Development communication-Introduction

  10:28      J.P Josephine Baba    

Development communication  referred to as "communication for development' "development support communication' and  "communication for social change.
Development Communication can be simply defined, when communication is used to promote social development. Systematically applying the processes,
strategies. The principles of communication to bring out positive social changes called development communication .

During the period of world war II, the term “Development Communication” was first introduced.

The Dominant Paradigm: Modernization

This dominant paradigm rooted in the concept of  development as modernization.  It emerged after  World War II. The central idea of this dominant paradigm was
to solve development problems by "modernizing" underdeveloped countries. This approach advised the society, how to be effective in following in the footsteps of
richer, more developed countries. Development was equated with economic growth. 

Communication was associated with the dissemination of information and messages aimed at modernizing "backward" countries and their people. Mass media
were at the center of communication initiatives that relied heavily on the traditional vertical or one-way model: Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR).
Widely criticized paradigm of  modernization has been in part abandoned—and a new paradigm has yet to be fully embraced.'

The Opposing Paradigm: Dependency

In the 1960s strong opposition to the modernization paradigm led to the emergence of an alternative theoretical model based on the dependency theory. It
is rooted in a political-economic perspective. 
This school of thought criticized some of the core assumptions of the modernization  paradigm such as  neglecting social, historical, and economic factors.  They
also accused the dominant paradigm of being very Western-centric, refusing or neglecting any alternative route to development.  The dependency theorists
emphasized the importance of the link between communication and culture. It was  demand  more balanced and equitable exchange of communication,
information, and cultural programs among rich and poor countries.

Although the dependency theory had gained a significant impact in the 1970s. Yet in the 1980s it started to lose relevance

The Emerging Paradigm: Participation

 This participatory model is less oriented to the political-economic dimension and more rooted in the cultural realities of development focusing on people's
participation began to emerge.. 

The development focus has shifted from economic growth and include other social dimensions needed to ensure meaningful results in the long run.  Participation
is increasingly recognized as a necessary part of sustainable development strategies'  

It emphasized the  application of genuine two-way communication principles and practices.  Development communication has increasingly moved toward a
horizontal, "two-way" model, which favors people's active and direct interaction through consultation and dialog over the traditional one-way information
dissemination through mass media.

This approach insist the  need ofinvolvement of the affected people in the decision-making process.   The horizontal use of communication, which opens up dialog,
assesses risks, identifies solutions, and seeks consensus for action, came to be seen as a key to the success and sustainability of development efforts.  This paradigm
is changing the way communication is conceived and applied. It shifts the emphasis from information dissemination to situation analysis, from persuasion to
participation. It is broadening its scope, maintaining the key functions of informing people and promoting change, yet emphasizing the importance of using
communication to involve stakeholders in the development process.

Source paolo mefalopulos- developement communication source book

http://wecommunication.blogspot.in/2014/03/communication-for-development.html
campaign
tobaco

Basic Principles of Development Communication

  20:49      J.P Josephine Baba      No comments
Dialogic —Dialog is the heart of the new communication paradigm.  Development communication should foster dialog to facilitate mutual understanding, to
assess the situation, and to seek wider consensus. Professionally directed, dialog is an invaluable research tool and is absolutely to build trust, optimize knowledge,
minimize risks, and reconcile different positions. 
Inclusive—This methodological frame work might focus only on selected groups of stakeholders. Omitting a group on a basis that might not seem relevant can
cause problems. Two-way communication should always pay special attention to groups that are marginalized or at a disadvantage in society. Gender issues are
always a primary concern in this context, as well as issues related to the poor, or any other vulnerable group.
Heuristic— The heuristic and explorative scope of development communication, strengthened by its analytical and dialogic features, constitutes its main value-
added in addressing and rectifying the past failures in development.

Analytical—It conclude large amount of its work, such as the assessment of political risks and opportunities, the effectiveness of diffusion and dissemination
activities  and it we know how effectively people are empowered to voice their perceptions and opinions.
Participatory— Only genuine communication can facilitate effective participation, and there are  different types of participation. 

Levels of Participation and Communication

Participation Level Basic Features Related to Communication
Information sharing One-way communication—basically, people are included by
informing them about what is being done.
Consultation Primarily one-way communication with a stronger emphasis on
feedback—stakeholders provide their input but do not have a
significant say in the decision-making process.
Collaboration Two-way communication supporting open interaction in
decision making—input in decision making is balanced.
Empowerment Transfer of control over decisions and resources—two-
way communication ensures shared decision making.

Inter disciplinary—A development communication body of knowledge includes a number of principles borrowed from other disciplines such as ethnography,
sociology, political economy, adult education, and marketing.
Strategic—The principle of strategy emphasizes the professional and timely application of communication techniques and methods to achieve intended
objectives.  
Persuasive— In development communication, persuasion can be used to induce voluntary changes in individuals. Persuasion should be based on accurate infor-
mation and within a context of two-way communication. 

Source: https://wecommunication.blogspot.com/2015/02/basic-principles-of-development.html

Key Issues about (Development) Communication

  21:49      J.P Josephine Baba      No comments

Some of the myths and misconceptions about communication, especially when related to the field of development. These misconceptions can often be the cause
of misunderstandings and lead to inconsistent and ineffective use of communication concepts and practices. The first two points on this list are about
communication in general, while the others refer to development communication in particular.
1."Communications" and "communication" are not the same thing. 
The plural form refers mainly to activities and products, including information technologies, media products, and services (the Internet, satellites, broadcasts,
and so forth). The singular form, on the other hand, usually refers to the process of communication, emphasizing its dialogical and analytical functions rather
than its informative nature and media products. This distinction is significant at the theoretical, methodological, and operational levels.

2. There is a sharp difference between everyday communication and professional communication.  

 A person who communicates well is not necessarily a person who can make effective and professional use of communication. Each professional (development)
communication specialist understands relevant theories and practices and is capable of designing effective strategies that draw from the full range of
communication approaches and methods to achieve intended objectives.

3.There is a significant difference between development communication and other types of communication. 
Both theoretically and practically, there are many different types of applications in the communication family. There are four main types of communication,
they are advocacy communication, corporate communication, internal communication, and development communication. Each has a different scope and
requires specific knowledge and skills to be performed effectively.

4.  The main scope and functions of development communication are not exclusively about communicating information and messages, but they also involve
engaging stakeholders and assessing the situation.  

Currently, the scope of development communication has broadened to include an analytical aspect as well as a dialogical one—intended to open public spaces
where perceptions, opinions, and knowledge of relevant stakeholders .
5.Development communication initiatives can never be successful unless proper communication research is conducted before deciding on the strategy.
A communication professional should  design a communication campaign or strategy with having all the relevant data to inform, to identify gaps  his or her
decision.

6.To be effective in their work, development communication specialists need to have a specific and in-depth knowledge of the theory and practical applications
of the discipline. 
In addition to being familiar with the relevant literature about the various communication theories, models, and applications, development communication
specialists should also be educated in the basic principles and practices of other interrelated disciplines, such as anthropology, marketing, sociology,
ethnography, psychology, adult education, and social research.

In Additionally, a good professional should also have the right attitude toward people, being empathic and willing to listen and to facilitate dialog in order to
elicit and incorporate stakeholders' perceptions and opinions.

Most of all, a professional development communication specialist needs to be consistently issue-focused, rather than institution-focused.

7.Development communication Objectives design. 

 Even the most well-designed communication strategy will fail if the overall objectives of the project are not properly determined, if they do not enjoy a broad
consensus from stakeholders, or if the activities are not implemented in a satisfactory manner. In such cases, the basic foundations of development
communication are neglected, and the results are usually disappointing, especially over the long term.

8.Development communication is not exclusively about behavior change.

The areas of intervention and the applications of development communication extend beyond the traditional notion of behavior change to include, among other
things, probing socioeconomic and political factors, identifying priorities, assessing risks and opportunities, empowering people, strengthening institutions,
and promoting social change within complex cultural and political environments.

9.Media and information technologies are not the backbone of development communication.

  Media and information technologies are part of development communication, and they are important and useful means to support development. Their impact
is greatly affected by the communication work done in the research phase. Past experience indicates that unless such instruments are used in connection with
other approaches and based on proper research, they seldom deliver the intended results.
10.Participatory approaches and participatory communication approaches are not the same thing  
Participatory approaches and participatory communication approaches are not the same thing  and should not be used interchangeably, but they can be used
together, as their functions are often complementary, especially during the research phase. Even if there are some similarities between the two types of
approaches, identify communication entry points, and map out the information and communication systems that can be used later to design and implement
the communication strategy.   Instead, these are all key activities carried out in a participatory communication assessment.

