INTRODUCTION TO

DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS

DWS

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 POKOK BAHASAN
• Fitur Utama
• Keuntungan Penggunaan Sistem Tersebar
• Kelemahan Penggunaan Sistem Tersebar
• Contoh Sistem Tersebar
• Karakter Intranet, Internet dan Portable
• Teknologi Web
• Tantangan Penggunaan Sistem tersebar

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 FITUR UTAMA

• Geographical distribution of autonomous computers

• Communication through cable/fibre/wireless/...

• Distributed System Software

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 ADVANTAGES
• Interaction
• Co-operation
• Resource sharing
• Communication
• Economy
• Speed
• Inherent distribution
• Reliability
• Incremental growth

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 BENEFIT

• Reduced costs

• Improved availability and performance

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 Disadvantages of Distributed Systems

• Software

• Networking

• Security

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 Examples of Distributed Systems
• Global Internet
• Organizational Intranets
– behind router/firewall
• Mobile Computing
– computers move
• Ubiquitous Computing
– computers embedded everywhere

• Issues:
– discovery of resources in different host environments
– dynamic reconfiguration
– limited connectivity
– privacy and security guarantees to the user and the host environment
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A Typical Portion of the Internet

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A Typical Intranet

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Portable and Handheld Devices

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 The Web
• HTML, Hyper Text Markup Language
• URL, Uniform Resource Locator
– http://servername[:port] [/pathname] [?arguments]
• HTTP, HyperText Transfer Protocol
– request-reply protocol (client-server)
– content types--MIME types, multipurpose internet mail extensions
– one resource per request
– simple access control (mostly public)

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 Other Web Technologies
• Web forms
• CGI programs, common gateway interface, run on the
server
• Applets, run on the client
• RDF, resource description framework, vocabulary for meta-
data
• XML, extensible markup language, allow meta-data
information to be included

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 CHALLENGES
• Heterogeneity

• Openness

• Security

• Scalability

• Failure handling

• Concurrency of components

• Transparency

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 CHALLENGES
• Heterogeneity
– Networks
– Computer hardware
– Operating systems
– Programming languages

• Need standard (middleware, protocol)

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 CHALLENGES
• Openness
– Ensures extensibility and maintainability of the system
» Standard interfaces & their publication
» Addition of new resources
– RFC (Request for comments) specification for internet protocols
» www. ietf.org

• Benefits of ODS
– Publishable Key interfaces (CORBA, MPI)
– Publishable communication mechanisms (Java RMI)
– Construction
» Heterogeneous components

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 CHALLENGES
• Security
– Confidentiality
– Integrity
– Availability

• Example
– A doctor might request access to hospital patient data in electronic
commerce and banking, users send their credit card numbers across the
internet

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 CHALLENGES
• Scalability
– Controlling the cost of the physical resources
» Does the system remain effective given the expected growth
– Controlling the performance loss
» www.amzon.com is more than one computer
– Preventing the software resources running out
» IP addressees: 32 bits to 128
» Avoiding performance bottleneck
• Decentralization of data/information

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 CHALLENGES
• Failure handling

– Detecting failure
» Checksum can be used to detect corrupted data
» System crash (impossible)

– Tolerating failure
» Exception handling (timeout when waiting for web source)

– Recovery from failure

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 CHALLENGES
• Failure handling
– Redundancy
» Redundant routes in network
» Replication of name tables in multiple domain name servers
» Database replication

– Availability
» Measure of the proportion of the time a server is available

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 CHALLENGES
• Concurrency
– Processes execute simultaneously
– Need Synchronisation
» Consistent scheduling of threads (so that dependencies are preserved
in concurrent transactions)

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 CHALLENGES
• Transparency
– Concealing the heterogeneous and distributed nature of the system so that
it appears to the user like one system

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 Challenges: Transparency
• Access transparency
– enables local and remote resources to be accessed using identical
operations.
• Location transparency
– enables resources to be accessed without knowledge of their location.
• Concurrency transparency
– enables several processes to operate concurrently using shared resources
without interference between them.
• Replication transparency
– enables multiple instances of resources to be used to increase reliability
and performance without knowledge of the replicas by users or application
programmers.

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 Challenges: Transparency
• Failure transparency
– enables the concealment of faults, allowing users and application programs
to complete their tasks despite the failure of hardware or software
components.
• Mobility transparency
– allows the movement of resources and clients within a system without
affecting the operation of users or programs.
• Performance transparency
– allows the system to be reconfigured to improve performance as loads
vary.
• Scaling transparency
– allows the system and applications to expand in scale without change to
the system structure or the application algorithms.

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