Defect characterization in GaN: Possible influence of dislocations in the yellow-band

features
L. Polenta, A. Castaldini, and A. Cavallini

Citation: Journal of Applied Physics 102, 063702 (2007); doi: 10.1063/1.2778736

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 JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 102, 063702 共2007兲

Defect characterization in GaN: Possible influence of dislocations

in the yellow-band features
L. Polenta,a兲 A. Castaldini, and A. Cavallini
CNISM and Physics Department, University of Bologna, V.le Berti-Pichat 6/2, 40127, Bologna, Italy
共Received 11 July 2007; accepted 20 July 2007; published online 18 September 2007兲
Defects in freestanding gallium nitride were examined in this work. Electron beam induced current
mapping evidence a low density of dislocations in the first microns from the upper Ga-terminated
surface; correspondingly, deep levels detected by junction spectroscopy exhibit point-like
characteristics. Spectral photoconductivity measurements in the poorly dislocated region show the
characteristic red, yellow, green, and blue bands, which shift toward higher energies with decreasing
temperatures according to Varshni’s law. Spectral photoconductivity measurements carried out in
depth evidenced, instead, the quenching of the defect-related yellow band and the prevalence of the
green band when temperature increases. This behavior suggests a dislocation-assisted connection
between the yellow and green bands, in agreement with theoretical models on their common origin
involving complexes VGa-ON. © 2007 American Institute of Physics. 关DOI: 10.1063/1.2778736兴

I. INTRODUCTION their behavior, not definite assessments were drawn, although

some important hints are currently emerging.
The attractive properties of III-nitrides triggered a fast The defect-related yellow band, centered at approxi-
technological progress in the fabrication of emitters, detec- mately 2.2–2.3 eV, first detected by luminescence technique
tors, high-power amplifiers, as well as surface acoustic wave 共wide references14兲, seems to play a dominant role in the
and spintronic devices.1 The advent of nanostructures and defect panorama. Several models concerning its atomic
quantum devices recently enlarged the range of applications structure and related transitions were proposed.14
toward nanolasing, nanotransistors, and nanofluidic bio- Recently, by luminescence and photoconductivity
chemical sensors.2 experiments,14,15 it was observed that two distinct transitions
Gallium nitride 共GaN兲 has currently reached a dominant 共yellow and green兲 between deep levels and conduction band
role within the “nitrides family” due to the control developed contribute to this broad emission band. Different configura-
in the growth methods. Despite the progress achieved in the tions of the complex gallium vacancy–oxygen are currently
optimization of the growth process, however, industrial- prevailing among the attributions of the deep levels involved
grade GaN is still grown by heteroepitaxy. The thermome- in these transitions.6,14,16,17 The common point of these mod-
chanical mismatch existing between GaN and substrate els is the origin of the green band, i.e., 共VGa-ON兲0/−. This
mainly generates threading dislocations, which propagate complex is also considered the seed of the atomic structures
from the interface along the growth direction gradually re- giving rise to the yellow band: 共1兲 the doubly charged state
ducing their density.3 共VGa-ON兲−/−− in Ref. 16 and 共2兲 the defect VGa-共ON兲2 in Ref.
The technological promise of thick gallium nitride layers 17.
therefore lies in a sensible reduction of dislocation density Both models predict a relationship between the two
and of residual strain, the latter being predicted to vanish for bands, which may evolve one into the other, but a substantial
thicknesses higher than 75 ␮m.4 Electrical and optical prop- experimental proof of their link is still lagging. Photoconduc-
erties also improve with thickness.4–9 Good quality thick tivity results presented in this work provide a quantitative
GaN, moreover, is an optimum substrate for further characterization of the yellow band quenching mechanism
homoepitaxy.10 Among the several attempts to fabricate qua- and its evolution into green band, validating the hypothesis
sibulk GaN structures,11–13 hydride vapor phase epitaxy of a common defect responsible for both bands. Moreover,
共HVPE兲 growth of thick layers, followed by a laser-induced our results by junction spectroscopy and photoconductivity
liftoff of sapphire substrates, gives currently the best mate- in different contact configurations support the hypothesis of
dislocation-assisted processes in GaN, in agreement with the
rial, although the thickness-dependent distribution of dislo-
theoretical model of Elsner et al.17
cations affects both the bulk properties and the specific be-
havior of native and impurity related point defects.7,8 One of
II. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
the key points still to clarify is, therefore, the role of specific
point-like and extended-like defects on the device perfor- The measurements were carried out on high quality
mance. Despite the large number of studies aimed to identify HVPE-grown freestanding GaN 共S313兲 supplied by the Sam-
the major mechanisms controlling the defect formation and sung Advanced Institute of Technology.6,13 All results refer to
the Ga-face orientation, the more efficient in terms of mate-
a兲
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Electronic mail: rial properties and ideality.6 The sample is unintentionally
[email protected] doped, its thickness t is 206 ␮m and its mobility ␮n is in the

0021-8979/2007/102共6兲/063702/5/$23.00 102, 063702-1 © 2007 American Institute of Physics

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 063702-2 Polenta, Castaldini, and Cavallini J. Appl. Phys. 102, 063702 共2007兲

