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Chapter 2 (Loads On Structures) - Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis

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3K views33 pages

Chapter 2 (Loads On Structures) - Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis

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© © All Rights Reserved
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2

Loads on Structures
2.1 Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads
2.2 Dead Loads
2.3 Live Loads
2.4 Classification of Buildings for Environmental Loads
2.5 Wind Loads
2.6 Snow Loads
2.7 Earthquake Loads
2.8 Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures
2.9 Thermal and Other Effects
2.10 Load Combinations
Summary
Problems

Earthquake-Damaged Building
Ints Vikmanis/Shutterstock.com

The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that will be able


to withstand all the loads to which it is subjected while serving its intended
purpose throughout its intended life span. In designing a structure, an engi-
neer must, therefore, consider all the loads that can realistically be expected
to act on the structure during its planned life span. The loads that act on
common civil engineering structures can be grouped according to their nature
and source into three classes: (1) dead loads due to the weight of the struc-
tural system itself and any other material permanently attached to it; (2) live
loads, which are movable or moving loads due to the use of the structure; and
(3) environmental loads, which are caused by environmental effects, such as
wind, snow, and earthquakes.
In addition to estimating the magnitudes of the design loads, an engineer
must also consider the possibility that some of these loads might act simul-
taneously on the structure. The structure is finally designed so that it will be
able to withstand the most unfavorable combination of loads that is likely to
occur in its lifetime.
The minimum design loads and the load combinations for which the struc-
tures must be designed are usually specified in building codes. The national
codes providing guidance on loads for buildings, bridges, and other struc-
tures include ASCE Standard Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria
for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCEySEI 7-16) [2],* AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications [1], Manual for Railway Engineering [27], and
International Building Code [16].

*
The numbers in brackets refer to items listed in the bibliography.
CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

Although the load requirements of most local building codes are generally
based on those of the national codes listed herein, local codes may contain
additional provisions warranted by such regional conditions as earthquakes,
tornadoes, hurricanes, heavy snow, and the like. Local building codes are usu-
ally legal documents enacted to safeguard public welfare and safety, and the
engineer must become thoroughly familiar with the building code for the area
in which the structure is to be built.
The loads described in the codes are usually based on past experience and
study and are the minimum for which the various types of structures must be
designed. However, the engineer must decide if the structure might be sub-
jected to any loads in addition to those considered by the code and, if so, must
design the structure to resist the additional loads. Remember that the engineer
is ultimately responsible for the safe design of the structure.
The objective of this chapter is to describe the types of loads commonly
encountered in the design of structures and to introduce the basic concepts of
load estimation. Before discussing the specific types of loads, we begin this
chapter with a brief description of the typical structural systems used in com-
mon buildings and bridges for transmitting loads to the ground. In this first
section, we also introduce the concepts of load path and tributary area. Next,
we describe dead loads and then discuss live loads for buildings and bridges,
including the dynamic effect, or the impact, of live loads. We describe envi-
ronmental loads, including wind loads, snow loads, and earthquake loads. We
give a brief discussion of hydrostatic and soil pressures and thermal effects and
conclude with a discussion about the combinations of loads used for design
purposes.
The material presented herein is mainly based on the ASCE Standard
Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other
Structures (ASCEySEI 7-16), which is commonly referred to as the ASCE
7 Standard and is perhaps the most widely used standard in practice. Since
the intent here is to familiarize the reader with the general topic of loads on
structures, many of the details have not been included. Needless to say, the
complete provisions of the local building codes or the ASCE 7 Standard† must
be followed in designing structures.

2.1  Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads


In most common buildings, bridges, and other civil engineering facilities,
two or more of the basic structural types described in Section 1.3 (e.g.,
beams, columns, slabs, trusses, etc.) are assembled together to form a
structural system that can transmit the applied loads to the ground through
the foundation. Such structural systems are also referred to as framing
systems or frameworks, and the components of such an assemblage are
called structural members.

Copies of this standard may be purchased from the American Society of Civil Engineers, 1801

Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191.


