in place of the cold Peruvian
current, every 2 to 5 years. The changes in pressure conditions are connected to the El
Nino. Hence, the phenomenon is referred to as ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillations).

THE ONSET OF THE MONSOON AND WITHDRAWAL

Onset: The Monsoon, unlike the trades, are not steady winds but are pulsating in
nature, affected by different atmospheric conditions encountered by it, on its way over
the warm tropical seas. The duration of the monsoon is between 100- 120 days from
early June to mid-September. Around the time of its arrival, the normal rainfall increases
suddenly and continues constantly for several days. This is known as the ‘burst’ of the
monsoon, and can be distinguished from the pre-monsoon showers. The monsoon
arrives at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula generally by the first week of June.
Subsequently, it divides into two – the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal
branch. The Arabian Sea branch reaches Mumbai about ten days later on
approximately the 10th of June. This is a fairly rapid advance. The Bay of Bengal
branch also advances rapidly and arrives in Assam in the first week of June. The lofty
mountains causes the monsoon winds to deflect towards the west over the Ganga
plains. By mid-June the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives over Saurashtra-
Kuchchh and the central part of the country. The Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal
branches of the monsoon merge over the northwestern part of the Ganga plains. Delhi
generally receives the monsoon showers from the Bay of Bengal branch by the end of
June (tentative date is 29th of June). By the first week of July, western Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab, Haryana and eastern Rajasthan experience the monsoon. By mid-July, the
monsoon reaches Himachal Pradesh and the rest of the country.

Withdrawal: Withdrawal or the retreat of the monsoon is a more gradual process . The

withdrawal of the monsoon begins in northwestern states of India by early September.
By mid-October, it withdraws completely from the northern half of the peninsula. The
withdrawal from the southern half of the peninsula is fairly rapid. By early December, the
monsoon has withdrawn from the rest of the country. The islands receive the very first
monsoon showers, progressively from south to north, from the first week of April to the
first week of May. The withdrawal, takes place progressively from north to south from
the first week of December to the first week of January. By this time the rest of the
country is already under the influence of the winter monsoon.
THE SEASONS

The monsoon type of climate is characterized by a distinct seasonal pattern. The

weather conditions greatly change from one season to the other. These changes are
particularly noticeable in the interior parts of the country. The coastal areas do not
experience much variation in temperature though there is variation in rainfall pattern.
Four main seasons can be identified in India – the cold weather season, the hot weather
season, the advancing monsoon and the retreating monsoon with some regional
variations.

The Cold Weather Season (Winter)

The cold weather season begins from mid- November in northern India and stays till
February. December and January are the coldest months in the northern part of India.
The temperature decreases from south to the north. The average temperature of
Chennai, on the eastern coast, is between 24° - 25° Celsius, while in the northern
plains, it ranges between 10° - 15° Celsius. Days are warm and nights are cold. Frost is
common in the north and the higher slopes of the Himalayas experience snowfall.
During this season, the northeast trade winds prevail over the country. They blow from
land to sea and hence, for most part of the country, it is a dry season. Some amount of
rainfall occurs on the Tamil Nadu coast from these winds as, here they blow from sea to
land. In the northern part of the country, a feeble high-pressure region develops, with
light winds moving outwards from this area. Influenced by the relief, these winds blow
through the Ganga valley from the west and the northwest. The weather is normally
marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity and feeble, variable winds. A
characteristic feature of the cold weather season over the northern plains is the inflow of
cyclonic disturbances from the west and the northwest. These low-pressure systems,
originate over the Mediterranean Sea and western Asia and move into India, along with
the westerly flow. They cause the much-needed winter rains over the plains and
snowfall in the mountains. Although the total amount of winter rainfall locally known as
‘mahawat’ is small, they are of immense importance for the cultivation of ‘rabi’ crops.
The peninsular region does not have a welldefined cold season. There is hardly any
noticeable seasonal change in temperature pattern during winters due to the
moderating influence of the sea.

The Hot Weather Season (Summer)

Due to the apparent northward movement of the sun, the global heat belt shifts
northward. As such, from March to May, it is hot weather season in India. The influence
of the shifting of the heat belt can be seen clearly from temperature recordings taken
during March-May at different latitudes. In March, the highest temperature is about 38°
Celsius, recorded on the Deccan plateau. In April, temperatures in Gujarat and Madhya
Pradesh are around 42° Celsius. In May, temperature of 45° Celsius is common in the
northwestern parts of the country. In peninsular India, temperatures remain lower due to
the moderating influence of the oceans. The summer months experience rising
temperature and falling air pressure in the northern part of the country. Towards the end
of May, an elongated low-pressure area develops in the region extending from the Thar
Desert in the northwest to Patna and Chotanagpur plateau in the east and southeast.
Circulation of air begins to set in around this trough. A striking feature of the hot weather
season is the ‘loo’. These are strong, gusty, hot, dry winds blowing during the day over
the north and northwestern India. Sometimes they even continue until late in the
evening. Direct exposure to these winds may even prove to be fatal. Dust storms are
very common during the month of May in northern India. These storms bring temporary
relief as they lower the temperature and may bring light rain and cool breeze. This is
also the season for localised thunderstorms, associated with violent winds, torrential
downpours, often accompanied by hail. In West Bengal, these storms are known as the
‘Kaal Baisakhi’ calamity for the month of Baisakh. Towards the close of the summer
season, pre-monsoon showers are common especially, in Kerala and Karnataka. They
help in the early ripening of mangoes, and are often referred to as ‘mango showers’.

Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season)

By early June, the low-pressure condition over the northern plains intensifies. It attracts,
the trade winds of the southern hemisphere. These south-east trade winds originate
over the warm subtropical areas of the southern oceans. They cross the equator and
blow in a southwesterly southwesterly direction entering the Indian peninsula as the
south-west monsoon. As these winds blow over warm oceans, they bring abundant
moisture to the subcontinent. These winds are strong and blow at an average velocity of
30 km per hour. With the exception of the extreme north-west, the monsoon winds
cover the country in about a month. The inflow of the south-west monsoon into India
brings about a total change in the weather. Early in the season, the windward side of
the Western Ghats receives very heavy rainfall, more than 250 cm. The Deccan Plateau
and parts of Madhya Pradesh also receive some amount of rain in spite of lying in the
rain shadow area. The maximum rainfall of this season is received in the north-eastern
part of the country. Mawsynram in the southern ranges of the Khasi Hills receives the
highest average rainfall in the world. Rainfall in the Ganga valley decreases from the
east to the west. Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat get scanty rainfall. Another
phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency to have ‘breaks’ in rainfall.
Thus, it has wet and dry spells. In other words, the monsoon rains take place only for a
few days at a time. They are interspersed with rainless intervals. These breaks in
monsoon are related to the movement of the monsoon trough. For various reasons, the
trough and its axis keep on moving northward or southward, which determines the
spatial distribution of rainfall. When the axis of the monsoon trough lies over the plains,
rainfall is good in these parts. On the other hand, whenever the axis shifts closer to the
Himalayas, there are longer dry spells in the plains, and widespread rain occur in the
mountainous catchment areas of the Himalayan rivers. These heavy rain bring in their
wake, devastating floods causing damage to life and property in the plains. The
frequency and intensity of tropical depressions too, determine the amount and duration
of monsoon rains. These depressions form at the head of the Bay of Bengal and cross
over to the mainland. The depressions follow the axis of the “monsoon trough of low
pressure”. The monsoon is known for its uncertainties. The alternation of dry and wet
spells vary in intensity, frequency and duration. While it causes heavy floods one part, it
may be responsible for droughts in the other. It is often irregular in its arrival and its
retreat. Hence, it sometimes disturbs the farming schedule of millions of farmers all over
the country.

Retreating Monsoon (The Transition Season)

During October-November, with the apparent movement of the sun towards the south,
the monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough over the northern plains becomes
weaker. This is gradually replaced by a high-pressure system. The south-west monsoon
winds weaken and start withdrawing gradually. By the beginning of October, the
monsoon withdraws from the Northern Plains. The months of October-November form a
period of transition from hot rainy season to dry winter conditions. The retreat of the
monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature. While day temperatures are
high, nights are cool and pleasant. The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of
high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive during the day.
This is commonly known as ‘October heat’. In the second half of October, the mercury
begins to fall rapidly in northern India. The low-pressure conditions, over northwestern
India, get transferred to the Bay of Bengal by early November. This shift is associated
with the occurrence of cyclonic depressions, which originate over the Andaman Sea.
These cyclones generally cross the eastern coasts of India cause heavy and
widespread rain. These tropical cyclones are often very destructive. The thickly
populated deltas of the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri are frequently struck by
cyclones, which cause great damage to life and property. Sometimes, these cyclones
arrive at the coasts of Orissa, West Bengal and Bangladesh. The bulk of the rainfall of
the Coromandel Coast is derived from depressions and cyclones.

DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL

The western coast and northeastern India receive over about 400 cm of rainfall annualy.
However, it is less than 60 cm in western Rajasthan and adjoining parts of Gujarat,
Haryana and Punjab. Rainfall is equally low in the interior of the Deccan plateau, and
east of the Sahyadris. Why do these regions receive low rainfall? A third area of low
precipitation is around Leh in Jammu and Kashmir. The rest of the country receives
moderate rainfall. Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region. Owing to the nature of
monsoons, the annual rainfall is highly variable from year to year. Variability is high in
the regions of low rainfall such as parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the leeward side of
the Western Ghats. As such, while areas of high rainfall are liable to be affected by
floods, areas of low rainfall are drought-prone.

MONSOON AS A UNIFYING BOND

Himalayas protect the subcontinent from extremely cold winds from central Asia. This
enables northern India to have uniformly higher temperatures when compared to other
areas on the same latitudes. Similarly, the peninsular plateau, under the influence of the
sea from three sides, has moderate temperatures. Despite such moderating influences,
there are great variations in the temperature conditions. Nevertheless, the unifying
influence of the monsoon on the Indian subcontinent is quite perceptible. The seasonal
alteration of the wind systems and the associated weather conditions provide a rhythmic
cycle of seasons. Even the uncertainties of rain and uneven distribution are very much
typical of the monsoons. The Indian landscape, its animal and plant life, its entire
agricultural calendar and the life of the people, including their festivities, revolve around
this phenomenon. Year after year, people of India from north to south and from east to
west, eagerly await the arrival of the monsoon. These monsoon winds bind the whole
country by providing water to set the agricultural activities in motion. The river valleys
which carry this water also unite as a single river valley unit.

Key Terminologies

Coriolis force: An apparent force caused by the earth’s rotation. The Coriolis force is
responsible for deflecting winds towards the right in the northern hemisphere and
towards the left in the southern hemisphere. This is also known as ‘Ferrel’s Law’.