Dependency Theories
  06:37      J.P Josephine Baba      No comments
Dependency theory was originated from Latin America at the beginning of the 1970s. One of its founding fathers, A. G. Frank (1969).  He considered development and
underdevelopment as two faces of the same coin, shaped by specific historical, economic, and political factors. Hence, neither the causes nor the solutions of underdevelopment
should be sought exclusively, or even mostly, within the poorest countries. 

Dependency theory claims that the imbalances in the world's state of affairs were mainly owing to the international division of labor and to the continuation of past patterns of
domination. The world was separated into two  core, composed of a few rich countries, and  composed of many poor countries.  According to this perspective, core countries took
advantage of their technological know-how, superior infrastructure, and economic power to strengthen their lead. The main role of the peripheral countries was restricted to that of
supplying raw materials and cheap labor to the richer ones, making it impossible for them to ever catch up.
To address this problem, dependency advocates proposed a plan that works on two levels. Nationally,  and Internationally. Considering nationally, the  developing countries on the periphery
were to become economically self-reliant and less dependent on foreign imports. Such a way that Internationally, they would form alliances among themselves to create a stronger political
presence. The ultimate goal would be to change the overall international set of relationships by forming a bloc of many countries with similar aspirations.
Dependency theory had a significant impact in the economic and development policies of a number of Third World countries, especially in the 1970s and early 1980s, resulting in the adoption
of import-substitution policies by many of those countries (Escobar 1995). This strategy aimed to protect national industries from outside competition by subsidizing them and putting high
tariffs on imported products. The main idea was to stimulate growth of domestic industrialization (McMichael 1996) and to reduce or sever dependent ties with richer countries. However, the
overall results of import-substitution policies have been rather unsatisfactory (Jaffee 1998).
Its oversimplified division of the world into core and periphery levels is blamed for the dependency theory. It fail to explain the causes of under development and for its limited effectiveness
in proposing successful alternative models of development.
 Dependency theorists failed to consider relevant internal causes contributing to the problem such as the role played by national elites. These elites often form strategic alliances with those of
the developed world, and they play a significant role in shaping, often in negative ways, the development process of their countries (Servaes 1991)
 Dependency theories are also criticized for how little attention they pay to the differences in political-economic status among developing countries, resulting in big and potentially rich
countries such as Brazil or India being put in the same category as much smaller and poorer ones.
This world system, based on capitalism, is divided into a core, dominated by a few rich countries; a periphery, inhabited by the many poorer countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America; and a semi-periphery, including major countries such as Egypt, Mexico, Brazil, India, and others, with higher levels of resources than the majority of developing
countries. This intermediate layer, the semi-periphery, addresses the criticisms received by dependency theorists for the oversimplified division into two spheres of rich and poor
countries.
The three levels (that is, core, periphery, and semi-periphery) are contained in a unified world system, the mechanisms of which are those of capitalism operating at national and
international levels. 
The proponents of the dependency theory vigorously supported rethinking the communication agenda along the lines of a more balanced flow of communication at the
international level. Yet, at the national level, they often neglected to consider the horizontal component of communication within countries and failed to give proper attention to the
potential of privately owned media and community media. While arguing against the "free-flow" argument proposed by the United States and its allies, 
The "dependentistas" remained rooted in the classic media-centric conception of communication, mostly from the state perspective. Ideally, the state is expected to represent the
wider public's interest, but reality shows that this has seldom been the case. 
Dependency theories did not consider and support the wider role that "freer" communication systems, and not just media, at different levels could play in creating spaces and
actively engaging broader sectors of society in development. Despite significant differences between modernization and dependency theories, their communication model was
basically the same: a one-way communication flow, with the main difference between the two theories being who was controlling and sending the message and for what purpose.

The Emerging Participatory Paradigm-Alternative paradigm

  09:35      J.P Josephine Baba      No comments
This approach  adopted in the 1990s by the United Nations and other development organizations as key challenges to be addressed successfully. 

Common features of this perspective are the emphasis on people, the endogenous vision of development, and the attention to power and rights issues.   Participatory approaches
require a shift in the way individuals are considered, from passive recipients to active agents of development efforts. 

In addition to poverty reduction, they include objectives in education, gender equality, and health issues. Most development priorities are outlined within political frameworks
based on the adherence to good governance and democratic principles (for example, freedom and human rights.
The major reasons for the adoption of this approach in development initiatives, maintaining that 
(1) services can be provided at a lower cost; 
(2) participation has intrinsic values for participants, alleviating feelings of alienation and powerlessness;
(3) participation is a catalyst for further development efforts; 
(4) participation leads to a sense of responsibility for the project; and 
(5) participation ensures the use of indigenous knowledge and expertise.

The participation is not an absolute concept, and that it can be applied in different degrees, is part of the problem. 
 A typology that includes seven different types of participation as interpreted and applied by various development organizations, The full categorization, the least participatory, 
 passive participation, 
 participation in information giving, 
 participation by consultation, 
 participation for material incentives, 
 functional participation,
 interactive participation, and 
 self-mobilization.

 (1) passive participation, when stakeholders attend meetings to be informed;

 (2) participation by consultation, when stakeholders are consulted but the decision making rests in the hands of the experts; 
(3) functional participation, when stakeholders are allowed to have some input, although not necessarily from the beginning of the process and not in equal partnership; and (4)
empowered participation, when relevant stakeholders take part throughout the whole cycle of the development initiative and have an equal influence on the decision-making
process.

Information sharing and consultation are considered low-level forms of participation, while the other two are considered high-level forms. These types are consistent with others,
such as the classification
In particular, participatory research methods allowed a growing role for local stakeholders and indigenous knowledge in the problem-analysis and problem-solving processes of
development initiatives.

The model of reference is significantly different from the traditional one, since it is now characterized by dialog and by a horizontal flow, enabling the balanced sharing of
perceptions and knowledge.
In this perspective, the  communication acquires a more interactive connotation aimed at facilitating participation and empowerment. Even when using mass media, messages can
be expected to originate from people themselves rather than from "outside experts" .

The World Bank (1995) identified four types of participation: 

(1) information sharing, 
(2) consultation,
 (3) collaboration, and 
(4) empowerment. 
Amartya Sen, the winner of the Nobel Prize for Economics, introduced the concept of capability deprivation to illustrate how poverty is not simply an income issue, but also and
especially a social issue. He considers income poverty and capability poverty to be two closely related dimensions because income greatly affects the capabilities of an individual,
and vice versa.
The deprivations deriving from feeling excluded from relevant decisions and from seeing limited available options can be successfully addressed through communication, since it
is by communicating that individuals perceive and define their conditions and construct their reality in social networks.

This approach facilitates people's involvement in the problem-analysis process, and it stimulates the "reversal of learning" from the rural poor to the experts.  They both share a
sincere concern for the empowerment of the poorest and the most disadvantaged sectors of society, which often tend to be in rural areas or on the periphery of urban agglomerates.
it claims that participatory research should not be neutral but should always side with the poor and the marginalized 

Features of Participatory approach

The emphasis on participation in development also implies increased attention to communication, because there can be no participation without communication, at least without a
certain type of communication. 

Finally, the participation mode also addresses poverty, or at least one of its key dimensions, in a direct way. Poverty is not simply the deprivation of basic material needs; it
concerns other significant dimensions of people's life. 
Social exclusion is one of the elements contributing to the overall poverty dimension. Eliminating or significantly reducing social exclusion, through the dialogic use of
communication, is a step toward a world without poverty. 

By engaging stakeholders who often have been excluded from any form of decision making in their lives and allowing them to engage in the decision-making process,
development communication not only reduces poor people's "capability.

Disadvantages
In other words, the added emphasis on participation helps to mainstream communication in many initiatives, and at the same time promotes a more dialogic and two-way
conception of communication.

 source: devComm sourcebook Paolo Mcfalopulos

http://www.ghwatch.org/sites/www.ghwatch.org/files/a.pdf

http://lalhmachhuana.tripod.com/mediaeffectstheory/emergence-of-alternative-paradigms-of-development-communication.html

Development Communication-Definition-goal 
  18:00      J.P Josephine Baba      2 comments
Development Communication is communication with a social conscience. Development communication is associated with rural problems, urban problems and takes humans into
account. 
It has two primary roles:
a transforming role, as it seeks social change in the direction of higher  utility of values ofsociety. 
 seeks to create an atmosphere for change, as well as providing innovations through which society may change.

Definition
Development communication has been defined in several ways by economic
development experts, sociologists and communication experts. The terminology developmentcommunication originated in Asia.  Definitions differ from region to region
depending on the definers view of development.
Nora Quebral (1975) defined development communication as the art
and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country frompoverty to a dynamic state of economic growth and makes possible greater economic
and social equality and the larger fulfilment of human potential.

Development Communication is communication with a social conscience.   It takes

humans into account.  Development communication is primarily associated with rural problems, but is also concerned with urban problems. It has two primary roles: a
transforming role, as it seeks social change in the direction of higher quality of values of society. In playing its roles, development communication seeks to create an atmosphere
for change, as well as providing innovations through which society may change.
  