Section 2.1  Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads  

An example of the load-carrying system for a single-story building is


shown in Fig. 2.1(a). The system consists of a reinforced-concrete roof slab
resting on four steel beams, which in turn, are supported by two larger beams,
called girders. The girders are then supported on four columns attached to
the footings at the ground level. Because all connections are assumed to be
bolted (i.e., shear or hinged) connections, they can only transmit forces but
not moments. Thus, diagonal braces are needed to resist the horizontal loads
caused by wind and earthquakes. In Fig. 2.1(a) this cross-bracing is shown
only on two sides of the building for simplicity. Such bracing (or other means
of transmitting horizontal forces, such as shear walls) should be provided on
all four sides of the building to resist loads applied in any direction in the hor-
izontal plane. Note that the architectural features, such as exterior brickwork,
partitions or non-load-bearing walls, doors, and windows, are not considered
to be a part of the load-resisting structural system, although their weights are
considered in the design calculations.
The structural systems of most buildings and bridges are designed to with-
stand loads in both the vertical and horizontal directions. The vertical loads,
due mainly to the occupancy, self-weight, and snow or rain, are commonly
referred to as the gravity loads (although not all vertical loads are caused by
gravity). The horizontal loads, induced mainly by wind and earthquakes, are
called the lateral loads. The term load path is used to describe how a load
acting on the building (or bridge) is transmitted through the various members
of the structural system to the ground.
The vertical (gravity) load path for the single-story building of Fig. 2.1(a) is
depicted in Fig. 2.1(b). Any vertical distributed area load (force per area), such as
due to snow, applied to the roof slab is first transmitted to the beams EF, GH, IJ,
and KL as a distributed line load (force per length). As the beams are supported
by girders EK and FL, the beam reactions become concentrated forces on the
girders (in reverse directions), thereby transmitting the roof load to the girders
as concentrated loads at points E through L. Similarly, the girders that are sup-
ported by columns AE, BF, CK , and DL transfer the load, via their reactions, to
the columns as axial compressive forces. The columns, in turn, transmit the load
to the footings (A through D), which finally distribute the load to the ground.
Note that the diagonal braces do not participate in transmitting the gravity load.
Figure 2.1(c) depicts the horizontal (lateral) load path for the same
­single-story building. Any horizontal load (such as due to wind or earthquake)
applied to the roof slab is transmitted by the slab as in-plane lateral forces to the
two vertical frames, AEFB and CKLD, which then carry the load to the footings.
As shown in Fig. 2.1(c), each vertical frame consists of a beam, two columns and
two inclined braces, connected together by hinged connections. Such frames,
called the braced frames, essentially act as plane trusses under the action of lateral
loads, with the braces transmitting the load from the roof-level to the footings.
In some buildings, specially designed shear walls, elevator shafts, or
moment-resisting (rigidly connected) frames are used, instead of the braced
frames, to transmit lateral loads (Figs. 2.2 and 2.3). Regardless of the structural
system used, the basic concept of load transmission remains the same, that is,
the applied load is carried continuously from member to member until it has
been fully transmitted to the ground.
CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

Beam L

K
J
Girder
D
I H
Y C
G
F
Slab

E
X Column
Foundation
B

A Brace
Z
(a) Structural System for a Single-Story Building

K
J Roof slab

I
H

K
Beams
J

(b) Vertical (Gravity) Load Path


Fig. 2.1 
Section 2.1  Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads  

K L

I J Girders

G H

F
E

K L

C D

E F

Columns

A B

C D

A B
Footings

(b) (contd.)
Fig. 2.1  (contd.)
   CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

Braced frame
D
C

Slab

Braced frame
B
A

Fig. 2.1  (contd.) (c) Horizontal (Lateral) Load Path

Fig. 2.2  Multistory Building with Braced


Frames to Transmit Lateral Loads Due to
Wind and Earthquakes
Courtesy of Walterio A. López
Section 2.1  Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads  

Fig. 2.3  This Steel Frame Building Uses


Masonry Shafts for Elevators and Stairs
to Resist Lateral Loads Due to Wind and
Earthquakes
Copyright © American Institute of Steel Construction.
Reprinted with permission. All rights reserved.

Floor Systems and Tributary Areas


As in the case of the single-story building discussed previously, the floor and
roof slabs of multistory buildings, and the deck slabs of bridges, are often
supported on rectangular grids of beams and girders called floor systems.
Figure 2.4 shows the top view or the framing plan of a typical floor system.