Jet stream: These are a narrow belt of high altitude (above 12,000 m) westerly winds in
the troposphere. Their speed varies from about 110 km/h in summer to about 184 km/h
in winter. A number of separate jet streams have been identified. The most constant are
the mid-latitude and the sub tropical jet stream.

Western Cyclonic Disturbances: The western cyclonic disturbances are weather

phenomena of the winter months brought in by the westerly flow from the Mediterranean
region. They usually influence the weather of the north and north-western regions of
India. Tropical cyclones occur during the monsoon as well as in October - November,
and are part of the easterly flow. These disturbances affect the coastal regions of the
country.

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone: The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ,) is a

broad trough of low pressure in equatorial latitudes. This is where the northeast and the
southeast trade winds converge. This convergence zone lies more or less parallel to the
equator but moves north or south with the apparent movement of the sun.

El Nino: This is a name given to the periodic development of a warm ocean current

along the coast of Peru as a temporary replacement of the cold Peruvian current. ‘El
Nino’ is a Spanish word meaning ‘the child’, and refers to the baby Christ, as this
current starts flowing during Christmas. The presence of the El Nino leads to an
increase in sea-surface temperatures and weakening of the trade winds in the region.

 
 NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE

Natural Vegetation
Meaning of Natural Vegetation:- Natural vegetation refers to a plant community which
has grown naturally without human aid and has been left undisturbed by humans for a
long time. This is termed as virgin vegetation. Thus, cultivated crops and fruits, orchards
form part of vegetation but not natural vegetation.

Virgin vegetation -The virgin vegetation, which are purely Indian are known as
endemic or indigenous species but those which have come from outside India are
termed as exotic plants.

Flora :- The term flora is used to denote plants of a particular region or period.

Fauna :- the species of animals are referred to as fauna.

This huge diversity in flora and fauna kingdom is due to the following factors.

RELIEF :-

Land: Land affects the natural vegetation directly and indirectly. The nature of land
influences the type of vegetation. The fertile level is generally devoted to agriculture.
The undulating and rough terrains are areas where grassland and woodlands develop
and give shelter to a variety of wild life.

Soil: The soils also vary over space. Different types of soils provide basis for different
types of vegetation. The sandy soils of the desert support cactus and thorny bushes
while wet, marshy, deltaic soils support mangroves and deltaic vegetation. The hill
slopes with some depth of soil have conical trees.

CLIMATE

The character and extent of vegetation are mainly determined by temperature along
with humidity in the air, precipitation and soil. On the slopes of the Himalayas and the
hills of the Peninsula above the height of 915 metres, the fall in the temperature affects
the types of vegetation and its growth, and changes it from tropical to subtropical
temperate and alpine vegetation.
Photoperiod (Sunlight): The variation in duration of sunlight at different places is due to
differences in latitude, altitude, season and duration of the day. Due to longer duration
of sunlight, trees grow faster in summer.

Precipitation: In India almost the entire rainfall is brought in by the advancing southwest
monsoon (June to September) and retreating northeast monsoons. Areas of heavy
rainfall have more dense vegetation as compared to other areas of less rainfall.

ECOSYSTEM

The nature of the plants in an area, to a large extent, determines the animal life in that
area. When the vegetation is altered, the animal life also changes. All the plants and
animals in an area are interdependent and interrelated to each other in their physical
environment, thus, forming an ecosystem. Human beings are also an integral part of the
ecosystem. A very large ecosystem on land having distinct types of vegetation and
animal life is called a biome. The biomes are identified on the basis of plants.

TYPES OF VEGETATION

The following major types of vegetation may be identified in our country

(i) Tropical Rain Forests

(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests

(iii) Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs

(iv) Montane Forests

(v) Mangrove Forests

Tropical Rain Forests

These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall areas of the Western Ghats and the island
groups of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar, upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu
coast. They are at their best in areas having more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short
dry season. The trees reach great heights up to 60 metres or even above. Since the
region is warm and wet throughout the year, it has a luxuriant vegetation of all kinds –
trees, shrubs, and creepers giving it a multilayered structure. These forests appear
green all the year round. Some of the commercially important trees of this forest are
ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber and cinchona. The common animals found in
these forests are elephants, monkey, lemur and deer. The one horned rhinoceros are
found in the jungles of Assam and West Bengal. Besides these animals plenty of birds,
bats, sloth, scorpions and snails are also found in these jungles.

Tropical Deciduous Forests

These are the most widespread forests of India. They are also called the monsoon
forests and spread over the region receiving rainfall between 200 cm and 70 cm. Trees
of this forest-type shed their leaves for about six to eight weeks in dry summer. On the
basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into moist and dry
deciduous. The former is found in areas receiving rainfall between 200 and 100 cm.
These forests exist, therefore, mostly in the eastern part of the country – northeastern
states, along the foothills of the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh,
and on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats. Teak is the most dominant species of
this forest. Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun, mulberry are other
commercially important species. The dry deciduous forests are found in areas having
rainfall between 100 cm and 70 cm. These forests are found in the rainier parts of the
peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, the
common animals found are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant. A huge variety of birds,
lizards, snakes, and tortoises are also found here.

The Thorn Forests and Scrubs

In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall, the natural vegetation consists of thorny trees
and bushes. This type of vegetation is found in the north-western part of the country
including semi-arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar
Pradesh and Haryana. Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti are the main plant
species. Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into the soil in order
to get moisture. The stems are succulent to conserve water. Leaves are mostly thick
and small to minimize evaporation. These forests give way to thorn forests and scrubs
in arid areas. In these forests, the common animals are rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf,
tiger, lion, wild ass, horses and camels.

Montane Forests

In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to the
corresponding change in natural vegetation. The wet temperate type of forests are
found between a height of 1000 and 2000 metres. Evergreen broad-leaf trees such as
oaks and chestnuts predominate. Between 1500 and 3000 metres, temperate forests
containing coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar, are found.
These forests cover mostly the southern slopes of the Himalayas, places having high
altitude in southern and north-east India. Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the
common trees of these forests. The common animals found in these forests are
Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow
leopard, squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare red panda, sheep and goats
with thick hair.

Mangrove Forests

The mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud
and silt get accumutated on such coasts. Dense mangroves are the common varieties
with roots of the plants submerged under water. The deltas of the Ganga, the
Mahanadi, the Krishana, the Godavari and the Kaveri are covered by such vegetation.
Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal in these forests. Turtles, crocodiles, gharials
and snakes are also found in these forests.

MEDICINAL PLANTS

India is known for its herbs and spices from ancient times. Some 2,000 plants have
been described in Ayurveda and at least 500 are in regular use. The World
Conservation Union’s Red list has named 352 medicinal plants of which 52 are critically
threatened and 49 endangered. The commonly used plants in India are:

Sarpagandha : Used to treat blood pressure; it is found only in India.

Jamun: The juice from ripe fruit is used to prepare vinegar which is carminative and
diuretic, and has digestive properties. The powder of the seed is used for controlling
diabetes.

Arjun: The fresh juice of leaves is a cure for earache. It is also used to regulate blood
pressure.

Babool: Leaves are used as a cure for eye sores. Its gum is used as a tonic.

Neem: Has high antibiotic and antibacterial properties.

Tulsi Plant: Is used to cure cough and cold.

Kachnar: Is used to cure asthma and ulcers. The buds and roots are good for digestive
problems.

WILD LIFE
Like its flora, India is also rich in its fauna. It has more than 89,000 of animal species.
The country has more than 1200 species of birds. They constitute 13% of the world’s
total. There are 2500 species of fish, which account for nearly 12% of the world’s stock.
It also shares between 5 and 8 per cent of the world’s amphibians, reptiles and
mammals. The elephants are the most majestic animals among the mammals. They are
found in the hot wet forests of Assam, Karnataka and Kerala. One-horned rhinoceroses
are the other animals, which live in swampy and marshy lands of Assam and West
Bengal. Arid areas of the Rann of Kachchh and the Thar Desert are the habitat for wild
ass and camels respectively. Indian bison, nilgai (blue bull), chousingha (four horned
antelope), gazel and different species of deer are some other animals found in India. It
also has several species of monkeys. India is the only country in the world that has both
tigers and lions.

The natural habitat of the Indian lion is the Gir forest in Gujarat. Tigers are found in the
forests of Madhya Pradesh, the Sundarbans of West Bengal and the Himalayan region.
To protect the flora and fauna of the county, the government has taken many steps.

(i) Fourteen biosphere reserves have been set up in the country to protect flora and
fauna. Four out of these, the Sunderbans in the West Bengal, Nanda Devi in
Uttaranchal, the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu and the Nilgiris (Kerala, Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu) have been included in the world network of Biosphese reserves.

(ii) Financial and technical assistance is provided to many Botanical Gardens by the
government since 1992.

(iii) Project Tiger, Project Rhino, Project Great Indian Bustard and many other
ecodevelopmental projects have been introduced.

(iv) 89 National Parks, 49 Wildlife sanctuaries and Zoological gardens are set up to take
care of Natural heritage.
Questions in the Exercise 

Q.1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below : 
OR 
(i) Which of the following places receives the highest rainfall ? 
(b) Mawsynram (c) Kolkata (d) None of these 
(ii) The wind blowing in the northern plains in summers is known as: 
(a) Kaalbaisakhi (b) Loo 
Ans. (b) 
(c) Trade winds (d) None of the above 
OR 
Where does the 'loo' flow in summer? (CBSE 2010) 

(b) North and Northwestern India 

(c) Coastal regions (d) Eastern India 
(iii) Which one of the following causes rainfall during winters in northwestern part of India? 
(a) Guwahati 
Ans. (b) 

(a) Peninsular India 

Ans. (b) 

(a) Cyclonic depression 

(c) Western disturbances 
Ans. Cyclonic depression 
(iv) Monsoon arrives in India approximately in: 
(a) Early May (b) Early July 
(b) Retreating monsoon 
(d) Southwest monsoon 
(c) Early June (d) Early August 
Ans. Early June 

(v) Which one of the following characterises the cold weather in India? 
(a) Warm days and warm nights (b) Warm days and cold nights 
(c) Cool days and cold nights (d) Cold days and warm nights 
Ans. Cool days and cold nights 
Q.2. Answer the following questions briefly. 
(i) What are the elements affecting the climate of India? 
Ans. The elements affecting the climate are temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity and 
precipitation. 

3 
(ii) Why does India have a monsoon type of climate? 
Ans. India is defined as a climatic region with monsoon climate. It is strongly governed by the 
monsoon winds. 

(iii) Which part of India experiences the highest diurnal range of temperature and why? 
Ans. The Thar Desert has a wide difference between day and night temperatures. There is no sea 
around to moderate the range of variation of temperatures during day and night. 