Philosophy and goal of Development Communication
Three main ideas which define the philosophy of development communication and make it different from general communication are:

1.     Development communication is purposive  communication, it is value-laden; and it is pragmatic(dealing with things sensibly and realistically in a way that is based
on practica).  
2.     Development  communication is goal-oriented. The ultimate goal of development communication is a higher quality of life for the people of a society by social and political
change.

3.    The goal of development communication not consider only in economic terms, but also in terms of social, political, cultural, and moral values that make a person's life
whole, and that enable a person to attain his or her full potential. 

Development communication has to deal with two types of audience:

i)  bureaucracy, media practitioners and professionals, and
ii) the people i.e. the audience who can be informed or uninformed; educated or semi-literate or literate.

Wilbur Schramm (1964) was the first to recognize that communication could play an important role in the national development of the third world counties. He believed that
mass media could better the lives of people by supplementing the information resources and exposing people for learning opportunities. He conceptualized a relationship between
development communication and economic growth,which has been the main guiding paradigm for development programmes. He suggested that as economic activity spreads,
knowledge must be gathered more broadly.

source:  Global Media Journal – Indian Edition/ISSN 2249-5835

DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION: A PURPOSIVE
COMMUNICATION WITH SOCIAL CONSCIENCE - AN INDIAN
 PERSPECTIVE
Dr Rajesh Kumar

Prerequisites of Development Communication

  21:25      J.P Josephine Baba      No comments
There are two perspectives from which we need communication for development
communication‟s needs and audience‟s needs. 
The communicator may communicate by information and education, and thus motivate the masses.  
The audience may communicate for development information, making demands for development and asking solutions for development problems. These two perspectives suggest
certain prerequisites for development communication:
 (i) human and localized approach to communication rather than abstract and centralized;
(ii) credibility and role of communication links, and 
(iii) access to communication.

Development Threshold: 
Human and localized approach suggest that communication efforts should be tailored to the needs, psychological dispositions of people and the development threshold of people.
Development threshold” is significant for development communication. For example, there is a marked difference between the development threshold of rural and urban society,
between elites and masses, men and women within the urban and rural society. These differences in the threshold are termed as “development gap”. 

Development gap is identified with socio-economic gap, knowledge gap, and communication gap. Development gap suggests that people in different development thresholds need
different development communication handling for effective development. The development-gap hypothesis is that patterns of communication may lead the have–nots away from
the mainstream of development thus creating gap between the haves and the have-nots three sub factors: technical, theoretical and potential reach of the media; distribution of
media among people; and audience of the interpersonal infrastructure. The availability of mass-media, media institutions in a country itself is no guarantee that media will be used
by the people:
(i)                mass media are usually not available where they are needed the most for development purposes, 
(ii)              whatever media are available and are received usually do not carry the kind of information that might aid development, 
(iii)            the mass media content may not be relevant enough in a given situation to aid development and 
(iv)           even if functionally relevant information is available, the infrastructure and input may not be available.

For example  the participation in any development programme depends on the level of the motivation of people. The level of motivation depends on the perceived need-based
programmes and sustained community interest in the development  programmes. Motivation results from various supports which are built into the development programmes and
for the development programmes such as support from traditional value systems, leadership of community, experts and change agents. 
Source:- Global Media Journal – Indian Edition/ISSN 2249-5835
DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION: A PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION WITH SOCIAL CONSCIENCE - AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
Dr Rajesh Kumar

Approaches to Development Communication(Dev Com)

  23:41      J.P Josephine Baba      2 comments

There are varied approaches to handle development communication which are not
exclusive to each other. The main approaches are:
1. Diffusion/extension approach
2. Mass Media approach
3. Development support communication approach
4. Institutional  approach
5. Integrated approach
6. Localized approach to Dev Com
7. Planned strategy to Dev Com

Diffusion/ extension Approach to Development Communication:

The main focus of this approach is the adoption  of  technological and social innovations through diffusion of new ideas, services and products.  Diffusion of both material and
social innovations is necessary for development.  Material innovations refer to economic and technological innovations and social innovations pertain to social needs and structure.

The process of diffusion starts with the need of individual and community decisions for acceptance and rejection of innovations depend primarily on the needs of the adopters.
The resultant consequences of diffusion can be direct/indirect, latent/manifest, and functional/dysfunctional.  The early models of diffusion focussed only on material growth.  But
it was soon realized that social growth along with material growth was necessary for diffusion of products, ideas and services.  Therefore, diffusion decisions have to handle the
economic, technological and social constraints . 

Mass Media Approach Development Communication:  

A well-defined developed mass media and interpersonal communication infrastructure is necessary for development communication. It is necessary that these infrastructures
should be accessible to the people, both physically and socially. The content of the messages should be balanced.  The content should be both rural and urban oriented and
addressed to masses in both sectors. The messages should be need-based and they should appeal to the audience.

The integrated approach to development communication emphasizes the need to avoid duplication and waste in development efforts. The balance in the spread of
information facilities must be maintained both for rural and urban, backward and
prosperous areas.

Institutional approach focuses on education for development.

The emphasis is on literacy-universal education, adult education, formal and non-formal education. There is emphasis on need-based training and development – oriented
programmes conducive to development.

Development support communication: 

In the development context, communication strives not only to inform and educate but also to motivate people and secure public participation in the growth and change process.  A
widespread understanding of development plans is an essential stage in the public cooperation for national development.  

Development communication and development support communication are thus two different terms.
Development Communication communicates development messages to people for betterment of their economic and social conditions, where Development Support
Communication addresses development planning and the plan of operation for implementation.  But often these two terms are substituted for each other.

Planned Strategy for Development Communication:

The success of development communication depends on team approach, i.e. the coordination between the communication agencies (extension workers, radio, TV, Press, etc.) and
development agencies.  

Community-based communication system approaches may be evolved to ensure greater participation of local people in planning and production of communication material
which is community-based.  

Dominant Paradigm of Development

  06:30      J.P Josephine Baba      9 comments
 The western model for development predominated in 1950s and 1960s.  The modernization paradigm arose soon after World War II, in 1949. It envisioned
development as a challenge to bring the "underdeveloped countries" out of their conditions of poverty by modernizing them and by  by free-market approaches. 
The origin, principles, and applications of this paradigm should be considered within the historical context of the postwar years, also known as
the Cold War period. On that tine when world influence was polarized by two superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union. Their
influence reached every sphere of the international scenario, including development.  In this context, the modernization paradigm promoted by political
scientists and scholars of Western countries became so strong and so pervasive in every dimension of social life that it became also known as the "dominant paradigm."

Rogers (1960) called this the “dominant paradigm” of development as it exercised a dominant influence in the field of development. The
emphasis of this model was that development could be achieved by increased productivity, economic growth and industrialization, through
heavy industries, capital intensive technologies, urbanization, centralized planning. Development was measured by gross national product
(GNP), total or per capita income. There was a shift from a static, agricultural, primitive and rigid society to a dynamic, industrialized,
urbanized and socially mobile nation.

Daniel Lerner and Wilbur Schramm (1964) supported the dominant paradigm and advocated automation and technology for
development and change.  They made significant contributions in identifying the role of communication for technological development.  The
development community argued that the case of underdevelopment in the developing countries was not due to external causes but due to
internal causes present within the nation and the individual as well as within the social structure. 

Lerner and Schramm stressed that the individual was to be blamed to the extent that he was resistant to change and modernization,
whereas Rogers, Bordenave and Beltran (1976) argued that the social structural constraints like government bureaucracy, top-heavy land
tenure system, caste, exploitative linkages, etc. were to be blamed.

Lerner pointed that since the individual was identified as the cause of underdevelopment, he was also the starting point to bring about social
change. The modernization of the individual‟s traditional values became the priority task. Rogers pointed that no effort was made to change
the social structure though it had been identified as of the causes of underdevelopment. 

Lerner identified four indices of development: industrialization, literacy, media exposure and political participation. People have to be
mobile, empathetic,and participatory for development. Lerner (1958) suggested that media exposure, political participation and developing
psychic empathy are necessary for development.   Modern society is a participant society and it works by consensus.
Lerner‟s Communication Model for Development Thus, in the dominant paradigm the communication flow was one way which was top- down
vertical communication from the authorities to the people, the mass media channels were  used to mobilize the people for development and
the audience was assigned a passive role for acceptance of social change.

At the cultural level, modernization advocated for a change in the mindset of individuals in poor countries who had to abandon traditional
beliefs, considered an impediment toward modernization, and embrace attitudes and behaviors favorable to innovation and modernity
(Lerner 1958). 

At the technocratic level, modernization required people with inquisitive minds who were guided by faith in the scientific method and
rooted in the principles of enlightenment. 