1 2 3
Column
L1 L2
lines
s1 s1 s1 s2 s2 s2
A

Interior
beams

Exterior
(edge) L3
beam

Interior
girder

Interior
column L4
Z

X C
Corner
Exterior (edge) Exterior (edge) column
girder column
Fig. 2.4  (a) A Typical Floor Framing Plan
CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

1 2 3
L1 L2
s1 s1 s1 s2 s2 s2
s1 s1 s2
2 2 2
A

Tributary area of
exterior (edge)
beam b1
b1 b2 L3
Tributary area of
interior beam b2

b3 L4

C
s2 s2
2 2
Tributary area of
interior beam b3
(b) Tributary Areas of Beams

1 2 3
L1 L2
Tributary area of
exterior (edge) girder A2 – A3
A

L3
Tributary area of 2
interior girder
B1 – B2 L3

L3
2

L4
2
L4

C
Fig. 2.4  (contd.) (c) Tributary Areas of Girders
Section 2.1  Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads  

Tributary area of
interior column B2
1 2 3
L1 L2

L1
2
A

L3
2

L3

Tributary area
of corner
column A1

L4

L4
2

C
L1 L2
2 2
Tributary area of
exterior (edge)
column C2
(d) Tributary Areas of Columns
Fig. 2.4  (contd.)

As in common practice, the column lines in the two (X and Z ) directions are
identified by letters and numbers, respectively. Note the small gaps (blank
spaces) at the intersections of members, which denote that the members are
connected by hinged or shear (non-moment-resisting) connections. The slab
(not shown) rests on the beams and transmits its load through beams to girders
and then to columns.
During the design process, an engineer needs to determine how much of
the total distributed load applied over the area of the slab is carried by each
member (i.e., a beam, a girder, or a column) of the floor system. The portion
of the slab area whose load is carried by a particular member is called the
tributary area of the member.
The slabs used in buildings and bridges are usually designed as one-way
slabs. Such slabs are assumed to be supported on two sides and bend only
in one direction like wide beams. For floor systems with one-way slabs, the
tributary area of each beam is considered to be rectangular, of a length equal
to that of the beam and a width extending to half the distance to the adjacent
beam on each side, as shown in Fig. 2.4(b). The tributary areas of girders and
columns are defined similarly and are depicted in Figs. 2.4(c) and (d), respec-
tively. The procedure for calculating loads on the members of floor systems
with one-way slabs is illustrated in Example 2.1.
   CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

For floor systems with a beam length to spacing ratio of less than 1.5 (i.e.,
Lys ,1.5 – see Fig. 2.4(a)), the slabs are designed as two-way slabs, supported
on all four sides. Such a slab is assumed to bend in two perpendicular direc-
tions like a plate and transmits its load to all four supporting beams along its
edges. Figures 2.5(a) and (b) depict the tributary areas of the edge beams sup-
porting square and rectangular two-way slabs, respectively. These figures also
show the loads carried by edge beams due to a uniformly distributed pressure
w (force per unit area) applied to the surface area of the slab.

L
A B

L wL
2
L
2
45° 45° C D

C D L L
Tributary area of 2 2
beam CD Load carried by edge beams
(a) Square Two-way Slabs

L1
B
A

A
Load carried by short

Tributary area of 45°


L2
2
edge beams

beam AC
wL2

L2
2

L2
L2
2

2 45°
C

C D
Tributary area of
beam CD

wL2
2

C D

L2 L1 – L2 L2
2 2
Load carried by long edge beams
Fig. 2.5  (b) Rectangular Two-way Slabs
Section 2.1  Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads  

Example 2.1

The floor of a building, shown in Fig. 2.6(a), is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of 3.5 kPa over its surface area.
Determine the loads acting on all the members of the floor system.