(iv) Which winds account for rainfall along the Malabar Coast? 
Ans. Malabar Coast gets rains from depressions and cyclones. 
(v) What are jet streams and how do they affect the climate of India? 
Ans. Jet streams are high velocity westerly winds blowing through a narrow zone in the upper 
troposphere. The westerly flows are responsible for the western disturbances experienced in 
the north and north-western parts of the country. The easterly jet streams cause tropical 
depressions during the monsoon as well as October-November months. 

(vi) Define monsoons. What do you understand by “break” in monsoon? 

Ans. Monsoon refers to the seasonal reversal in the wind direction. 
Monsoon ‘break’ refers to the happening of wet and dry spells during the rainy season. The 
monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time. They are interspread with rainless 

(vii) Why is the monsoon considered a unifying bond? 

Ans. Monsoons are uncertain but all the same they act as a unifying force on the climatic unity of 
India. July and August are wet almost all over the country. In spite of their vagaries, the 
monsoons have a very important place in the cultural life of the people. There is so much 
poetry and music that centres round the rains. All over northern parts of India, there are 
festivals like Varsha Mangal and special songs for the seasons. For the farmers, the rains bring 
prosperity. The Indian landscape, its fauna and flora, its agriculture all revolve round the 
monsoon phenomenon. The arrival of rains is eagerly awaited. 

Q.3. Why does rainfall decrease from east to the west in Northern India? 
Ans. June onwards, there is continued low pressure over the north-west region. This attracts trade 
intervals. 

winds from the Indian Ocean. The winds are trapped by air circulation over India. These winds 
are loaded with abundant water vapours. The winds blow at a very fast speed. The hilly ranges 
of the northeast account for heavy rainfall in the region. As these winds travel westwards the 
amount of moisture contained goes on depleting. There is as such a decrease in rainfall from 
east to west in northern India. 

Q.4. Give reasons as to why : 

(i) Seasonal reversal of wind direction takes place over the Indian subcontinent. 
Ans. With the reversal in the direction of the surface winds, the monsoons withdraw from the 
Northern Plains. This reversal occurs as the monsoon trough becomes weaker with the 
approach of winter months. 

(ii) The bulk of rainfall in India is concentrated over a few months. 

Ans. The bulk of rainfall is concentrated over the months of June-September. As winter approaches, 
there is a reversal in the direction of surface winds and monsoons withdraw from the Northern 
Plains. 

4 

(iii) The Tamil Nadu coast receives winter rainfall. 

Ans. Winter rains in Tamil Nadu are caused by north-east trade winds (also known as north-east 
monsoons). That is the only part of India that gets rains during the winter months. 

(iv) The delta region of the eastern coast is frequently struck by cyclones. 
Ans. With the onset of winter season, there is a shift in low pressure conditions from the northwestern 
plains to the Bay of Bengal. During the middle of November, this shift results in the 
occurrence of cyclones. The deltas of Krishna and Kaveri rivers (and also Bangladesh) have 
to bear the fury of these cyclones year after year. 

(v) Parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the leeward side of the Western Ghats are drought-prone. 
Ans. Rainfall in India is influenced by location as well as relief features. Areas situated in the 
direction of the monsoon winds receive more rainfall. The rainfall goes on decreasing from 
east to west. The moisture content of the monsoons goes on decreasing as they move westward. 
Areas situated in extreme west and devoid of hilly ranges that intercept the monsoon remain 

Q.5. Describe the regional variations in the climatic conditions of India with the help of 
Ans. There are wide variations in climatic conditions over different parts of the country. Most parts 

of the country have dry winters. The Coromandel coastal areas are an exception. 
Winters are severe in the north. The temperature increases from north to south. As the Northern 
Plains shiver with 10-15 degrees Celsius temperature, Chennai has temperature 
degree Celsius. Higher slopes of the Himalayas experience snowfall. The peninsular region 
does not have a well defined cold season. Nearness to the sea ensures that there are no wide 
variations due to seasonal changes. 

Rainfall may go up to 1080 mm in the Khasi hills. Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat remain prone 
to droughts. During the summer seasons temperatures go up to 48 oC in the western parts of 
India. May is the season of loo. These hot and dry winds cause intense heat. Temperature 

drought prone. 

suitable examples. 

around 25 

variations (June-December) are minimal at places like Leh. Places in the Northern Plains 
experience severe heat in the summers and extreme cold weather during the winter months. 

Q.6. Discuss the mechanism of monsoons. 

Ans. The north-east trade winds that blow during the winter months get replaced as the summer 
season sets in. There is continued low pressure over the north-west region. This attracts trade 
winds from the Southern Hemisphere. Coming from the Indian Ocean, these winds cross over 
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. They are then trapped by air circulation taking place 
over India. These winds are loaded with moisture and blow at a very fast speed. The rain 
caused by south-west monsoon is not uniform. The areas of Western Ghats situated in the 
direction of the winds get more rainfall than the other side. 

The cyclonic depressions formed at the head of the Bay of Bengal cause uneven and uncertain 
distribution of rainfall. These depressions move towards the low pressure monsoon trough 
which is not steadily placed. For a variety of reasons, they move northwards or southwards. 

5 

When the axis of the trough moves close to the Himalayas, there are heavy rains in the 
Himalayan regions. The plains get dry spells. With the approach of winter, the monsoon trough 
becomes weaker. There is reversal in the direction of surface winds with the approach of 
winter. The monsoons now withdraw from the Northern Plains. The shift in the low pressure 
conditions from north-western plains to the Bay of Bengal causes cyclones and rains in the 
Coromandel Coast. 

Q.7. Give an account of weather conditions and characteristics of the cold season. 
Ans. The winter season lasts from the month of December to February. The season is mostly dry. 
Cold is severe in the northern parts of the country. The southern parts have only mild cold. In 
the Northern Plains the days may be generally warm but the nights are cold. Places situated 
at high altitudes have snowfall. 

Light rainfall may occur during the winter months caused by western disturbances. These 
disturbances are caused by shallow cyclonic depressions originating over the east 
Mediterranean Sea. Travelling eastward, these depressions reach the north-western parts of 
India. On their way these get loaded with moisture from the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. 
The western disturbances are responsible for snowfall in the western Himalayan regions apart 
from light rains over north-western parts of the country. 

Winter rains are often followed by cold waves. Tamil Nadu gets rains in winter by the north

Q.8. Give the characteristics and effects of the monsoon rainfall in India. 
Ans. The monsoon rainfall in India is not evenly distributed. Rainy season has a longer spell in the 
eastern parts of the country. The northwest gets rains for barely two months. The duration of 
the rainy season is longer in the south than in the north. 
The southwest monsoon pours more water over areas of Western Ghats that are situated in the 

direction of the winds. The quantity of rainfall is heavy in the hilly regions of the north-east. 
It keeps declining as the winds move westwards. Patna gets more rain than Allahabad. 

east trade winds. 

Similarly, Delhi gets much less rain than Kolkata. 

Monsoons are not steady. Rainy days are interspersed with rainless days. 
When the rains are heavy, the rivers get flooded causing heavy damage in the plains year after 

year. A dry spell would cause as much misery as the river floods. The arrival and departure 
of monsoons is uncertain. So is the extent of rainfall in any given rainy season. These 
characteristics of monsoon has a very destabilising effect on Indian economy that continues to 

be predominantly agricultural and severely dependent on rainfed irrigation. 

MAP SKILLS 

Q.1. On an outline map of India, show the following. 

(i) Areas receiving rainfall over 400 cm. 
(ii) Areas receiving less than 20 cm of rainfall. 
(iii) The direction of the southwest monsoon over India. 
6 

 BROTHERS PRAKASHANOTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS (AS PER CCE PATTERN) OTHER

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS (AS PER CCE PATTERN) 
B. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 MARK) 
Q.1. Which of the following terms refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations 
over a large area for a long period of time (more than thirty years)? 
(a) Atmosphere 
(b) Annual range of temperature 
(c) Climate (d) Monsoons 
Ans. (c) 

Q.2. Which of the following is not an elements of weather and climate? 

(a) Atmospheric pressure (b) Temperature 
(c) Humidity (d) Altitude 
Ans. (d) 

Q.3. Which of the following statements defines weather? 

(a) Envelope of air surrounding earth 
7 

(b) State of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time 

(c) Atmospheric conditions over a large area for a long period of time 
(d) Generalised monthly atmospheric conditions. 
Ans. (b) 

OR 
Which one of the following terms is used for the state of atmosphere over an area at any 
point of time ? 

(a) Weather (b) Winds (c) Climate (d) Pressure 

Ans. (a) 

(a) Shillong 
Ans. (b) 

Q.4. In which of the following places of India precipitation is in form of snowfall? 

(b) Drass (c) Chandigarh (d) Haridwar 
Q.5. Which of the following places of India experiences the highest summer temperature? 
(b) Leh (c) Thiruvananthapuram (d) Jaisalmer 
Q.6. Which of the following is the rainiest station? 
(b) Mumbai (c) Chennai (d) Kolkata 
Q.7. Which one of the following is the driest station? 
(b) Leh (c) Bengaluru (d) Delhi 
Q.8. Most parts of India receive rainfall during which of the following months? 
(a) December to February (b) March to May 
(c) June to September (d) October to November 
Q.9. In which of the following months does the Tamil Nadu coast get most of its rainfall? 
(b) March to May 
(a) Pahalgam 
Ans. (d) 

(a) Shillong 
Ans. (a) 

(a) Mumbai 
Ans. (b) 

Ans. (c) 

(a) December to February 

(c) June to September 
Q.10. Which of the following places in India experiences a very high diurnal range of 
temperature? 
(a) Kolkata (b) Jodhpur 
(d) October to November 
Ans. (d) 

(c) Chennai (d) Delhi 

Ans. (b) 

Q.11. In which of the following places of India there is very little difference between day and 
night temperatures? 
(a) Guwahati (b) Nagpur (c) Thiruvananthapuram (d) Delhi 
Ans. (c) 

Q.12. In which of the following places are houses built on stilts? 

(a) Assam (b) Rajasthan (c) Goa (d) Kerala 
Ans. (a) 
8 

Q.13. Which one of the following is not one of the six major controls of the climate of any 
place? 
(a) Latitude (b) Temperature 
(c) Pressure and wind system (d) Distance from the sea 
Ans. (b) 

Q.14. Latitude and altitude of a place determine which of the following climatic elements of a 
place? 
(a) Pressure and wind system (b) Temperature 
(c) Rainfall pattern (d) All the above 
Q.15. Which of the following places have cooler climate even during summers? 
(b) Mumbai (c) Mussoorie (d) Amritsar 
Q.16. Which of the following places of India experiences extreme type of climate? 
(b) Bengaluru (c) Chennai (d) Delhi 
Q.17. Due to which of the following factors does Pune receive much lesser rainfall as compared 
(a) It is located on the leeward side of Western Ghats 
(b) It is located on windward side of Western Ghats 
(d) Distance from the sea 
Q.18. Which of the following latitudes passes through the middle of our country, giving it the 
characteristics of tropical as well as subtropical climate? 
(a) Tropic of Capricorn (b) Tropic of Cancer (c) Equator (d) 
Q.19. The Indian subcontinent experiences comparatively milder winters as compared to 
Central Asia due to which of the following factors? 
Ans. (d) 

(a) Allahabad 
Ans. (c) 

(a) Shillong 
Ans. (d) 

to Mumbai? 