At the political level, it required staunch advocates of the doctrine of liberalism based on political freedom and the adoption of democratic
systems.

 Finally, at the economic level, it required blind faith in the virtues and power of the free market, with no or minimal government
intervention.

Inter dependent Model of Development: In the 1970s, this approach was being critically reviewed. Several viewpoints were forwarded to
show why development did not work. One such approach is the “Interdependent Model”. The development philosophy of this approach is the
same as that of the dominant paradigm to the extent that the emphasis is on economic growth for development. The supporters of this
approach start with the assumption that development and underdevelopment are the two facets of the same process. One cannot understand
the nature and essentiality of one in isolation from the other.

The development philosophy of the dependency model is that foreign penetration, technology and information have created
underdevelopment rather than being a force for development. The economic and cultural dependency on developed countries shapes
the social and economic structures of many developing countries. Within this paradigm, the conception of development is a linear one based
on trust in science, reason, technology, and the free market. The main role of commu nication was to persuade people to embrace the core
values and practices of modernization. 

Disadvantage of Dominant Approach

Critics of this paradigm attacked its economic focus. In this approach over emphasized the power of individual countries and ignored the
elements such as colonization, past exploitation of resources and globalization. 

The Media communication & Modernization theory 

It is argued that the diffusion of the life-style of the developed country through mass media aggravates social inequality, because the
communication and diffusion of the modernized life-style is only among the rural and urban elites. But the consumerism created by the mass
media frustrates the poor as it does not fit in with their economic and social reality. The communication strategies suggested are: to educate
the people about the vicious nature and the stifling dependency relationships, to mobilize national and regional support communication
channels. They argue that mass media system in these countries is caught in the dependency relationships and at times actively supports
them. Therefore, communication strategies should serve the educational and  mobilizing functions.   Mass media could be employed
purposefully once structural transformation of society takes place

In the communication field, modernization theory led to the first systematic and rigorous attempts to research communication applications in the
development context. A few scholars started to devote increasing attention to communication processes and effects, among them Lasswell (1948), Katz and
Lazarfeld (1955), and Klapper (1960), while others, such as Lerner (1958), Rogers (1962), and Schramm (1964), became particularly interested in studying how
communication could be used to foster national development, which at that time was conceived predominantly in economic terms. 

Communication in the dominant paradigm is basically associated with the linear, mass media model aimed at transmitting information and messages from one point to another or
many others, usually in a vertical or top-down fashion. This idea was rooted in the strong belief in the persuasive power of media, especially until the 1970s. Development
communication was associated with the use of media to persuade people to achieve, maintain, and strengthen development goals, and media's role was paramount. UNESCO, for
example, considered media to be a crucial means for promoting change,' and in the 1960s.

Philosophy and goal of Development Communication

  07:41      J.P Josephine Baba      1 comment

Development Communication is communication with a social conscience. It takes humans into account. Development communication is primarily associated with
rural problems, but is also concerned with urban problems. It has two primary roles: a transforming role, as it seeks social change in the direction of higher  uality
of values of society.  Development communication seeks to create an atmosphere for change, as well as providing innovations through which society may change.

Definition
Development communication has been defined in several ways by economic
development experts, sociologists and communication experts.

The terminology development communication originated in Asia.  Definitions differ from region to region depending on the definers view of development. 

Nora Quebral (1975) defined development communication as the art

and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth and makes possible
greater economic and social equality and the larger fulfilment of human potential.
Development Communication is communication with a social conscience.   It takes

humans into account.  Development communication is primarily associated with rural problems, but is also concerned with urban problems. It has two primary
roles: a transforming role, as it seeks social change in the direction of higher quality of values of society. In playing its roles, development communication seeks to
create an atmosphere for change, as well as providing innovations through which society may change.

Philosophy and goal of Development Communication

Three main ideas which define the philosophy of development communication and make it different from general communication are:

1.  Development communication is purposive  communication, it is value-laden; and it is pragmatic.  In the development context, a tacit positive value is attached
to what one communicates about, which shall motivate the people for social change.

2. Development  communication is goal-oriented. The ultimate goal of development communication is a higher quality of life for the people of a society by
social and political change.

3. The goal of development communication is not purely in economic terms, but also in terms of social, political, cultural, and moral values that make
a person‟s life whole, and that enable a person to attain his or her full potential. The goal of development communication in a specific society will be influenced by
the ends and values of that society.

Development communication has to deal with two types of audience:

i) the communicators comprising development bureaucracy, media practitioners and professionals, and
ii) the people i.e. the audience who can be informed or uninformed; educated or semi-literate or literate.

communication Components(Strategy)
  19:22      J.P Josephine Baba      No comments

Strategic communication is uniquely situated to foster these development goals and help overcome some of the above challenges because it facilitates both individual level and
societal level changes. It consists of three key approaches advocacy, social mobilisation, and  programme communication also referred to as behaviour change communication.

Strategic Communication:  is an evidence-based, results-oriented process, undertaken in consultation with the participant group(s). It  linked to other programme elements,
considering the  local context,  and using of  multiplicity of communication approaches, to stimulate positive and measurable behaviour and social change.
Advocacy 

Advocacy: Influencing Heart and Minds of Decision Makers Successful advocacy strategies aim to influence decision makers at various levels; at international, regional, national
or district levels. Therefore, the advocacy component of the strategy should inform and motivate appropriate leaders to create a supportive environment for the programme by
taking actions such as: changing policies, allocating resources, speaking out on critical issues, and initiating public discussion.

Possible results of an advocacy intervention can be targeted leaders taking actions such as: 
■ Legal reform, or enactment of new law(s), or rules of business;
 ■ Policy decisions, formulation of and/or reform; 
■ Administrative directives, rules; and 
■ Resource mobilization, financial allocation. In addition, the advocacy component can build the capacity of leaders to become advocates themselves and speak out on issues
pertinent to the programme to: 
■ Strengthen political will and remove blockages; 
■ Change funding priorities; 
■ Support policy change; and
 ■ Address social barriers.

Social Mobilization
  Social mobilization is a process of harnessing selected partners to raise demand for or sustain progress toward a development objective.   Social mobilization enlists the
participation of institutions, community networks and social and religious groups to use their membership and other resources to strengthen participation in activities at the
grass-roots level.  
Examples of groups that may get involved in social mobilization include school teachers and students, religious groups, farmers' cooperatives, micro-credit groups, civil society
organizations, professional associations, women's groups and youth associations. Well-planned social mobilisation efforts also seek to empower communities to take control of
their own situations, including accepting or rejecting interventions.  Social mobilisation, integrated with other communication approaches, has been a key feature in numerous
communication efforts worldwide.

Whether formal or non-formal, organizations selected for social mobilization should be chosen according to the following criteria: 
■ Generally the group has a wide geographic spread over the country with a structure emanating from the national level down to lower levels of administration-to districts and
below. Its participation in a cause can be triggered and activated at the national level. 
■ The group is already known and accepted by the community targeted in the communication strategy. 
Core elements of successful social mobilisation efforts and illustrates two experiences from the South Asia region – Nepal and Bangladesh - in order to further the understanding
of effective planning of social mobilisation as an integral part of strategic communication processes.  Some prominent examples include: (a) Soul City’s campaign against
domestic violence in South Africa, (b) the UNICEF polio eradication campaign in Uttar Pradesh.

Communication material to support the work of social mobilizers includes something to identify their role in the campaign (caps, T-shirts, bags) as well as some simple
informational materials such as brochures or flash cards to help with message delivery.

Behaviour Change Communication 

Behaviour change communication involves face-to-face dialogue with individuals or groups to inform, motivate, problem-solve or plan, with the objective to promote behaviour
change. Modern technology has recently enhanced the scope and reach of behaviour development communication such as radio and television 'talk shows' with phone-ins
allowing for dialogue on a wider scale. The backbone of developing the behaviour change communication component of the strategy comes from a combination of data,
participant and behavioural analyses and community input.
■ Which communication objectives need individualized information and problem-solving to be achieved (e.g. persuading caregivers of the importance of fully vaccinating their
children) 
■ Who are the most appropriate participants to conduct inter-personal communication (e.g. service providers, peer educators, NGO and government frontline workers, health
workers, community leaders) 
■ How will chosen communicators use inter-personal communication-(e.g. through programme activities, community meetings, house to house visits, during health clinic
visits) 
■ What is the capacity to undertake inter-personal communication (e.g. preparation could include sharing technical knowledge, communication skills training and encouraging
the development of an appropriateoward the participant group being contacted) 
■ How can the inter-personal communication activities of front line workers or volunteers be sustained? (e.g. what resources and activities are necessary for their continued
motivation and support)

 ■ Have appropriate messages and materials been developed (e.g. messages which have been developed using community participation, problem solving, and dialogue) 

Rogers' Diffusion of Innovation communication

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The diffusion model is rooted in the modernization paradigm, characterized by the intent to use communication media and methods to persuade people to change specific
behaviors. Diffusion approaches believe progress is achieved by inducing change in individuals' attitudes and behaviors. This approaches linked to the participatory model, instead,
acknowledge that there can be different constructions of the same reality. No one single party has the ultimate truth; rather, there are a number of realities that often need to be
reconciled through communication. This theoretical framework grows out of the constructivist perspective and carries a number of implications.