FIG. 1. 共a兲 Scheme showing the region explored in the Schottky configura-
tion 共w depletion region兲 and 共b兲 ohmic configuration 共whole thickness d兲
for below-band-gap light excitation.

order of 1000 cm2 V−1 s−1. Ohmic contacts were obtained

by In soldering and rectifying contacts by Au metallization
on the Ga-terminated surface in order to achieve a Schottky
diode. FIG. 2. 共Color online兲 共a兲 EBIC micrograph of the Ga-face obtained with a
beam acceleration voltage equal to 15 keV. 共b兲 DLTS spectrum obtained
Electron beam induced current 共EBIC兲, current-voltage
with emission rate= 23 s−1, bias= −5 V, filling pulse= + 5 V, pulse width
共I − V兲 and capacitance–voltage 共C − V兲 measurements have = 10 ms. DLTS and EBIC explore the same region of the sample as e-beam
been carried out at room temperature 共RT兲. Deep level tran- penetration depth corresponds to depletion layer at 5 V.
sient spectroscopy 共DLTS兲18 from 80 up to 550 K detected
electronic levels as deep as 1.04 eV below the conduction tron microscopy investigation3 in HVPE grown GaN showed
band. To investigate the presence of deeper defect-related that the dislocation density increases approaching the sub-
levels, spectral photoconductivity 共PC兲 measurements from strate interface and reaches the typical density of
140 K to RT were performed in Schottky and in ohmic con- 108 – 1010 cm−2 found in standard thin 共⬍10 ␮m兲 GaN.
tact configurations.15,19 The low density of dislocations at the Ga-terminated sur-
The role of dislocations and their possible interaction face accounts for the good rectifying property of the
with point-like defects were studied by selecting the region diode.4–8 I − V analysis shows a nearly ideal behavior, with
to investigate in the thick sample, thanks to its vertical inho- an ideality factor n = 1.02 and a barrier height ⌽b = 0.92 eV.
mogeneity in dislocation density. The aim of the present The donor concentration, calculated by C − V characteristics,
work is to investigate the top region, characterized by a low is ND = 5.8⫻ 1015 cm−3.
density of dislocations and the whole bulk, containing also By the current–temperature 共I − T兲 characteristics, the ac-
highly defective regions, in terms of electrically active defect tivation energy of about 0.90 eV was determined, indicating
distribution, as schematically depicted in Fig. 1. the energy level of the defect mainly controlling the charge
The use of Schottky contact configuration15 in electrical transport mechanism.21
characterization limits the investigation to the dislocation DLTS spectra obtained with reverse bias of 5 V, corre-
poor region: Schottky junction realized by gold metallization sponding to a depletion region of ⬇1 ␮m, reveal the pres-
over the Ga-terminated surface confines the electrical analy- ence of four electronic levels at EC − 0.25 eV, EC − 0.52 eV,
ses to the depletion region, controlled by the applied external EC − 0.63 eV, and EC − 1.04 eV 关Fig. 2共b兲兴. Their properties,
bias 关Fig. 1共a兲兴. Bias conditions have been settled so as to extracted by the Arrhenius plot and refined by fitting, are
obtain a matching between EBIC penetration depth and reported in Table I.
depletion region: in this way the microscopic image of the It has been often reported7,8,22–30 that both dislocations
electrical activity of defects can be directly put into relation and DLTS levels decrease in density for increasing sample
with the DLTS and Schottky PC results. thickness. Such a thickness-dependent concentration is con-
Conversely, photoconductivity investigation in ohmic sidered as a fingerprint of the association of deep levels with
configuration,15 when excitation is due to below-band-gap dislocations. As a matter of fact, dislocation density has been
light 关Fig. 1共b兲兴, refers to the whole bulk, so as the photoin- proposed22 to modify the level emission kinetics: electronic
duced transitions are relevant also to the regions containing levels behave as extended-like in thin highly dislocated
high density of dislocations. For the above-mentioned rea- samples, whereas they show point-like character in thick
sons we will refer till now to results concerning the region poorly dislocated freestanding material, suggesting segrega-
with low density of dislocations 共top兲 and the bulk region tion at the dislocations.22 Our DLTS spectra and analyses
共whole sample兲. with the filling pulse method confirm the point-like behavior
of the defect-associated levels.
A. Poorly dislocated region
TABLE I. Properties of DLTS levels: apparent activation energy, capture
The spatial distribution of electronically active defects is cross section, and density.
shown in Fig. 2共a兲. The EBIC micrograph was obtained with
a beam acceleration voltage of 15 keV, corresponding to a Level A B C D
penetration depth of about 1.5 ␮m.20 The dark regions, due
Energy 共eV兲 0.25 0.52 0.63 1.04
to the defect recombination activity, are spaced up to 10 ␮m ␴ 共10−16 cm2兲 4.1 1.8 2.0 260
and have diameters ranging from 1 to 5 ␮m. Their density is NT 共1013 cm−3兲 5 5 8 30
4 ⫻ 106 cm−2. It is worth reminding that transmission elec-
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 063702-3 Polenta, Castaldini, and Cavallini J. Appl. Phys. 102, 063702 共2007兲

FIG. 3. Photocurrent spectra in Schottky configuration obtained at 140 K

共continuous line兲 and at 300 K 共dashed line兲.