(c) Continentality 
Ans. (a) 

82°30'N 

Ans. (b) 

(a) The Tropic of Cancer 

(c) The Himalayas 
Q.20. Which of the following atmospheric conditions govern the climate and associated weather 
conditions in India? 
(b) The surrounding seas 
(d) Ocean currents 
Ans. (c) 

(a) Pressure and surface winds 

(b) Upper air circulation 
(c) Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones 
(d) All the above 
Ans. (d) 

Q.21. Which of the following winds brings widespread rainfall over the mainland of India? 
(a) Northeasterly (b) Westerlies 
(c) Southwest monsoon winds (d) Sea breeze 
Ans. (c) 

9 

Q.22. Which of the following is a component of upper air circulation? 

(a) North-easterlies (b) Jet stream 
(c) South-west monsoon (d) Kal Baishakhi 
Ans. (b) 

Q.23. From which of the following pressure belts do the north-easterly trade winds originate? 
(a) Equatorial low pressure belt 
(b) Subtropical high pressure belt of the Northern Hemisphere 
(c) Subtropical high pressure belt of the Southern Hemisphere 
(d) Temperate low pressure belt of the Northern Hemisphere 
Q.24. Due to which of the following reasons are the southwest monsoons rainbearing winds? 
(a) They blow from low pressure area of northeastern India towards the seas 
(b) They are seasonal winds 
(c) They blow over warm Indian Ocean and gather moisture 
(d) They strike the Himalayas 
Q.25. Which of the following prevents the southwest monsoon winds from escaping from 
(a) The surrounding seas (b) The Himalayas 
(c) Low pressure over Central Asia (d) The Indian deserts 
Q.26. The word monsoon is derived from a word which literally means which of the following? 
(b) Wind pattern (c) Change (d) Mausumbi 
Q.27. In which of the following stations of India's mainland does the monsoons arrive first? 
(a) Thiruvananthapuram (b) Kolkata 
(c) Chennai (d) Delhi 
Ans. (b) 

Ans. (c) 

India? 

Ans. (b) 

(a) Seasons 
Ans. (a) 

Q.28. By which of the following dates do southern parts of our islands receive their first 
monsoon showers? 
(a) First week of April 
(c) First week of June 
Ans. (a) 

(b) First week of May 

(d) Mid-October 
Ans. (a) 

Q.29. Which of the following stations of India experiences snowfall in winter? 

(a) Aurangabad (b) Guwahati (c) Ooty (d) Srinagar 
Ans. (d) 

Q.30. Which of the following causes rainfall in West Bengal during the hot weather season? 
(a) Mango showers (b) Kal Baishakhi 
(c) Southwest monsoon (d) Retreating Monsoon 
Ans. (b) 

Q.31. In which month the transition season changes the hot rainy season to dry winter 
season? (CBSE 2010) 
10 

(a) December to February (b) February to March 

(c) June to July (d) October to November 
Ans. (d) 

Q.32. The term monsoon is originated from? (CBSE 2010) 

(a) German (b) Hindi (c) Latin (d) Arabic 
Ans. (d) 

Q.33. Kal Baisakhi is associated with 

(a) Punjab (b) Kashmir (c) Karnataka (d) Bengal 
Ans. (d) 

Q.34. The peninsular part of India experiences peak summers earlier than northern India 
(CBSE 2010) 
(a) There is less rainfall in the peninsula during that time. 
(b) Cold waves from Central Asia sweeps through the northern plains during the time. 
(c) Due to northward movement of the sun, the global heat belt shifts northward 
(d) Clouds do not form in those months 
Q.35. Bengal, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh coasts are frequented by cyclones because 
(CBSE 2010) 
(a) The level coastline makes the cyclones penetrate these areas earlier 
(b) These areas are close to a volcano 
(c) Low pressure conditions in northwest India lead to the creation of depression over 
(d) Heavy rainfall in these parts encourage strong wind conditions 
Q.36. Mango showers occur in which one of the following group of two states? (CBSE 2010) 
(a) Bihar and West Bengal (b) Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh 
(d) Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh 
because : 

Ans. (c) 

Andaman sea. 

Ans. (c) 

(c) Karnataka and Kerala 

Q.37. Which is the coldest place in India? 
(a) Drass (b) Srinagar 
Q.38. Which area is not an area of low precipitation? 
(a) Western Rajasthan and Gujarat 
Ans. (c) 

(CBSE 2010) 

(c) Shillong (d) Bikaner 

Ans. (a) 

(b) Leh in Jammu and Kashmir 

(c) Deccan plateau (d) Assam 
Ans. (d) 

Q.39. In winter the western cyclonic disturbances originate from which sea? (CBSE 2010) 
(a) Mediterranean Sea (b) Indian Ocean 
Ans. (a) 
(c) Caspian Sea (d) Arabian Sea 
Q.40. Which one of the following states suffers 
(a) Tamil Nadu (b) Uttar Pradesh 
Ans. (c) 
from loo? 
(c) Gujarat 
(CBSE 2010) 
(d) None of these 

11 

C. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS) 

Q.1. What are jetstreams? How do they affect the climate? (Important) 
Ans. Jetstreams are a narrow belt of high speed, high altitude, westerly winds in the troposphere. 
Jetstreams are an important component of the upper air circulation. They are located at an 
altitude of above 12000 metres. Their speed varies from 110 km/hr in summer to about 184 
km/hr in winter. The most constant jetstreams identified are the mid-latitude and the 
subtropical jetstreams. 

Over India, jetstreams blow south of the Himalayas, all through the year except summer. 

The western cyclonic disturbances are experienced in the north and northwestern parts of the 
country during winter months. They are brought in by the flow of westerly jetstream from the 
Mediterranean region. 

In summer when the subtropical westerly jetstream moves north of the Himalayas, an easterly 
jetstream, called the tropical easterly jetstream blows over Peninsular India, approximately 
over 14°N latitude. Tropical cyclones that occur during the monsoons as well as in October-
November are influenced by the tropical easterly jetstreams. The easterly flow brings tropical 
cyclones from the Bay of Bengal to the coastal regions of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. 

Q.2. What is the loo? How does it affect the weather of a place? (Important) 
Ans. The strong, gusty, hot, dry winds blowing during the day over the north and northwestern India 
during summer are known as ‘loo’. The ‘loo’ is a striking feature of the hot weather season 
from April to June. Loo usually occurs during the afternoon but sometimes it even continues 
until late in the evening. 

Direct exposure to these winds may even prove to be fatal. They cause acute dehydration and 
sunstroke. During May and June they sometimes bring duststorms which bring temporary relief 
as they lower the temperatures and may bring light rain and cool breeze. 

Q.3. Write a short note on the retreating monsoons. (Important) 

Ans. The months of October-November mark a period of transition from hot rainy season to cold 
dry winter conditions. This period is known as Retreating Monsoon or Transition season 
because the southwest monsoons weaken and withdraw or retreat from India. 

The retreat of monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature. While days are warm, 

nights are cool and pleasant. Owing to high temperature and high humidity, weather becomes 

oppressive. This phenomenon is known as ‘October heat’. 

With the shift of low pressure centre to the Bay of Bengal in early November, cyclonic 
depressions originating over the Andaman Sea move over the Eastern Coast. The Coromandel 
coast receives bulk of its rainfall from the retreating monsoons. 

These tropical cyclones cause heavy destruction and torrential rains in thickly populated 
deltaic regions of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. 

Q.4. Describe with examples how altitude affects the climate of a place. 
Ans. Altitude plays an important role in influencing the climate of a place. As one goes up to higher 
altitudes away from the surface of the earth, the atmosphere becomes less dense and 
temperature decreases. As a result hill stations like Mussoorie, Darjeeling and Udagamandalam 
(Ooty) in the south are cooler even during summer. 
The decrease in temperature with altitude also has its effects upon the pressure system which 
in turn determines the wind pattern and hence precipitation. 

12 

Drass, Srinagar and Shimla, located on the higher slopes of the Himalayas, receive heavy 
snowfall during winter due to inflow of western disturbances to areas with sub-zero 
temperatures. 

The lofty Himalayas, on account of their high altitude, stand as a barrier and protect India from 
bitterly cold winds of Central Asia during winter. They also confine the rainfall from the 
monsoons to the mainland of India. 

Places at lower altitudes, mainly those along the coast like Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, have 
moderate climates. 

Q.5. Describe with examples how distance from the sea influences the climate of a place? 
Ans. The sea exerts a moderating influence on the climate of a place. Places like Mumbai, Chennai, 
Thiruvanthapuram, Kolkata located near the sea have equable climate or maritime climate with 
less difference between summer and winter temperatures. As the distance from the sea 
increases, its moderating influence decreases. Places away from the sea are said to have 
continental location. Continentality is marked by extreme weather conditions, i.e., very hot 
summer and very cold winter. For example, Delhi located in the interior of the country at a 
distance from the sea experiences an extreme type of climate. 

Q.6. What form of precipitation does the upper part of the Himalayas receive and why? 
Ans. The upper parts of the Himalayas have quite high altitude of around 6000 metres. Temperature 
is very low in these parts as temperature decreases with a rise in altitude. Precipitation takes 
place in the form of snowfall in all stations in the upper parts of the Himalayas due to freezing 
temperatures. For example, Drass located in Jammu and Kashmir records minus 45°C (–45°C) 
temperature on a winter night. Hence, precipitation in this region is in the form of snowfall. 
Srinagar in the valley of Kashmir, Shimla and Manali in Himachal Pradesh and other hill 
stations in the upper parts of Himalayas receive snowfall in winter due to inflow of western 
cyclonic disturbances from the west. 

Q.7. Write a short note on the trade winds. What are the effects of trade winds on the climate 
Ans. The planetary winds blowing from the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts to the Equatorial Low 
Pressure Belt or Doldrums are termed as ‘Trade Winds’. 

of India? 

On account of the Laws of Deflection due to the Coriolis force, they blow as North-East Trade 
Winds in the Northern Hemisphere and as South-East Trade Winds in the Southern 
Hemisphere. The trade winds are the most permanent and regular of all planetary winds. They 
blow with great force in a constant direction. 