 The diffusion mode is more media- and message-oriented, while the participation mode is more about dialog, investigation, and analysis. By necessity, the devel-
opment communication specialist needs to be conversant with research methods of both modalities. In the initial phases of development projects and programs—
inception, preparation, and design—familiarity with empirical investigation techniques and approaches often becomes more important than familiarity with
communication media and messages.

Diffusion
Rogers (Rogers, 2005, p. 5) defines diffusion as "the process in which an innovation is communicated though certain channels over time among the members of a
social system." There are four key elements that make up this definition. These interacting factors include ‘innovation’, ‘communication’, ‘time’ and ‘social system’.

 Diffusion of Innovation includes both spontaneous spread of new ideas and a planned method of propagating a new idea (Rogers, 2005, p. 6).
Four Elements of Diffusion of Innovation
Innovation
 Rogers (2005, p. 12) defines Innovation as "an idea, practice or object that has perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption." First time knowledge
about a well-established practice can be perceived as ‘new,’ and an innovation, for that particular group of individuals. As Rogers said, "newness can be
expressed in terms of knowledge, persuasion or a decision to adopt." It is incorrect to assume that all innovations are beneficial and that all innovations are equally
adopted. The main characteristics of an innovation that significantly affect its adoption (or rejection) are (1) relative advantage (2) compatibility (3) complexity (4)
trialability (5) observability. These factors will be discussed later in the chapter.
Communication Channels
Communication plays a significant role in the spread of ideas and exchange of information.  As defined by Rogers (2005, p. 18), communication is the "process by
which participants create and share information with one another to reach a mutual understanding." By means of a communication channel, messages are
transmitted from one individual to another. The two most powerful communication channels are the mass media and interpersonal communication. The former
helps in creating awareness and spreading knowledge about an innovation, whereas, the latter is effective in creating an opinion and possible adoption or rejection
of the innovation. Most effective communication takes place between individuals who have similar backgrounds such as education, socio-economic status, so
forth. Such a communication is called homophilic. But, often, in diffusion of innovation, heterophilic communication occurs between an individual who has better
knowledge and understanding of the innovation to an individual with lesser awareness.
Time
Time is an important factor in studying diffusion research. Time is involved in various phases of the diffusion process, namely (1) the innovation decision process;
(2 )the individual innovativeness, i.e., the time taken for an individual to accept/reject an innovation as compared to others; and (3) the rate of adoption of the
innovation. These intermediate time bound steps are explained later in the chapter.
Social System
A social system has a definite structure, defined as the patterned arrangements of the units in a system (Rogers, 2005, p. 25) and a set of norms.  Hence, it is
clear diffusion and adoption of innovation are greatly affected by the social system and the characteristics of the individual units of that system.
Innovation and Rate of Adoption
 When any new idea is brought to our attention, the foremost tendency as humans is to put it under the microscope and dissect it. This helps us carefully
understand the related features, advantages and disadvantages. It helps us make a mental picture and comprehend the innovation better. This is where the
importance of understanding the attributes of an innovation comes to picture, which then affects its rate of adoption.
 Rogers (2005) defined the rate of adoption as “the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by members of a social system”.  For instance, personal and
optional innovations usually are adopted faster than the innovations involving an organizational or collective innovation-decision. Moreover, the cumulative function
of the rate of adoption of an innovation is an S-Shaped curve. The S-shaped curve rises very slowly in the beginning, which implies only a few adopters. It
gradually increases and then shoots up to a maximum when more than half of the adopters have adopted. It continues to rise gradually, but slowly, signifying the
group of people left to adopt the innovation.
These attributes of innovation are relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability,and observability (Rogers, 2005, p. 16).
Relative Advantage
Rogers (2005, p. 219) defines relative advantage as "the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes."  For early
adopters, innovators, and early majority social status is a highly motivating factor. The greater the relative advantages of an innovation, the greater its rate of
adoption. For example, to integrate technology into education, teachers should first see its usefulness and that it betters their instruction for them to use technology
(Finley, 2003). Once the adopter sees the relative advantages of an innovation, the adopter generally perceives how compatible the innovation is to their current
situation. This brings us to the next attribute.
Compatibility
Compatibility is defined as "the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be consistent with the existing value system, past experiences, and needs of
potential adopters."  The more compatible an innovation is, the greater the rate of adoption. 
Complexity
Some innovations are easy to understand and use while others are more difficult to comprehend. In general, the more complex an innovation, the lower the
chance of it being adopted. Complexity is defined as the "degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to understand and use." 
Trialability
Trialability is the "degree to which an innovation can be experimented on with a limited basis." When an innovation can be tried, it increases its chances of
adoption. An innovation is changed according to the user feedback during the trial phase. Similarly, most of the pharmaceutical drugs have to cross a mandatory
trial phase before their actual market launch. In general, adopters wish to benefit from the functional effects of an innovation, but avoid any dysfunctional effects.
However, Trialability may reduce the rate of adoption.
Observability
The last characteristic of an innovation is observability, defined as "the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others." This is positively related
to the rate of adoption. When we see our peers using a new technological gizmo, we are more likely to buy and try it out on our own. This shows that ideas easily
observed and communicated are more likely to be adopted.

Innovation-Decision Process
This is a process that happens over time where all pros and cons of an innovation are examined and a decision is gradually reached upon either accepting or
rejecting the innovation. It consists of 5 stages: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation.
Knowledge Stage
This is the stage when the users or possible adopters first hear about the existence of the innovation, and then gain knowledge and understanding about its
various functions. There are three types of knowledge associated with these questions: 
(a) Awareness-Knowledge: When a possible adopter seeks information regarding what the innovation is all about, has inquisitiveness that falls under the first
category of knowledge. This may also motivate other adopters to seek similar information about the innovation and also lead them to ask further questions.
 (b) How-to-Knowledge: This type of knowledge enlightens the users about how to correctly use an innovation.  If the user has proper and correct how-to
knowledge before the trial and adoption of the innovation, it increases the likelihood of its adoption. 
(c) Principle-Knowledge: Lack of principle knowledge may lead to misuse of an innovation and subsequent discontinuance of the same. By all this know-how
knowledge, individuals are in a better position to judge the effectiveness of any innovation. But being equipped with all this knowledge does not guarantee the
adoption of the innovation as it also depends on the attitude of the individual towards it.
Persuasion Stage
In the persuasion stage, an individual forms a favorable or an unfavorable attitude towards an innovation, but this attitude does not necessarily lead to adoption or
rejection of the innovation.  Rogers states that the former is more cognitive or knowing, whereas the latter is more affective or feeling. It is the integral step where
the user starts forming a perception about the innovation and hence, more intricately and psychologically involved.  The user continues to seek information about
the innovation.
Decision Stage
In the decision stage, the individual puts his knowledge and opinion into practice and decides whether to adopt or reject an innovation. Adoption is the decision "to
make full use of the innovation as the best course of action available" and rejection implies not to adopt an innovation. 
Implementation Stage
Implementation occurs when the innovation is put into practice. A person gathers all necessary information regarding the innovation and comes to a decision of
adopting (or rejecting) it. Finally, in this stage it is put into practice.  The role of change agents is significant here as technical advisors as they answer various
questions regarding the innovation. Implementation is a more challenging process when an organization is involved as the users are different sets of people, and
often, different than the deciders. 
Confirmation Stage
The Confirmation stage involves the reinforcement of the adoption decision and integration of the new innovation within the framework of existing practices. It is
also possible that the individual also decides to reverse his decision of adoption, if he comes across any conflicting views about the innovation.  For instance, mail
via post has almost been replaced by e-mail correspondence; and (2) Disenchantment discontinuance is one where an innovation is rejected due to lack of

performance.

Major Programming Trends Television

  23:42      J.P Josephine Baba      No comments
Television programming began by borrowing genres from radio such as variety shows, sitcoms, soap operas, and newscasts. Starting in 1955. The two major branches of TV
programming: entertainment and information. the two were once more distinct.
TV Entertainment: Our  Comic Culture
TV comedy is usually delivered in three formats: sketch comedy, situation comedy (sitcom), and domestic comedy.
Sketch Comedy
Sketch comedy, or short comedy skits, was a key element in early TV variety shows, which also included singers, dancers, acrobats, animal acts, and stand-up comics.  
Sketch comedy, though, had some major drawbacks. The hour-long variety series in which these skits appeared were more expensive to produce than half-hour sitcoms. Also, skits
on the weekly variety shows used up new routines very quickly. 
Situation Comedy
Until recently, the most dependable entertainment program on television has been the half-hour comedy series . The situation comedy, or sitcom, features a recurring cast; each
episode establishes a narrative situation, complicates it, develops increasing confusion among its characters, and then usually resolves the complications.
 Characters are usually static and predictable, and they generally do not develop much during the course of a series. Such characters "are never troubled in profound ways." Stress,
more often the result of external confusion rather than emotional anxiety, "is always funny."