A wide literature exists about the nature of these defects,

even if no firm identification is yet given.22–32 The level lo-
cated at EC − 0.25 eV was attributed to ON complexes deco-
rating screw- and mixed-type dislocations.25 The logarithmic
capture behavior of this level, frequently observed in highly
dislocated samples, confirms its involvement with extended
defects.26,27
The level at EC − 0.52 eV has been related to a linear
array of defects due to dangling bonds along edge
dislocations.25 Moreover, cross-comparisons with photolumi-
nescence 共PL兲 results suggest that both levels at EC
− 0.52 eV and EC − 0.63 eV might be related to the blue lu-
minescence found at 2.85 eV, and their relationship with VGa
was proposed.23
The level D located at EC − 1.04 eV is very close to the
activation energy ET = 0.90 eV deduced from I − T character-
ization. Moreover, it is dominant in DLTS spectra, with a
concentration of about 3 ⫻ 1014 cm−3, i.e., 5% of the donor
concentration ND. For the above-mentioned reasons it is
plausible to assess its key role on the transport properties.
Filling pulse variations substantiate its point-like behavior in
freestanding GaN, while it was observed to behave like ex-
tended defect in more defective samples, although with
slightly smaller energies.23,31,32 The hypothesis concerning FIG. 4. Photocurrent spectra in ohmic configuration obtained at different
temperatures. The dark current flowing across the sample was kept at 1.3
nitrogen antisites NGa 共Ref. 33兲 involved in its atomic struc- mA to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio, for each temperature stage. The
ture is particularly intriguing as the high concentration of dashed line is a guide for the eye showing the temperature induced shift of
level D and its control of transport properties well recalls the the main defect-related band.
analog behavior of the defect EL2 in GaAs, containing the
arsenic antisite AsGa.34 sample thickness t, the same explored by EBIC and DLTS
To extend the investigation to the whole gap of GaN the 共Fig. 2兲, i.e., the layer containing the lowest dislocation den-
physical constraints of thermal spectroscopy have to be over- sity.
come. In this respect, photoexcitation-based spectroscopies,
such as PL14 and PC,15,19 are very efficient tools. Spectral PC
B. Whole sample
measurements in Schottky configuration 共Fig. 3兲 evidence in
detail the peaks corresponding to the band edge 共BE兲 as well Ohmic PC configuration probes the bulk properties in-
as to the blue, green, yellow, and red transitions. By cooling cluding contributions also from the highly dislocated re-
the sample the peak position shifts according to Varshni’s gions. However, due to the lack of an intense and locally
law,35 and the intensity of defect-related peaks with respect distributed electric field, the signal-to-noise ratio dramati-
to BE keeps constant. It is worth stressing that these results cally decreases and hinders the identification of separated
refer to the depletion region, approximately 1/100 of the single bands.
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 063702-4 Polenta, Castaldini, and Cavallini J. Appl. Phys. 102, 063702 共2007兲

can ascribe these findings to the role of dislocations, that

exert coulombic and piezoelectric fields on the complexes
VGa-共ON兲n 共n = 1 , 2兲.17
Thus, a dislocation-mediated link between the yellow
and green bands can be inferred: VGa-共ON兲2, the defect re-
sponsible for the yellow band, thermally dissociates with the
activation energy EQ ⬇ 0.30 eV into VGa-ON, the green band-
related defects, and ON at the dislocation core.17
In summary we analyzed the defect spatial distribution
and the role of dislocations on the characteristics of impurity
related and native defects. Our experimental findings support
the theoretical hypotheses on the relationship between yel-
low and green band mediated by dislocations.
Yellow and green bands are likely associated to different
configurations of the complex VGa-共ON兲n in the stress field of
FIG. 5. Arrhenius plot of the photocurrent intensity vs T. The straight line dislocations that favors its thermal dissociation. The quench-
corresponds to the fitting. From the slope, an activation energy of 0.30 eV is ing characteristics are in good agreement with a dislocation-
obtained. assisted mechanism of thermal dissociation of yellow-band
related defects into green-band related ones.
The features relevant to the yellow–green bands were
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
analyzed in detail at different temperatures. To the authors’
knowledge, the yellow photoconductivity behavior as a func- The authors would like to thank D. C Look and S. S.
tion of the temperature is here reported for the first time, Park for providing the samples.
whereas the luminescence thermal behavior was extensively
studied.14 Ohmic PC spectra for temperatures between 140 1
S. J. Pearton, C. R. Abernathy, M. E. Overberg, G. T. Tahler, A. H.
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2
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green region. At low temperature 共140 K兲 the photosensitiv- 3
H. Morkoc, Mater. Sci. Eng., R 33, 135 共2001兲.
4
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R. J. Molnar, J. Appl. Phys. 88, 1460 共2000兲.
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A. Castaldini, A. Cavallini, and L. Polenta, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 4851
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At higher temperatures 共T ⱖ 260 K兲, the defect-related 6
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