India lies in the region of Northeasterly Trade Winds. As they originate and blow over land, 
the Northeasterly Trade Winds generally carry very little moisture. Therefore, they bring little 

or no rainfall. Hence, had trade winds been the only factor influencing India’s climate, India 

would have been an arid land. 

In late summer low pressure condition over Northern Plains intensifies. This attracts the trade 
winds of the Southern Hemisphere. The Southeast Trade Winds originating over warm subtropical 
areas of southern oceans cross the equator and blow in a southwesterly direction to 
India. They are moisture laden and bring rainfall to India as southwest monsoon. 

Q.8. Discuss why Mawsynram receives the highest rainfall in the world? (Important) 
Ans. Mawsynram in Meghalaya is located on the southern ranges of the Khasi Hills. When the rain 
bearing winds from the Bay of Bengal branch of monsoons strike the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia 

13 

hills, they cause very heavy rainfall in the northeastern states located here. As Mawsynram is 
located at a position perpendicular to the path of the rainbearing winds which enters the deep 
valley of the Khasi hills, it receives rainfall of about 1141 cm per year. Hence, Mawsynram 
receives the highest rainfall in the world. Rainfall occurs here for almost nine months of the 
year. 

Q.9. What is the Coriolis force? Describe briefly its effect on the climate of the world. 
Ans. An apparent force caused by the earth’s rotation is called the Coriolis force. The Coriolis force 
is responsible for deflecting the direction of the winds towards the right in the Northern 
Hemisphere and towards the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This is also known as ‘Ferrel’s 

Under the effect of Coriolis force the trade winds moving from Sub-Tropical High Pressure 
belts to Equatorial Low Pressure belts become Northeast Trade Winds in the Northern 
Hemisphere and Southeast Trade Winds in Southern Hemisphere. As a result, they bring heavy 
rainfall to the east coast of continents within tropics after passing over oceans. As they are 
offshore on the west coast, these regions turn into hot deserts. 

Westerly winds blowing from Sub-Tropical High to Temperate Low Pressure belts become the 
South-Westerlies in the Northern Hemisphere and the Northwesterlies in the Southern 
Hemisphers due to Coriolis force. They bring much precipitation to western coast of 
continents, mainly in Southern Hemisphere. 

Q.10. Give reasons why the bulk of the rainfall is concentrated over a few months in India. 
(Important) 
Ans. The major part of the annual precipitation of India is due to the southwest monsoons. The 
reasons behind concentration of rainfall over few months are as follows : 

(a) By early June the low pressure zone over northern India intensifies and attracts the 
moisture laden Southwest monsoons. These onshore winds are the main source of rainfall 
in India. As they originate as southeast trade winds over warm subtropical southern oceans 
they bring abundant moisture. 
(b) The advancing southwest monsoons strike the southern part of the peninsula in early June 
and by July, it has its sway over entire India. The duration of monsoon is between 100Law’. 

120 days from early June to mid-September. Bulk of the rainfall of India is concentrated 
within these months. This period is known as rainy season. 

(c) The Arabian Sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch of monsoon bring heavy rainfall of over 
400 cm in West Coast areas and northeastern states. Even dry areas like Rajasthan and 
Gujarat receive some rain. 
Q.11. Study the climate data of the given place and answer the following questions : 
(CBSE 2010) 

Months 
Temperature 
in °C 
Rainfall in 
(mm) 
Jan. 
20.5 
7 
Feb. 
22.7 
9 
Mar. 
25.2 
11 
April 
27.1 
45 
May 
26.7 
107 
June 
24.2 
71 
July 
23.0 
111 
Aug. 
23.0 
137 
Sep. 
23.1 
164 
Oct. 
22.9 
153 
Nov. 
18.9 
61 
Dec. 
20.2 
13 
Annual 
Rainfall 
889 

14 

(a) Find out the annual of temperature of the given place. 

(b) Name the rainiest month. 
(c) Which month receives least rainfall and how much ? 
Ans. (a) Annual range of temperature = 27.1 – 18.9 = 8.2 °C 
(b) September 
(c) Jannuary receives the least rainfall = 7 mm. 
Q.12. Read the given table and answer the following questions. (CBSE 2010) 
(a) Name two rainiest stations 
GOYAL BROTHERS PRAKASHAN(b) Name the station farthest from equator 
(c) Station which has highest range of temperature 
(a) Two rainiest stations are Shillong (225.3 cm) and Mumbai (183.4 cm) 
Ans. 

(b) Leh (34°N) is the farthest from the equator. 

(c) Leh has the highest range of temperature (25.7°C) 
Q.13. Study the climate data below and answer the questions. (CBSE 2010) 
Months J F M A M J J A S O N D 
Temp in 
Celcius 
14.0 15.5 24.1 32 33 33.6 30.2 28.6 27.5 25.1 18.1 15.2 
Rainfall 
in cm 
2.5 2 2 2.5 2.7 7.5 19.1 17.8 14.5 2.5 1.5 1.5 

15 

(a) Name the rainiest month of the year. What is the reading? 
(b) What is meant by annual range of temperature? 
(c) Which two months have the least rainfall? 
Ans. (a) The rainiest month of the year is July (19.1 cm) 
(b) Annual range of temperature = Maximum temperature – minimum temperature (in a year) 
(c) November (1.5 cm) and December (1.5 cm) have the least rainfall. 
Q.14. Study the climatic conditions of the two places and answer the following : (CBSE 2010) 
(a) Name the place which receives the most rainfall in winter season and give reason for it. 
BROTHERS PRAKASHAN(b) Name the place which receives maximum rainfall and how much? 
(c) Name the place which has the lower range of temperature and how much. 
(a) Chemical receives the most rainfall in winter, due to Retreating Monsoons. 
(b) Shillong receives the maximum rainfall. 
Toral rainfall received in Shillong = 2 + 4 + 6 + 15 + 30 + 45 + 36 + 34 + 30 + 19 + 
5 + 1 = 227 cm (approx) 
(c) Range of temperature at Shillong = 20 – 10 = 10°C Range of temperature at Chennai = 
33 – 24 = 9°C Hence, Chennai has a lower range of temperature. 
Q.15. Study the climate data of the given place and answer the following questions 
Ans. 

(CBSE 2010) 

Months Temperature in °C Rainfall in mm 

Jan. 
Feb. 
March 
April 
May 
June 
July 
Aug. 
Sep. 
Oct. 
Nov. 
Dec. 
20.5 
22.7 
25.2 
27.1 
26.7 
24.1 
28.0 
23.0 
23.1 
22.9 
18.9 
20.2 
7 
9 
11 
45 
107 
71 
111 
137 
164 
153 
61 
13 
Annual Rainfall 889 

16 

(a) Find out the annual range of temperature of the given place. 
(b) Name the rainiest month. 
(c) Which month receives the least rainfall and how much ? 
Ans. (a) Annual range of temperature = 28.0 – 18.9 = 9.1°C 
(b) September is the rainiest month. 
(c) January receives the least rainfall (7 mm). 
Q.16. What is the difference between weather and climate ? What kind of a climate does India 
have and why? (CBSE 2010) 
Ans. 

monsoon winds. 

Q. 17. 
BROTHERS PRAKASHANWeather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time whereas
climate 
refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period 
of time. India has 'monsoon' type of climate. The climate of India is strongly influenced by 
Study the climatic condition of Thiruvananthapuram and answer the following questions : 

(a) Which two months receive the lowest rainfall? 

(b) What is the range of temperature in the month of June? 
(CBSE 2010) 

(c) Which month receives the highest rainfall? 

Ans. (a) January and February receive the lowest rainfall. 
(b) Range of temperature in June = 31 – 24 = 7°C 
(c) The month of June receives the highest rainfall. 
Q.18. What is ITCZ? What is its significance? 
(CBSE 2010) 
Ans. 
It is Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone. This is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 
5°N of the equator, also known as the monsoon trough during the monsoon season. 

17 

Q.19. Study the data given below carefully and answer the following questions. [2011 (T-2)] 
(19.1) Name the station which is farthest from the Equator. 
(19.2) Name the driest and wettest station among the three stations. 
(19.2) Nagpur (1242 mm) wettest station. Jodhpur (33.9 – 14.9 = 19°C) driest station. 
Q.20. Study the following climatic data and answer the questions that follow : [2011 (T-2)] 
(19.1) Name the rainiest month of the year. How much is the rainfall in this month? 
(19.2) What is the annual range of temperature here? 
(19.3) Name the hottest month and write the temperature. 
Ans. (19.1) August is the rainiest month of the year. In August rainfall is 33.4 cm. 
(19.2) Temperature 30.4° – 19.6 = 10.8°C 
(19.3) May is the hottest month of the year (30.4°C) 
Q.21. Why do western Ghats receive more rainfall than the Eastern Ghats. Explain briefly. 
[2011 (T-2)] 
In terms of relief the western Ghats are much higher (900 – 1600 meter) in comparison to the 
Eastern Ghats (600 meter). The Western Ghats are continuous stretches of high mountains. 
Therefore, when the moisture ladden Arabian Sea branch of Southwest Monsoon first strikes 

Ans. (19.1) Delhi (29° N) 

Ans. 

the Western Ghats it brings heavy rainfall along the windward side of the Western Ghats. In 
Eastern Ghats, rainbearing winds of Southwest Monsoon do not face such orographic barrier 
and hence receive much lower amount of rainfall. 

Q.22. What are western disturbances? How do they effect the climate of India? [2011 (T-2)] 
The western cyclonic disturbances are weather phenomena of the winter months brought in by 
the westerly flow from the Mediterranean region. This phenomena usually influence the 

Ans. 

weather conditions of North and Northwestern regions of India. Tropical cyclones occur during 

October-November as a consequence of this western disturbances. 

A characteristic feature of the cold weather season over the northern plains is the inflow of 
cyclonic disturbances from the west and the Northwest. These low pressure systems originate 
over the Mediterranean Sea and Western Asia and move into India along with the westerly 
flow. Under its influence cause the much needed rainfall over the plains and snowfalls in the 
mountains. The total amount of winter rainfall, locally known as Mahawat, is small but they 
are of immense value for the cultivation of rabi crops. 

18 

Q.23. Explain how monsoon acts as a unifying bond in the country. [2011 (T-2)] 
OR 
Why are the monsoons considered as a unifying bond? Explain. 
OR 
How do monsoon acts as a unifying bond for India? Explain. 
Ans. The unifying influence of the monsoon on the Indian subcontinent is felt through its seasonal 
alternation of the wind systems and the associated weather conditions. It is also perceptible 
through uncertainties and uneven distribution of monsoon rainfall. The Indian landscape, its 

flora and fauna, agricultural seasons, livelihood of the people including festivals etc. are 
governed by the monsoon. Year after year people anxiously wait for the arrival of monsoon. 
The river valleys which carry monsoon water also unite the country as a single river valley 
Q.24. Define monsoon. Differentiate between 'Burst of the Monsoon' and 'Break of the 
[2011 (T-2)] 
The word 'monsoon' is derived from the Arabic word 'mausim' which means season. It is 
basically a seasonal rain bearing winds, lasting for 100 – 120 days from early June to mid-

At the time of its arrival, the normal rainfall increases suddenly and continues constantly for 
several days. This is known as 'burst of the monsoon'. The phenomenon can be distinguished 
from the pre-monsoon showers. 