DOMESTIC COMEDIES
Domestic Comedy   focus on character relationships, but they often also reflect social and cultural issues of the time  in which the show is set.  For example, ABC's Modern
Family  features three generations of a family that includes members of different ages, ethnicities, sexual orientations, and marital statuses.

Characters and settings are usually more important than complicated corners. Although an episode might offer a goofy situation as a subplot, more typically the main narrative
features a personal problem or family crisis that characters have to resolve. Greater emphasis is placed on character development than on reestablishing the order that has been
disrupted by confusion. 
Today, domestic comedies may also mix dramatic and comedic elements. This blurring of serious and comic themes marks a contemporary hybrid, sometimes labeled dramedy.

TV Entertainment: Our Dramatic Culture

Because the production of TV entertainment was centered in Chennai City in its early days, many of its ideas, sets, technicians, actors, and directors came from theater.   The TV
dramas that grew from these early influences fit roughly into two categories: the antholy drama and the episodic series.

Anthology Drama
Anthology dramas brought live dramatic theater to that television audience. Influenced by stage plays, anthologies offered new, artistically significant teleplays (scripts written
for television), casts, directors, writers, and sets from one week to the next. Ex: Gracy Mohan and Balumahendra.
The anthology' drama on television ended for both economic and political reasons. First, advertisers disliked anthologies because they often presented stories containing complex
human problems that were not easily resolved.    A second reason for the demise of anthology dramas was a change in audience. Anthology dramas were not as popular in this
newly expanded market.
Third, anthology dramas were expensive to produce—double the cost of most other TV genres in the 1950s. Each week meant a completely new story line, as well as new writers,
casts, and expensive sets. Sponsors and networks came to realize that it would be less expensive to use the same cast and set each week, and it would also be easier to build
audience allegiance with an ongoing program.
Finally, anthologies that dealt seriously with the changing social landscape were sometimes labeled "politically controversial." Eventually, both sponsors and networks came to prefer
less controversial programming. 
 Episodic Series
Abandoning anthologies, producers and writers increasingly developed episodic series, first used on radio in 1929. In this format, main characters continue from week to week,
sets and locales remain the same, and technical crews stay with the program. The episodic series comes in two general types:  Chapter shows and serial programs.
Chapter shows are self-contained stories with a recurring set of main characters who confront a problem, face a series of conflicts, and find a resolution. This structure can be used
in a wide range of sitcoms and dramatic genres, including adult westerns like Gunsmoke (1955-75); police/detective shows like CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (2000- ) In contrast
to chapter shows,
serial programs are open-ended episodic shows; that is, most story lines continue from episode to episode. Cheaper to produce than chapter shows, employing just a few 

Another type of drama is the hybrid, which developed in the early 1980s with the appearance of Hill Street Blues (1981-87). Often mixing comic situations and grim plots, this
multiple-cast show looked like an open-ended soap opera. 

Reality TV and Other Enduring Trends

Up to this point, we have focused on long-standing TV program trends, but many other genres have played major roles in TV's history, both inside and outside prime time. Talk
shows like the Tonight Show (1954- ) have fed our curiosity about celebrities and politicians, and offered satire on politics and business

The Role of Media, & Information and Communication Technologies in Development Communication
  20:50      J.P Josephine Baba      No comments
Information and communication technologies (ICTs; the Internet, satellites, mobile phones, wireless computers, and so forth) play a major role in development
communication initiatives. The use of media in development can be treated at two levels: mass media, often using television, radio, and print media in
campaigns aimed at inducing the adoption of innovations or other changes in behaviors; and community media, mainly using radio and other folk expressions
such as theater, concerned with giving voice and representation to the various segments of local communities. Media within a country into three groups:
private, public, and community. Such a classification seems to better reflect the different nature, scope, and range of functions included within the broader
media system. In the past, media systems were considered key elements in supporting the national development of poorer countries.

The media influence is not as strong as originally believed, especially if it does not take the local context into account. For instance, the community radio that has
emerged in recent years is often more empowering and influential than the more celebrated medium of television, at the local level. The blind faith placed on media
in the past as a means to push development in poorer countries resembles the current hype for ICTs. The rise of more sophisticated communication and
information technologies, such as satellites or the Internet, has opened new horizons and opportunities. But it  has not only increased the penetration of mass
media, for instance, through satellites, but it has also created new opportunities to enhance communication at the local level utilizing technologies. The
establishment of "tele centers" in rural areas is spreading in many countries as a way to support local development in the social and economic dimension.
However, to avoid past mistakes, media and ICTs, powerful as they are, should always be considered as tools to be used within the context of the broader social and
communication environment. The effectiveness and value of ICTs and other new communication technologies are determined by the way they are selected and
utilized. The research element of the communication strategy is crucial in determining the best and most effective use of media and ICTs.

There are some critical factors to consider before adopting them. These factors can be divided in three basic categories: economic, technological, and cultural. 

From an economic point of view, there are high costs associated with the software and the hardware components of ICTs for individuals in developing countries,
placing these commodities outside the reach of most people. In the case of the Internet, there are also access and connectivity costs to consider. liberation and
privatization taking place in this sector in many developing countries can be a limiting factor for marginalized sectors of society, "The development of ICTs by the
private sector fails in bridging the gap between the rich and the poor. The poor who are marginalized—and in some cases physically isolated—remain
disconnected from the rest of society. 

From a technological point of view, it is difficult to ensure the proper operation of such technologies in places where there are no phone or electric lines. In many
countries, users need basic training in computer use, and prior to that, literacy skills to communicate effectively on the Internet.

From a cultural point of view, there are also a number of constraints. The language in which most of the information is available on the Internet can pose a barrier. In
1999, a survey concluded that about 86 percent of all Web pages are in English (Thussu 2000), thus precluding access to information for many users. Additionally,
given the high illiteracy rate of many areas of developing countries, many potential users are excluded from the start. Even when language barriers are overcome,
often cultural issues remain crucial in gaining fundamental knowledge and the needed frame of mind in order to take full advantage of the power of these
technologies.

The digital divide—the division between those who have access to modern information technologies and those who don't—has become a hot one in recent
years. Many development workers believe that ICTs can be the right answer to leapfrog developing countries toward a better future. The enthusiasm for these
technologies is reflected in the demand for universal connectivity (Sachs 2005), but connectivity and access are only some of the issues that need to be
addressed.

Many studies on the digital divide show that the information poverty gap between the have and have-nots is still a wide one , and it does not seem to be
decreasing in any significant way.  Despite such shortcomings, however, media and ICTs can and do play a major role in development communication. In addition
to the widely used information dissemination functions, technologies such as the Internet also have the potential to support the horizontal processes of
communication. 
Source Developement communication source book paolo mefalopulos
Communication Strategy Design
  21:22      J.P Josephine Baba      No comments

Development is all about change. Development to be achieved effectively, that change must be agreed to by, and not imposed on, relevant stakeholders or
audiences.

Before entering into the various elements of the strategy, the communication specialist should  decide which type of communication mix is needed,  which
communication approaches, media, or messages would be most effective to achieve the intended change, and the development communication specialist must
look back into the research findings. 

Every design of a communication strategy is unique in content, methods, and media.  To design an effective strategy, a professional needs well-defined,
specific, and appropriate objectives that is, based on research, as well as in-depth knowledge in the systems of beliefs, perceptions,
and knowledge of the specific issues are all need to be known.  
Core Elements in Designing a Strategy
Main Steps of Communication Strategy Design

1. Defining Objectives: The Key Step

Objectives are the core of the strategy, also each element is important and should be carefully considered. Because each is linked to the others and can affect the
final outcome. Most of the success of a communication strategy depends on the way the objectives are identified and formulated.  In designing a communication
strategy depends largely on the complexity of the objectives. For instance, a project at a national level may  require different types of communication (corporate,
advocacy, and development communication) Your objectives are the key to the success of your communications strategy. They should ensure that your
communications strategy is organizationally driven rather than communications driven.  To make strategy design easier, the objectives should be as SMART as
possible. that is specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and timely (SMART). 
All communication objectives should be SMART 
1. Simple and clear 
2. Measurable 
3. Achievable
 4. Reasonable
5. Time and location specific 
 For example, a communication objective might express knowledge or social change. If the programme does not have clear behavioural objectives or the
objectives do not clearly express social and behavioural change.  
 Objectives will be easier to monitor and evaluate if they are structured using clear, action words that lend themselves to measurement.   A development of
communication objectives starting with the corresponding programme objectives. 