Column
Floor beam

B
A

Slab
C D
3 at 4 m
Floor beam = 12 m
E F
Girder

G
H
9m
(a) Framing Plan
7 kN/m

A B
A B 9m
Tributary area 2m 31.5 kN 31.5 kN
of beam AB Load on exterior beams
1m
C D AB and GH
1m
14 kN/m
E F 4m E F
Tributary area
of beam EF 9m
63 kN 63 kN
G H Load on interior beams
9m CD and EF
(b) Load on Beams
Tributary area
of girder AG
A B

4m 31.5 kN 63 kN 63 kN 31.5 kN

C D
A G
4m 12 m C E

E F 94.5 kN 94.5 kN
4m 4m 4m
4m

G H
4.5 m 4.5 m
Fig. 2.6 (c) Load on Girders AG and BH
continued
   CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

Tributary area of
column A 94.5 kN
4.5 m
A B A

6m
C D
Column A
12 m

E F

G 94.5 kN
H
9m
Fig. 2.6  (contd.) (d) Compressive Axial Load on Columns A, B, G, and H

Solution
Beams.  The tributary areas of the exterior beam AB and the interior beam EF are shown in Fig. 2.6(b). Considering
the ­exterior beam AB first, we can see that each one-meter length of the beam supports the load applied over a strip of the slab
area (5 2 m 3 1 m) 5 2 m 2. Thus, the load transmitted to each one-meter length of the beam AB is:

(3.5 kNym 2 )(2 m)(1 m) 5 7 kN

This 7 kNym load is uniformly distributed along the length of the beam, as shown in Fig. 2.6(b). This figure also shows
the ­reactions exerted by the supporting girders at the beam’s ends. As the beam is symmetrically loaded, the magnitudes of the
reactions are equal to half of the total load acting on the beam:

1
RA 5 RB 5 (7 kNym)(9 m) 5 31.5 kN
2

The load on the interior beam EF is computed in a similar manner. From Fig. 2.6(b), we see that the load transmitted to
each one-meter length of the beam EF is

(3.5 kNym 2 )(4 m)(1 m) 5 14 kN

This load acts as a uniformly distributed load of magnitude 14 kNym along the beam’s length. The reactions of the interior
beam are:

1
RE 5 RF 5 (14 kNym)(9 m) 5 63 kN
2

Because of the symmetry of the framing plan and loading, the remaining beams CD and GH are subjected to the same loads
as the beams EF and AB, respectively. Ans.
Girders.  The girder loads can be conveniently obtained by applying the beam reactions as concentrated loads (in reverse direc-
tions) at their corresponding support (connection) points on the girder. As shown in Fig. 2.6(c), since girder AG supports exterior
beams AB and GH at points A and G, the reactions (31.5 kN) of the two exterior beams are applied at these points. Similarly, the
reactions of two interior beams (CD and EF ) are applied at points C and E, where these interior beams are supported on the girder.
Note that the sum of the magnitudes of all four concentrated loads applied to the girder equals its tributary area (4.5 m 3 12 m)
multiplied by the floor load intensity (3.5 kNym 2 ), that is (see Fig. 2.6(c))

31.5 kN 1 63 kN 1 63 kN 1 31.5 kN 5 (3.5 kNym 2 )(4.5 m)(12 m) 5 189 kN

continued
Section 2.2  Dead Loads  

As shown in Fig. 2.6(c), the end reactions of the girder are

1
RA 5 RG 5 [2(31.5) 1 2(63)] 5 94.5 kN
2

Because of symmetry, the load on girder BH is the same as on girder AG. Ans.
Columns.  As shown in Fig. 2.6(d), the axial load on column A is obtained by applying the reaction RA ( 5 94.5 kN) of girder
AG on the column with its direction reversed. This column axial load can also be evaluated by multiplying the tributary area
(4.5 m 3 6 m) of column A by the floor load intensity (3.5 kNym 2 ), that is (see Fig. 2.6(d))

(3.5 kNym 2 )(4.5 m)(6 m) 5 94.5 kN

Because of symmetry, the three remaining columns are subjected to the same axial compressive load as column A. Ans.
Finally, the sum of the axial loads carried by all four columns must be equal to the product of the total surface area of the
floor times the floor load intensity:

4(94.5 kN) 5 (3.5 kNym 2 )(9 m)(12 m) 5 378 kN Checks

In the foregoing example, we have only considered externally applied


loading but neglected the self-weight of the slab and the other members of the
floor system. In the next section, we discuss the procedure for computing the
weight of the structural system itself.