Another phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency to have breaks in 
rainfall. The monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time. They are interspersed 
with rainless intervals. These breaks in monsoon are related to the movement of the 

D. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (4 MARKS) 

Q.1. Write a brief note on the south-west monsoon and its influence on the climate of India. 
unit. 

Monsoon. 

Ans. 

September. 

monsoon trough. 

Ans. The word ‘monsoon’ is derived from the Arabic word ‘mausim’ which means season. It is 
marked by complete reversal of wind system according to seasons. The summer period is 
marked by the south-west monsons. 

The low pressure centre over northern India intensifies by early June. It attracts the 

(Important) 

southeasterly trade winds from the Southern Hemisphere which become south-westerly 
winds after crossing the equator due to the coriolis effect. As they originate over warm 
sub-tropical areas of Southern Oceans they bring abundant moisture to India’s mainland 
as southwest monsoon. The southwest monsoon strikes the southern parts of the peninsula 
in early June and by mid-July has its sway over entire India. The duration of the monsoon 
is between 100-120 days from early June to mid-September. This period is known as the 
Rainy Season. The two branches of southwest monsoons – the Arabian Sea branch and the 
Bay of Bengal branch–advance through the country and merge over the Northern Plains. 
They provide heavy torrential rainfall in the West Coast and Northeastern states. Even 

19 

Rajasthan receives some amout of rain. The bulk of the rainfall in India (75% to 90%) is 
caused by the advancing southwest monsoons and is concentrated within the Rainy 
Season. India has hot, wet tropical monsoon climate on account of it. The south-west 
monsoon is pulsating in nature marked by wet spells followed by dry spells termed as 
‘breaks’. The south-west monsoons are uncertain and variable in nature. They may cause 
floods in some parts and droughts in other parts. The entire climatic regime of India is 
dependant upon the south-west monsoons. 

Q.2. Why does the rainfall decrease from east to west in Northern India? Write a brief note 
(Important) 
Ans. The bulk of rainfall in India comes from the southwest monsoons. The Arabian Sea branch of 
south-west monsoon approaches from the western side of the peninsula and moves in a 
southwesterly direction and reaches the Northern Plains by first week of July. 

The Bay of Bengal branch of southwest monsoon brings heavy rainfall to the northeastern 
states. It arrives in Assam in the first week of June. The lofty mountains of the Purvanchals 
causes the monsoon winds to deflect towards the west over the Ganga Plains. 

They cause heavy rainfall on the eastern parts of the Northern Plains as the moisture content 
of the onshore winds are high. As the winds move westwards their moisture content decreases 
and bence, the rainfall decreases. 

The Arabian Sea branch of monsoons approach the Northern Plains from the west. But the 
highlands, the Aravalis, in the western part of the country, lie parallel to the direction of the 
onshore winds. Hence, very less or no rainfall is experienced in the western limits of the plains. 
They provide more rainfall on the central and eastern parts of the plains when the rain bearing 
winds strike the Himalayas. 

Both the branches merge over the northwestern part of the Ganga Plains. Delhi receives 
its showers from either of the branches. The location of the monsoon trough over the 
Northern Plains also determines the amount of rainfall. When the axis of the trough lies 
over the plains, rainfall is good in these parts, especially in the eastern parts where tropical 
depressions from Bay of Bengal approach. When the monsoon trough moves northwards 

explaining why. 

towards Himalayas, there are dry spells over the Northern Plains and heavy rainfall occurs 
in the Himalayas. 
Hence, due to the above reasons, rainfall decreases from east to west in Northern India. 

Q.3. Distinguish between southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon. 

Ans. The monsoon type of climate is marked by complete reversal of wind system according to 
(CBSE 2010) 

seasons. The summer period is marked by the southwest monsoons while the winter period is 
marked by northeast monsoons. The points of difference between them are as follows : 

(a) The southwest monsoons blow in a southwesterly direction to the mainland of India from 
June to September. While, the northwest monsoons blow in a northeasterly direction across 
India from mid-November to February. 
(b) The southwest monsoons are seasonal winds influenced by differential heating of land and 
water. The southeasterly trade winds are attracted by low pressure over northern India. 
They are deflected to southwest after crossing the equator due to the Coriolis force while 
the northeast monsoons are the northeasterly trade winds. 
20 

(c) The southwest monsoons are onshore winds as they blow from the Indian Ocean as 
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal branches to land areas. Hence, they are moisture laden 
winds and bring heavy rainfall. While the northeast monsoons are offshore winds as they 
blow from land to sea. As a result they are mostly devoid of moisture. 
(d) The southwest monsoons are responsible for the bulk of the rainfall in India (75% to 90%). 
They make Mawsynram in Meghalaya the rainiest station in the world. During the 
northeast monsoons some rainfall is brought by occassional western disturbances in north 
India. The northeast monsoons provide some rainfall in eastern coastal plain of Tamil Nadu 
after passing over Bay of Bengal. 

(e) The southwest monsoons are warm winds. While the northeast monsoons are cold winds. 
Q.4. Explain the major factors influencing climate in India. 
Ans. The important factors that influence the climate of India can be identified as follows : 
(a) 
Latitudinal Location. India lies in the Northern Hemisphere with the Tropic of 
Cancer (23°30'N) passing almost through the middle of India. Areas to its south have 
tropical type of climate, while areas to its north have characteristics of sub-tropical 
(b) 
Altitude and Relief Features. The mountainous areas to the north of the Himalayas have 
average altitude of upto 6000 metres. Stations located here are cool even in summer and 
receive snowfall during winter. The lofty Himalayas along the northern borders of India 
act as a mighty barrier protecting India from the cold winds from Central Asia in winter. 
As a result India experiences milder winters as compared to Central Asia. It also 
concentrates the monsoon rains within the mainland of India. The compact physical setting 
of India with the mountains in the north and Indian Ocean to the south of the peninsula, 
lends a broad common climatic framework to India. 
(c) 
Pressure and Winds. The pressure and wind conditions over India are unique. They result 
in seasonal reversal of the wind system and monsoon winds dominate the climate of India. 
The bulk of the rainfall in the country is brought by the southwest monsoons. 
Upper air circulation and the position of jet streams in upper troposphere influence the 

climate. 

monsoons. Western cyclonic disturbances in winter and tropical cyclones during retreating 
monsoon season bring rainfall and affect the climate. 

(d) 
Distance from the sea. Places at coastal locations, e.g. Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, have 
maritime or equable climate due to the moderating influence of the sea. But places in the 
interior of the country, far from the sea, experience extreme climate due to continentality, 
e.g. Dehli. 
Q.5. Write briefly about the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon. (Important) 
Ans. The Indian Peninsula divides the southwest advancing monsoons into two branches – the 
Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch. The Arabian Sea branch of monsoons 
approaches the western coast of India from the Arabian Sea in a southwesterly direction. It 
arrives at Thiruvananthapuram on the 1st of June. By 10th of June it reaches Mumbai. The 
onshore moisture laden winds strike the Western Ghats and provide heavy rainfall on its 
windward side. As a result Mumbai in the windward side receives much more rainfall than 
Pune which is located on the leeward side of the Western Ghats. 

21 

The Deccan Plateau lies in the rainshadow area and hence receives less rainfall. 

By mid-June the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives over Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the 
central part of the country. 
In the western and northwestern parts of the country, the highlands, the Aravalis, lie parallel 

to the direction of the incoming Arabian Sea branch of monsoons. Hence, these areas do not 

receive much rainfall because the rainbearing winds do not strike any barrier. 
By the first week of July, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and eastern Rajasthan 
experience the monsoons. 

The Arabian Sea branch of monsoons merges with the Bay of Bengal branch over the 
northwestern part of the Ganga plains. Delhi receives its rain from either of the two 

Q.6. Write in brief about the mechanism of the monsoons. 

(Important) 
OR 
What is meant by the term 'monsoon'? Give the main characteristics of monsoons. 
(CBSE 2010) 
Ans. The mechanism of monsoons can be explained by the following facts : 

(a) The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on the 
landmass in summer which attracts moisture-bearing winds from the high pressure centres 
(b) The shift of the position of Inter – Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer, over 
the Ganga plain from the equatorial region, creates a monsoon trough that attracts winds. 
The shifting of the axis of the trough effects the duration and intensity of monsoons. 
(c) The movement of the westerly jetstream to the north of the Himalayas and the presence 
of the tropical easterly jetstream over Indian Peninsula during summer bring in the tropical 
depressions and cyclones associated with monsoons. 
(d) The intensity and position of the high pressure area east of Madagascar, approximately at 
20°S over the Indian Oceans, affects Indian monsoon. 
branches. 

over the sea. 

(e) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong vertical 
air currents. High pressure is formed over the plateau at about 9 km above sea level. 
Periodic change in pressure conditions over southern oceans, known as Southern 
Oscillation and effect of El Nino also influences the monsoons. 

Q.7. Write a brief account of the conditions and characteristics of the retreating monsoons. 
Ans. The months of October-November mark a period of transition from hot rainy season to cold 
dry winter conditions. With the apparent movement of the sun southwards, the low pressure 
monsoon trough over the Northern Plains weakens and is gradually replaced by a high pressure 
system. The low pressure conditions shift to the Bay of Bengal. 

As a result, the southwest monsoon winds weaken and start withdrawing gradually from India. 
By the beginning of October it withdraws from the Northern Plains. This period is known as 
the Retreating Monsoon or Transition season because the monsoons withdraw or retreat from 
India. The Retreating Monsoon season is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature. While 
days are warm, nights are cool and pleasant. High rate of evaporation from the land that is still 

22 

moist results in high humidity and oppressive weather conditions during the day. This 

phenomenon is known as ‘October heat’. 

With the shift of low pressure zone to over the Bay of Bengal in early November, cyclonic 
depressions originating over the Andaman Sea moves over the Eastern Coast. The tropical 
cyclones and associated heavy rainfall cause heavy destruction in the thickly populated 
deltaic areas of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and sometimes Orissa, West Bengal and 
Bangladesh. 

The bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel coast is derived from these cyclones 

and depressions. The retreat or withdrawl of monsoon is a gradual process and takes a 

Q.8. Describe how the Himalayas affect the climate of India. 