Programme objectives for: 

“You must know that the basic purpose of development is to enlarge people’s choices and create an environment for people to enjoy long, healthy and creative
lives.
 Let us list some of the core areas of development. 
 Agriculture 
 Fisheries 
Animal Husbandry 
 Food Security 
 Communication 
  Environment 
 Income generation activities 
 Education 
 Health and Sanitation 
Family welfare

2. Determining an audiences and Stakeholder Groups

Identifying target audiences
Determining the target audience 
• Who do you want to hear or see your target message?
 Who needs to receive your message? 
• Do you have primary, secondary or tertiary audiences? 
• What is your purpose for reaching the audience? 
 • Do you have the necessary resources to reach your target audience?
 • What are you prepared to invest to achieve your desired result? 
• Does your target audience have any special needs? For example, do they have low literacy rates, limited access to media, or disabilities that may prevent them
from receiving your message?
 • Become familiar with your target audience. Depending on your communication aim and objectives, you might want to know: Age and other demographic
characteristics, o Geographical location, Problems they want to solve,ducational needs/gaps,  Recreational or leisure interests,  Where the audience likes to get
new information.
Target Audience Target audiences are the groups of people that you want to receive your message. Determining  target audience is an essential part of
formulating a successful communication strategy.  After figuring out who your target audience is, the next step is to determine the importance of each audience.
Looking at it from a different perspective, the rank of importance could be how much you need the audience .  In order to select the most appropriate media
and to design a message effectively, the communication specialist needs to know the norms, values of reference, actions, and aspirations of the audience. This
can be achieved by adopting a high degree of empathy and doing proper research. Communicating the scientifically correct information is seldom enough to
change audiences' attitudes and behaviors.

Primary targets audience are those who have the power to effect the changes the campaign calls for. They need to be influenced in order to reach the campaign
goal. 

The secondary target audience. Local leaders and opinion-makers, including mass media and religious or other traditional authorities, are key secondary
targets in most campaigns because of their power to influence large numbers of people, as well as those who are in a position to make change. In complicated or
complex campaigns.

Determining the target audience 

• Who do you want to hear or see your target message?
 Who needs to receive your message? 
• Do you have primary, secondary or tertiary audiences? 
• What is your purpose for reaching the audience? 
 • Do you have the necessary resources to reach your target audience?
 • What are you prepared to invest to achieve your desired result? 
• Does your target audience have any special needs? For example, do they have low literacy rates, limited access to media, or disabilities that may prevent them
from receiving your message?
 • Become familiar with your target audience. Depending on your communication aim and objectives, you might want to know: Age and other demographic
characteristics, o Geographical location, Problems they want to solve,ducational needs/gaps,  Recreational or leisure interests,  Where the audience likes to get new
information. 

source file

3. Definition of type/Levels of Change

The communication objectives of approaches within the monologic mode imply a level of change that usually falls within one of the following categories:
awareness, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors (or practices) or AKAB. 
Sometimes there is the need to address a change more on a social level, such as mobilizing communities to play an active part in the decentralization effort,
having different groups of stakeholders collaborating on a common initiative, or mediating a conflict that has negative repercussions on the social development of
the area. Such change is usually addressed by dialogic approaches.

4. Selecting Channel
A deliberate media strategy is needed to identify and effectively use appropriate media. To conducting a situation analysis, defining clear goals, planning action,
and deciding how to monitor the process and outcomes of the media strategy. 

The analysis should include a thorough mapping of the media environment, to review existing media and identify the communication channels which are
most likely to reach each of your target audiences or audience segments.
• Communication channels
• Quantity and quality of media outlets; type of media outlet
• News cycles: 24-hours (like the BBC or CNN), daily (many newspapers), weekly, monthly (many magazines) etc.
• Popularity; levels of readership or viewership
• Types of readership or viewership (e.g. age group, education level)
• Levels of access by target audience(s)
• Ideological or other leanings (e.g. media that adopt a certain religious leaning, or that are for/against a particular political party)
• Non-traditional media outlets: new mediums (e.g. online news sites, blogs), alternative media (not mainstream, NGO-led, including community media outlets)
5. Basics of Message Design

In development, message design should be first and foremost about listening in order to understand and ensure that messages convey what is relevant and
needed by stakeholders in a given situation. 
(1) the content design for messages to persuade individuals to change,
(2) the design of materials to stimulate open-ended discussions between different groups of stakeholders,
(3) the design of messages to promote or advocate specific issues, such as public reforms, and

In order to ensure the effectiveness of the desired outputs, when defining or supervising the design of messages, the following basic factors, derived mostly
from Designing Messages for Development Communication, should be kept in mind.

Socio cultural sensitivity—Content and presentation should be appropriate for the cultural environment. In a number of cases, cultural issues, not content,
were the main cause of a campaign failure. In one case, a campaign was encouraging women to vaccinate their children so they could have healthier and
longer lives. But the color of the campaign posters was white, which in that particular culture sym bolizes death and mourning. It is not difficult to see why the
posters were not so effective.

Language appropriateness—This theme overlaps with cultural sensitivity; but it deserves special attention because it is often neglected. To be effective, it is
not so important that messages be grammatically correct or expressed in a scientifically appropriate manner but that they convey the take-away message in a
way that relates to audiences' way of life and understanding.

Political compatibility—The degree of free expression and transparency varies significantly among countries.    professionals should be able as much as
possible to avoid confrontations that could be detrimental to the achievement of the agreed-upon objectives.

Psychological appropriateness—It is imperative that each message resonates with its specific audience. Each message should have a specific appeal that
catches audiences' attention. Appeals can be diverse in approach and nature. They can be rational—highlighting safety; economic effectiveness, health, and
other similar issues, or emotional—appealing to ambition, attraction, fear, embarrassment, romance, or a sense of belonging. 

6. Outputs/Result:
Outputs can include the reach of broadcast or other mass media, message recall, number of household visits,  degree of use of communication skills by workers, number of
community action plans developed, etc. Outcomes would be any resulting knowledge or behaviour change in any participant group: parents bringing children for complete
vaccination over time, local leaders supporting programme activities through specific actions, more women breastfeeding exclusively, timely care seeking for children with
respiratory infections, zero open defecation, more dialogue between adolescents and parents (on specified topics). Impact is the ultimate change in a beneficiary's quality of life
such as, lower mortality of neonates, lower rates of child marriage and use of dowry, polio free country, higher school completion rates and improved learning competencies, etc.
Many factors beyond communication contribute to these results- less corruption.

The communication strategy will now have accomplished the following: 

■ The participant groups involved in the programme intervention will be identified-primary, secondary and tertiary.
 ■ Through research, which has used as much as possible, community participation, will have revealed a lot about the social and cultural issues influencing participants'
behaviours. 
■ The behaviours and practices to promote and change will have become clear. 
■ The channels and media will have been selected according to participants, behaviours and social norms to be changed, complexity of messages, and so on.
■ Communication components will be strategically selected and adapted to achieve each communication objective. 
■ Communication indicators of intermediate outcomes will be identified. The strategy document should be disseminated in the draft stage for comments from the Communication
Coordination Group and other key stakeholders; and in its finished form, to a wider circle of stakeholders, counterparts and partners. 

Media Literacy
  20:06      J.P Josephine Baba      No comments

"Media literacy refers to the knowledge skills and competencies that are required in order to use and interpret the media.  It is morethan functional literacy the
ability to sense the programme. It uses an inquiry-based instructional model that encourages people to ask questions about what they watch, see and read. Media
literacy education is one means of developing media literacy. It provides tools to help people critically analyze messages to detect propaganda, censorship,
and bias in news and public affairs programming (and the reasons for such), and to understand how structural features -- such as media ownership, or its funding
mode  affect the information presented.

Media literacy aims to enable people to be skillful creators and producers of media messages, both to facilitate an understanding as to the strengths and limitations
of each medium, as well as to create independent media.

Media literacy is an expanded conceptualization of literacy. By transforming the process of media consumption into an active and critical process, people gain
greater awareness of the potential for misrepresentation and manipulation  and understand the role of mass media and participatory media in constructing views of
reality."

Media literacy a form of critical  literacy. It involves analysis evaluation and critical reflection. It entails the acquisition of meta language that is means of describing 
the forms and structures of different modes of communication. It leads to broader knowledge of the social, economic and institutional contexts of communication
and how these affect people's experiences and practices. Media literacy includes the ability to use and interpret media also analytical understanding.
Framing and Media
  21:52      J.P Josephine Baba      No comments
Definition
Framing is defined as “the action, method, or process, of constructing making or shaping anything whether material or immaterial”.
 Framing comes from the word frame, which has many definitions. The most pertinent one, in this case, is “to share, one’s thoughts, actions, powers, etc. to a
certain purpose” (Frame, 1989, p. 142). 
Framing: refers to how messages are encoded with meaning so that they can be efficiently interpreted in relationship to existing beliefs or ideas. 