Ans. The lofty Himalayas stand as a mighty barrier along the entire northern boundary of India. 
They have a profound influence on India’s climate. The high mountains with an elevation of 
6000 metres act as an effective climatic divide. In winter they prevent the cold winds from 
Central Asia from entering India. As a result, India experiences comparatively milder winters 
as compared to Central Asia. 

The mountain wall blocks the monsoon winds, preventing their escape out of India. It 

concentrates rainfall from the monsoon winds within India. 

When the moisture laden monsoon winds strike the Himalayas, heavy rainfall is caused 
in the foothills region. The Northern Plains of India receive rainfall from the Bay of 
Bengal branch of monsoons becaused the eastern mountains deflect these winds over the 

The Himalayas are responsible for giving the subtopical areas in northern India a touch of the 
tropical climate with hot, wet summer and mildly cold, dry winters. The alignment of the 
Himalayas also influences climate, So Ladakh on the leeward side of the Himalayas is a cold 
desert while Mawsynram on the southern ranges of Purvanchal receives the highest rainfall in 
the world. 

Q.9. Give an account of the weather condition and characteristics of the cold season. 
long time. 

Ganga Plains. 

Ans. The period between mid-November to February is the cold weather season in India. December 
and January are the coldest months in the northern part of India. The cold weather season is 
characterised by the following features : 

(a) A high pressure region develops in the northern part of the country with the apparent 
movement of the sun southwards. 
(b) The northeast trade winds prevail over the country. As they blow from land to sea, for 
most parts of the country it is a dry season. 
(c) Light winds move outwards from the high pressure area. Under the influence of relief, 
these winds blow from the west and northwest in the Ganga Valley. 
(d) Days are warm and nights are cool during the season. Weather is marked by clear sky, low 
temperature and low humidity and feeble variable winds mainly in the north. 
(e) Temperature is lower in the northern parts, ranging between 10° to 15°C. Temperature is 
higher in southern India, between 24° to 25°C, as in Chennai. 
23 

(f) Frost is common in northern parts. 

(g) The higher slopes of the Himalayas, e.g. places like Srinagar, Leh and Shimla, experience 
snowfall. 
(h) The western cyclonic disturbances are characteristic weather phenomena of the winter 
months. Their inflow from the west and northwest is brought in by the westerly flow from 
the Mediterranean Sea region. They cause the much needed winter rains over the plains 
and snowfall in the mountains in the northwestern India. 
(i) The peninsular region does not have a well-defined cold season due to moderating 
influence of the sea. Rainfall occurs on Tamil Nadu coast during winter because the 
northeast winds blow from sea to land here. 

Q.10. Give a brief account of the hot weather season in India. (Important) 
Ans. The period between April to June is the hot weather season or summer in India. 
The characteristic features of the hot weather season are as follows : 

(a) The global heat belt shifts northward due to the apparent northward movement of the sun. 
(b) The temperature recordings taken during April to June of stations at different latitudes, 
show the influence of the shifting of the heat belts. In March temperature in Deccan is 
about 38°C. In April, temperatures in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat are around 42°C. In 
May, temperature of 45°C is common in northwestern India. Peninsular India has 
moderate temperature due to influence of sea. 
(c) The rising temperatures lead to fall in air pressure in the northern parts. Toward the end 
of May, an elongated low pressure area develops in the north extending from the Thar 
desert in the northwest to Patna and Chhota Nagpur platean in the east. 
(d) Strong, gusty, hot, dry winds, locally called ‘loo’ blow during the afternoon over north and 
northwestern India. They may continue till late evening. 
(e) Duststorms are common during May in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Eastern Rajasthan and 
Western Uttar Pradesh. Sometimes they bring light rain and pleasant cool breeze that 
provide temporary relief from the heat. 
(f) High temperature during the day causes violent, localised thunderstorms by the evening. 
These thunderstroms are associated with violent winds and torrential downpour, often 
accompanied with rain. They are known as ‘Kal Baisakhi’ or calamity of the month of 
Baisakh in West Bengal. 
(g) In late May pre-monsoon showers occur, especially in Karnataka and Kerala. They are 
known as mango showers as they help in the early ripening of mangoes. 
E. MAP WORK (4 MARKS) 
Q.1. On the outline map of India, mark and label the areas that receives seasonal rainfall from 
June to September. 
(a) Less than 20 cm 
(b) 40-60 cm 
(c) 100-200 cm 
(d) Above 400 cm 
24 

 BROTHERS PRAKASHANQ.2. On an outline map of India, mark and label the following: 
(a) Direction of the south-west monsoons with arrows 
(b) The places that receive annual rainfall above 200 cm 
(c) The places that receive annual rainfall below 40 cm 
(d) The places that receive annual rainfall of 60-100 cm 
Q.2. On an outline map of India, mark and label the following: 
(a) Direction of the south-west monsoons with arrows 
(b) The places that receive annual rainfall above 200 cm 
(c) The places that receive annual rainfall below 40 cm 
(d) The places that receive annual rainfall of 60-100 cm 
GOYAL
25 

Q.3. On the outline map of India below, mark and label the following: 
(a) Places that receive snowfall in winter 
(b) The north-east monsoon with arrows 
(c) The place that receives the highest rainfall in the world 
(d) The coast of South India that receives high rainfall in winter 
BROTHERS PRAKASHANI. PROJECT WORK 
II. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 
Make a rain gauge and calculate the rainfall in your locality for the month. 
Requirement : 

1. A large mouth jar with straight sides 

Procedures : 
2. Ruler 3. Paper and pens 4. Rainy days 
1. Tape the ruler to the outside of the jar and place the jar outside when it rains. 
2. Bring in the jar when the rain stops and note the label of the rainfall in the jar. 
3. Make a chart to track the rain level each day. You can plot a graph. 
(Mark inches on one side of the chart and days of the week on the adjacent side of your chart 
paper.) 

II. ACTIVITIES 
Q.1. Labelling 
In the following diagram label the following parts : 

26 

GOYALGiven below are a list of some stations in India which receive rainfall during the monsoon 
season from either the Arabian Sea branch or Bay of Bengal branch of monsoon. Categorise 
Vadodara (Saurashtra), Guwahati, Mumbai, Shillong, Thiruvananthapuram, Delhi, Kolkata, 
Mangalore, Bhubaneswar, Lucknow, Dehradun, Indore, Patna, Shimla, Kachchh, Mathura, 
Panaji, Mawsynram, Patiala, Allahabad. 
III. ASSIGNMENTS 
Q.1. The following graph represents the annual rainfall in Delhi. Answer the questions that 
follow the graph. 
800 (31.49) 
700 (27.55) 
600 (23.62) 
500 (19.68) 
Rainfall 
800 (31.49) 
700 (27.55) 
600 (23.62) 
500 (19.68) 
Rainfall 
Arabian Sea branch Bay of Bengal branch Either Arabian Sea 
branch or Bay of 
Bengal branch 
Vadodara (Saurashtra) 
Mumbai, Thiruvananthapuram, 
Mangalore, Indore, 
Kachchh, Panaji, Patiala 
Guwahati, Shillong, 
Kolkata, Bhubaneswer, 
Patna, Mawsynram, 
Allahabad 
Delhi, Lucknow, 
Dehradun, Shimla, 
Mathura

JUNDelhi 
Leeward Slope, Windward Slope, Rainshadow Area, Mountain 

Ans. A: Windward Slope B : Leeward Slope 

C: Rainshadow Area D : Mountain 

Q.2. Grouping 
them 

Ans. 

: 

400 (15.74) 
300 (11.81) 
200 (7.87) 
100 (3.93) 

0 

Month 

27 

(a) In which two months did Delhi receive the highest rainfall? 
(b) In which month did Delhi receive the least rainfall? 
(c) How much rainfall did Delhi receive in the month of September? Give the approximate 
answer in millimetres. 
(d) Which month did the monsoon occur in Delhi and it lasted upto which month? Give 
reasons for your answer. 
(e) Write in a few sentences describing Delhi's climatic pattern. 
Ans. (a) July, August. (b) November. (c) 125 mm 
(d) From June to September, Advancing Monsoon (Rainy Season) Rain from Bay of Bengal 
and Arabian Sea branch of southwest monsoon. 
(e) Delhi has continental type of climatic pattern. Lowest temperature recorded in Dec-Jan 
goes down to 4°C while in Summer temperature is very high, reaching upto 44°C. The 
range of temperature is high because it is far from the sea. It receives rainfall during the 
Advancing Monsoon Season from both the Bay of Bengal branch and Arabian Sea branch 
of southwest monsoon. The rainy season continues from end of June to September in 
Delhi. In winter some rainfall comes from the western disturbances. Annual rainfall is 725 
Q.2. The following pictures are from different climatic zones of India. Study the pictures and 
then fill in the chart given below the pictures : 
mm. 

Houses Clothes Food Occupation 

A Plains Houses made of 
mud with sloping 
roofs. Raised on 
stilts in rainier 
parts 
Light cotton 
clothes. 
Rice wheat dal, 
vegetables, fish, 
meat, milk. 
Agriculture, 
fishing. 
B Desert Thick wall and 
flat roofs 
Long cotton 
robes. 
Chapati made of 
bajra, some vegetables, 
meat. 
Pastoral nomadism, 
tourism. 
C Mountain Houses made of 
rocks or wood. 
Thick woollen 
clothes. 
Rice, wheat, potatoes, 
vegetables, 
fruits, meat, milk. 
Animal rearing, 
terrace cultivation, 
tourism. 

28 

Q.3. Season Search 

Given below are a list of characteristics and weather phenomena at different times of the year. 

Classify them according to the season in which it occurs. Complete the given table. 
October heat, Western disturbances, Loo, Tropical cyclones along eastern coast, Burst of 
Monsoon, Kal Baisakhi, Mango Showers, Monsoon trough of low pressure, ‘Breaks’ in 
rainfall, Mahawat, Snowfall. 

IV. GROUP DISCUSSION 

Make a group among the students of your classroom and discuss India's water scarcity problems. 
Outline the characteristics of monsoon and its vagaries that may lead to water searching. 

V. DEBATE 
Divide the students of your classroom and debate on the advantage and disadvantage of dams 
across rivers. 

VI. QUIZZES 
Q.1. Write the names of the four seasons on the blackboard. Four students should take charge 
of the seasons, one for each season. 
Take each season by turn and ask the students of the class to name some stations (places) that 
receive rainfall or snowfall during that season. The students in change of each season should 
write down the correct names of the stations in their respective columns. 

Ans. 

Cold weather season 

WINTER 
Hot weather season 
SUMMER 
Advancing monsoon 
RAINY SEASON 
Retreating monsoon 
TRANSITION SEASON 
mid-Nov / 
Dec – Feb 
March – May June – Sept Oct – Nov 
Western disturbances 
Snowfall. 
Mahawat. 
Loo, 
Kal Baisakhi. 
Mango Showers. 
Burst of Monsoon 
Monsoon trough of 
low pressure. 
Breaks in rainfall. 
October heat. 
Tropical cyclones 
along eastern 
coast. 

WINTER SUMMER RAINY SEASON TRANSITION SEASON 

Srinagar (snowfall) 
Shimla (snowfall) 
Places in Punjab, 
Haryana Plains, 
e.g. Bhatinda 
Chennai (Tamil Nadu 
Coast) 
Delhi (duststorm) 
Kolkata, Guwahati, 
(Kal Baishaki) 
Kerala, Karnataka 
(mango showers) 
e.g. Mysore. 
Thiruvananthapuram 
Mumbai, Shillong, 
Mawsynram, Kolkata, 
Delhi. 
Most of India. 
Deltaic areas of Godavari, 
Krishna, Kaveri, e.g. 
Kakinada, Coromandel 
coast – Chennai 

29 

Q.2. Word Jumble : 

Rearrange the letters in the following words to find the true meaning as shown by the hints 
in brackets : 

(a) TEHAWRE (Day-to-day state of the atmosphere) 

(b) UISMAM (Arabic word from which the word 'Monsoon' is derived) 
(c) SNMRMWAYA (This place gets the highest rainfall in the world) 
(d) LE ONNI (Periodic warm ocean current along the coast of Peru that affects monsoon) 
Ans. (a) WEATHER (b) 

Q.3. Missing Letters : 

Ans. (a) LOO 

(Force caused by the Earth's rotation) CORIOLIS 

MAUSIM (C) MAWSYNRAM (d) EL NINO (e) CORIOLIS 

Find the missing letters in the following words with the help of the hints provided : 

(strong hot and dry wind blowing over North India in summer) 

(b) MANGO SHOWERS 

(showers that helps ripening of mangoes in South India) 
(southern coast of India that receives rainfall in winter) 
(d) TROPICAL CYCLONE (strong destructive winds formed over the Bay of Bengal) 
(narrow belt of high altitude winds in the troposphere) 
(e) SICLOROI 
(c) COROMANDEL 
(e) JETSTREAM 
Population
Introduction:- The people are important to develop the economy and society. The
people make and use resources and are themselves resources with varying quality.
Population is the pivotal element in social studies. It is the point of reference from which
all other elements are observed and from which they derive significance and meaning.
‘Resources’, ‘calamities’ and ‘disasters’ are all meaningful only in relation to human
beings. Human beings are producers and consumers of earth’s resources. Therefore, it
is important to know how many people are there in a country, where do they live, how
and why their numbers are increasing and what are their characteristics. The census of
India provides us with information regarding the population of our country.

We are primarily concerned with three major questions about the population:

(i) Population size and distribution:- How many people are there and where are they
located?

(ii) Population growth and processes of population change: How has the population

grown and changed through time?

(iii) Characteristics or qualities of the population:- What are their age,

sexcomposition, literacy levels, occupational structure and health conditions?

POPULATION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION

India’s Population Size and Distribution by Numbers

India’s population as on March 2001 stood at 1,028 million, which account for 16.7 per
cent of the world’s population. These 1.02 billion people are unevenly distributed over
our country’s vast area of 3.28 million square km, which accounts for 2.4 per cent of the
world’s area. The 2001 Census data reveals that Uttar Pradesh with a population size of
166 million people is the most populous state of India. Uttar Pradesh accounts for about
16 per cent of the country’s population. On the other hand, the Himalayan state Sikkim
has a population of just about 0.5 million and Lakshadweep has only 60 thousand
people. Almost half of India’s population lives in just five states. These are Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh. Rajasthan, the
biggest state in terms of area, has only 5.5 per cent of the total population of India.

India’s share of Population & Area in the world

India’s Population Distribution by Density

Population density provides a better picture of the uneven distribution. Population

density is calculated as the number of persons per unit area. India is one of the most
densely populated countries of the world. The population density of India in the year
2001 was 324 persons per sq km. Densities vary from 904 persons per sq km in West
Bengal to only 13 persons per sq km in Arunachal Pradesh.

POPULATION GROWTH AND PROCESSES OF POPULATION CHANGE:-

Population is a dynamic phenomenon. The numbers, distribution and composition of the

population are constantly changing. This is the influence of the interaction of the three
processes, namely-births, deaths and migrations.

Population Growth

Growth of population refers to the change in the number of inhabitants of a

country/territory during a specific period of time, say during the last ten years. Such a
change can be expressed in two ways: in terms of absolute numbers and in terms of
percentage change per year. The absolute numbers added each year or decade is the
magnitude of increase. The rate or the pace of population increase is the other
important aspect. It is studied in per cent per annum, e.g. a rate of increase of 2 per
cent per annum means that in a given year, there was an increase of two persons for
every 100 persons in the base population. This is referred to as the annual growth rate.
India’s population has been steadily increasing from 361 million in 1951 to 1028 million
in 2001.
The Magnitude and rate of India’s Population growth

Processes of Population Change/Growth

There are three main processes of change of population : birth rates, death rates and
migration. The natural increase of population is the difference between birth rates and
death rates.

Birth rate is the number of live births per thousand persons in a year. It is a major
component of growth because in India, birth rates have always been higher than death
rates.

Death rate is the number of deaths per thousand persons in a year. The main cause of
the rate of growth of the Indian population has been the rapid decline in death rates. Till
1980, high birth rates and declining death rates led to a large difference between birth
rates and death rates resulting in higher rates of population growth.

The third component of population growth is migration.

Migration is the movement of people across regions and territories. Migration can be
internal (within the country) or international (between the countries). Internal migration
does not change the size of the population, but influences the distribution of population
within the nation. Migration plays a very significant role in changing the composition and
distribution of population. In India, most migrations have been from rural to urban areas
because of the “push” factor in rural areas. These are adverse conditions of poverty and
unemployment in the rural areas and the “pull” of the city in terms of increased
employment opportunities and better living conditions. Migration is an important
determinant of population change. It changes not only the population size but also the
population composition of urban and rural populations in terms of age and sex
composition. In India, the rural-urban migration has resulted in a steady increase in the
percentage of population in cities and towns. The urban population has increased from
17.29 per cent of the total population in 1951 to 27.78 per cent in 2001. There has been
a significant increase in the number of ‘million plus cities’ from 23 to 35 in just one
decade i.e. 1991 to 2001.
Age Composition

The age composition of a population refers to the number of people in different age
groups in a country. It is one of the most basic characteristics of a population.

The population of a nation is generally grouped into three broad categories:

Children (generally below 15 years): They are economically unproductive and need to

be provided with food, clothing, education and medical care.

Working Age (15-59 years): They are economically productive and biologically

reproductive. They comprise the working population.

Aged (Above 59 years): They can be economically productive though they and may
have retired. They may be working voluntarily but they are not available for employment
through recruitment. The percentage of children and the aged affect the dependency
ratio because these groups are not producers.

Sex Ratio

Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males in the population. This
information is an important social indicator to measure the extent of equality between
males and females in a society at a given time. The sex ratio in the country has always
remained unfavourable to females.

Literacy Rates

Literacy is a very important quality of a population. Obviously, only an informed and

educated citizen can make intelligent choices and undertake research and development
projects. Low levels of literacy are a serious obstacle for economic improvement.
According to the Census of 2001, a person aged 7 years. and above who can read and
write with understanding in any language, is treated as literate.

There has been a steady improvement in the literacy levels in India. The literacy rate in
the country as per the Census of 2001 is 64.84 per cent; 75.26 per cent for males and
53.67 per cent for females.

Occupational Structure

The percentage of population that is economically active is an important index of

development. The distribution of the population according to different types of
occupation is referred to as the occupational structure. An enormous variety of
occupations are found in any country.

Occupations are generally classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary.

Primary activities include agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, fishing, mining and
quarrying etc.

Secondary activities include manufacturing industry, building and construction work

etc.

Tertiary activities include transport, communications, commerce, administration and

other services.

The proportion of people working in different activities varies in developed and

developing countries. Developed nations have a high proportion of people in secondary,
and tertiary activities. Developing countries tend to have a higher proportion of their
workforce engaged in primary activities. In India, about 64 per cent of the population is
engaged only in agriculture. The proportion of population dependent on secondary and
tertiary sectors is about 13 and 20 per cent respectively. There has been an
occupational shift in favour of secondary and tertiary sectors because of growing
industrialisation and urbanisation in recent times.

Health

Health is an important component of population composition, which affects the process

of development. Sustained efforts of government programmes have registered
significant improvements in the health conditions of the Indian population. Death rates
have declined from 25 per 1000 population in 1951 to 8.1 per 1000 in 2001 and life
expectancy at birth has increased from 36.7 years in 1951 to 64.6 years in 2001. The
substantial improvement is the result of many factors including improvement in public
health, prevention of infectious diseases and application of modern medical practices in
diagnosis and treatment of ailments. Despite considerable achievements, the health
situation is a matter of major concern for India. The per capita calorie consumption is
much below the recommended levels and malnutrition afflicts a large percentage of our
population. Safe drinking water and basic sanitation amenities are available to only
onethird of the rural population. These problems need to be tackled through an
appropriate population policy.

Adolescent Population

The most significant feature of the Indian population is the size of its adolescent
population. It constitutes one-fifth of the total population of India. Adolescents are
generally grouped in the age-group of 10 to 19 years. They are the most important
resource for the future. Nutrition requirements of adolescents are higher than those of a
normal child or adult. Poor nutrition can lead to deficiency and stunted growth. But in
India, the diet available to adolescents is inadequate in all nutrients.

National Population Policy

Recognising that the planning of families would improve individual health and welfare,
the Government of India initiated the comprehensive Family Planning Programme in
1952. The Family Welfare Programme has sought to promote responsible and planned
parenthood on a voluntary basis. The National Population Policy 2000 is a culmination
of years of planned efforts. The NPP 2000 provides a policy framework for imparting
free and compulsory school education up to 14 years of age, reducing infant mortality
rate to below 30 per 1000 live births, achieving universal immunisation of children
against all vaccine preventable diseases, promoting delayed marriage for girls, and
making family welfare a people-centered programme.

NPP 2000 and Adolescents

NPP 2000 identified adolescents as one of the major sections of the population that
need greater attention. Besides nutritional requirements, the policy put greater
emphasis on other important needs of adolescents including protection from unwanted
pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases (STD). It called for programmes that aim
towards encouraging delayed marriage and child-bearing, education of adolescents
about the risks of unprotected sex, making contraceptive services accessible and
affordable, providing food supplements, nutritional services, strengthening legal
measures to prevent child marriage. People are the nation’s most valuable resource. A
well- educated healthy population provides potential power.