Framing and the agenda setting 

The media was viewed as having the ability to directly persuade and influence audiences . The audience was viewed as passive, simply allowing the media to
inject it with ideas.  Research began with McCombs and Shaw’s  found that if news media paid attention to certain issues then viewers rated those issues as more.
This was referred to as agenda-setting. Agenda setting refers to the idea that there is a strong correlation between the emphasis that mass media place on certain
issues (e.g., based on relative placement or amount of coverage) and the importance attributed to these issues by mass audiences 

 Framing is often associated with agenda-setting research. Agenda-setting is primarily concerned with the media telling people which stories to think about. 
However, framing is  cleared that the news media not only tells people what to think about but also how to think about.   It is based on the assumption that how an
issue is characterized in news reports can have an influence on how it is understood by audiences. Framing is often traced back to roots in both psychology and
sociology .Framing therefore is both a macrolevel and a microlevel construct (Scheufele, 1999). As a macroconstruct, the term ‘‘framing’’ refers to modes of
presentation that journalists and other communicators use to present information in a way that resonates with existing underlying schemas among their
audience.Framing an issue in terms of financial risks versus social consequences, for example, has little to do with differences in the mode of presentation.

Views of Framing
Framing can be looked at in two main ways- frame-building and frame-setting . 
The term frame-building refers to “the factors that influence the structural qualities of news frames.” Framing is applied to how journalists select stories, facts, etc.
News frames are formed through internal factors like occupational constraints of journalists, particularly editorial policies and news values and also through
external factors like interactions between journalists and elites . Frames inevitably highlight some issues but downplay others . Journalists frame stories in
particular ways in order to get people to either read or view. These important factors influence how a frame is built.

Frame-setting is “the interaction between media frames and individuals’ prior knowledge and dispositions . In particular, the way a story is framed can affect what
appears as most important, who the victim appears to, who is to blame, etc..

Framing is a quality of communication that leads others to accept one meaning over another. It is the process by which a communication source defines and
constructs an issue or controversy. Because issues are often complicated, and require the processing of a great deal of information from a variety of perspectives,
frames provide a shorthand understanding of a situation, by focusing only on those features deemed important by the particular individual involved. Frames are
therefore interpretive devices that all people use when making sense of the world around them. They aid us in making the difficult task of processing complex and
often cumbersome information about our social world much simpler, by focusing our attention only on certain features that we feel are important. All individuals use
frames to aid in deciding where and how we fit into the issue and what, if anything, we can do in response. Just as a picture frame is used to create a border
around a painting or photograph to crop out unimportant features of the image, an issue frame is used by individuals to crop out particular features of the issue,
and to highlight what they feel is important. 

This process of emphasizing certain features of the issue by cropping or downplaying less prominent features allows the most important information to be filtered
out from the large pile of information surrounding the dispute. However, different people see certain dimensions of issues in very different ways. What may be of
primary importance to one stakeholder may not be important at all to another. Though framing provides a shorthand filtering of essential information, it also can
generate conflicts through differing interpretations of a dispute, and disagreements over the importance of its component parts. 

Language helps us to remember information and acts to transform the way in which we view situations. To use language, people must have thought and reflected
on their own interpretive frameworks and those of others. Fairhurst and Sarr (1996) described the following Framing Techniques:
 • Metaphor: To give an idea or program a new meaning by comparing it to something else. 
• Stories (myths and legends): To frame a subject by anecdote in a vivid and memorable way.
 • Traditions (rites, rituals and ceremonies): To pattern and define an organization at regular time increments to confirm and reproduce organizational values. 
• Slogans, jargon and catchphrases: To frame a subject in a memorable and familiar fashion.
 • Artifacts: To illuminate corporate values through physical vestiges (sometimes in a way language cannot). 
• Contrast: To describe a subject in terms of what it is not. 
• Spin: to talk about a concept so as to give it a positive or negative connotation

Framing is a useful tool for analysis, because it allows us to view the particular frames that people use when examining a particular issue. If we come to
understand the various frames that individuals use to distinguish important from unimportant information, then we can achieve a better understanding of why
people take the positions that they do, and we can learn about how and why people respond as they do when interpreting a particular situation. 
How news media outlets frame stories. 
Particularly when dealing with political issues, the media frames things in an episodic way or a thematic . An episodic frame focuses of a single, specific event or
issue at hand, whereas a thematic frame places issues and events on a larger, more analytical level. Thematic frames are much less common.  Usually  political
and election stories are framed in an episodic way, focusing on winning and losing, using a game or competition schema, emphasizing candidates’ style, and
highlighting polls .
In 1991, the gulf war dominated media coverage, pushing Bush’s approval ratings to 90% after the war--the highest rating in American history. A short 12 months
later, Bush was defeated at the polls. How could one of the most popular presidents in American history lose a subsequent election? There was no publicised
scandal, no political gaffe, no international blunder that could explain Bush’s misfortunes. 

 Media Framing: 
Media framing is the process by which an issue is portrayed in the news media. Media frames provide boundaries around a news story and determine what is and
is not newsworthy or notable. Journalists rely on media frames to decide what to include in a story and what to leave out, a process that may be conscious,
instinctive or culture-bound. Just as a picture frame may draw attention to certain details and relegate other elements to the background, a media frame may draw
a viewer's attention to specific parts of a journalist's news story, de-emphasize other parts, and leave out some aspects completely.

 • Media Framing and Youth: When applied to issues affecting children and youth, the way news is framed-the visuals, symbols, inference and language-can
trigger two pictures:(1) one picture is of self-absorbed, potentially violent, amoral teenagers; and (2) the other picture is of inexperienced junior adults
experimenting with identity in order to assume their role in the community. This act of framing can predispose policymakers and voters to prioritize the allocation of
public resources in different ways. In this case, voters may choose prisons over education and volunteer programs. • Gregory Bateson: Anthropologist who fir

The internet & framing

 With the advent of the internet, people can be exposed to many different frames because of the infinite amount of information available online .  These frames may
compete with each other giving a more holistic view of a story or issue .   However, the audience also plays a greater role in selecting media and which frames
they are exposed to when using the internet which could result in exposure to similar frames and attitude reinforcement .

Counter framing

Counterframing occurs when the news media alter a previous narrative.  This has been studied recently about the Iraq War .  The news media began framing the
war in a positive way,  but its frame became much more negative as time . 
The internet website, Nikebiz.net as an extension of the Nike corporation, is a good example of both the use of framing and counter framing.. So, counterframing
and framing happens within mediated channels of discourse; however, they are not restricted to news media and the internet is afffecting the ways in which
messages are constructed and consumed . 

Version 1: Rats Bite Infant An infant left sleeping in his crib was bitten repeatedly by rats while his 16- year-old mother went to cash her welfare check. A neighbor
responded to the cries of the infant and brought the child to Central Hospital where he was treated and released in his mother’s custody. The mother, Angie Burns
of the South End, explained softly, “I was only gone five minutes. I left the door open so my neighbor would hear him if he woke up. I never thought this would
happen in the daylight. “ 

Version 2: Rats Bite Infant: Landlord, Tenants Dispute Blame An eight-month-old South End boy was treated and released from Central Hospital yesterday after
being bitten by rats while he was sleeping in his crib. Tenants said that repeated requests for extermin-ation had been ignored by the landlord, Henry Brown.
Brown claimed that the problem lay with tenants’ improper disposal of garbage. “I spend half my time cleaning up after them. They throw garbage out the window
into the back alley and their kids steal the garbage can covers for sliding in the snow.”

 Version 3: Rat Bites Rising in City’s ‘Zone of death” Rats bit eight-month-old Michael Burns five times yesterday as he napped in his crib. Bums is the latest victim
of a rat epidemic plaguing inner-city neighborhoods labeled the “Zone of Death.” Health officials say infant mortality rates in these neighborhoods approach those
in many third world countries. A Public Health Department spokesperson explained that federal and state cutbacks forced short-staffing at rat control and housing
inspection programs. The result, noted Joaquin Nunez, MD, a pediatrician at Central Hospital, is a five-fold increase in rat bites. He added, “The irony is that
Michael lives within walking distance of some of the world’s best medical centers.”

 The stories share little beyond the fact that the child was bitten by rats. Each version is shaped or framed by layers of assumptions. To say each version of the
story represents a different frame means that each has a distinct definition of the issue, of who is responsible, and of how the issue might be
resolved.Source :https://commconcepts.wikispaces.com/Framing