2.2  Dead Loads


Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that
act permanently on the structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the
structural system itself and of all other material and equipment permanently
attached to the structural system. For example, the dead loads for a building
structure include the weights of frames, framing and bracing systems, floors,
 Table 2.1   Unit Weights of roofs, ceilings, walls, stairways, heating and air-conditioning systems, plumb-
Construction Materials ing, electrical systems, and so forth.
Unit Weight
The weight of the structure is not known in advance of design and is usu-
ally assumed based on past experience. After the structure has been analyzed
Material kNym 3 and the member sizes determined, the actual weight is computed by using the
Aluminum 25.9 member sizes and the unit weights of materials. The actual weight is then com-
Brick 18.8 pared to the assumed weight, and the design is revised if necessary. The unit
Concrete, reinforced 23.6 weights of some common construction materials are given in Table 2.1. The
Structural steel 77.0 weights of permanent service equipment, such as heating and air-conditioning
Wood   6.3
systems, are usually obtained from the manufacturer.

Example 2.2

The floor system of a building consists of a 125 mm thick reinforced concrete slab resting on four steel floor beams, which in
turn are supported by two steel girders, as shown in Fig. 2.7(a). The cross-sectional areas of the floor beams and the girders are
9,500 mm 2 and 33,700 mm 2, respectively. Determine the dead loads acting on the beams CG and DH and the girder AD.
continued
   CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

Steel Steel girder (A = 33,700 mm2)


column 3 at 3 m = 9 m
A B C D

8m Tributary
125 mm area for
concrete beam CG
slab
E F G H
Steel floor beam
(A = 9,500 mm2) 1.5 m 1.5 m

(a) Framing Plan 20.4 kN 38.4 kN 38.4 kN 20.4 kN


2.6 kN/m
9.6 kN/m 5.1 kN/m

C G D H A B C D
70.5 kN 70.5 kN
38.4 kN 38.4 kN 20.4 kN 20.4 kN 3m 3m 3m
8m 8m 9m
(b) Load on Beam CG (c) Load on Beam DH (d) Load on Girder AD
Fig. 2.7

Solution
Beam CG.  As shown in Fig. 2.7(a), the tributary area for beam CG has a width of 3 m (i.e., half the distance between beams CG
and BF plus half the distance between beams CG and DH ) and a length of 8 m. We use the unit weights of reinforced concrete
and structural steel from Table 2.1 to compute the dead load per meter of length of beam CG as follows:

125 
Concrete slab: (23.6 kNym 3 )(3 m)(1 m)  m 5 8.9 kN
 1000 
9,500
Steel beam: (77 kNym 3 )  m 2  (1 m) 5 0.7 kN
 1,000,000 
Total load 5 9.6 kN Ans.

This 9.6 kN m load is uniformly distributed on the beam, as shown in Fig. 2.7(b). This figure also shows the reactions exerted
by the supporting girders at the ends of the beam. As the beam is symmetrically loaded, the magnitudes of the reactions are:

RC 5 RG 5 0.5(9.6 kNym)(8 m) = 38.4 kN

Note that the magnitudes of these end reactions represent the downward loads being transmitted to the supporting girders AD
and EH at points C and G, respectively.
Beam DH. The tributary area for beam DH is 1.5 m wide and 8 m long. The dead load per meter of length of this beam is
computed as follows:
 125 
Concrete slab: (23.6 kNym 3 )(1.5 m)(1 m)  m 5 4.4 kN
 1,000 
Steel beam: (same as for beam CG ) 5 0.7 kN
Total load 5 5.1 kN Ans.

As shown in Fig. 2.7(c), the end reactions are

RD 5 RH 5 0.5(5.1 kNym)(8 m) = 20.4 kN


continued

e
Section 2.3  Live Loads  

Girder AD.  Because of the symmetry of the framing system and loading, the loads acting on beams BF and AE are the same
as those on beams CG and DH , respectively. The load on girder AD consists of the uniformly distributed load due to its own
weight, which has a magnitude of
 33,700 
(77 kNym 3 )  m 2  (1 m) 5 2.6 kN
 1,000,000 
and the concentrated loads transmitted to it by the beams at points A, B, C, and D, as shown in Fig. 2.7(d). Ans.

2.3  Live Loads


Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes andyor positions caused by the use
of the structure. Sometimes, the term live loads is used to refer to all loads on
the structure that are not dead loads, including environmental loads, such as
snow loads or wind loads. However, since the probabilities of occurrence for
environmental loads are different from those due to the use of structures, the
current codes use the term live loads to refer only to those variable loads caused
by the use of the structure. It is in the latter context that this text uses this term.
The magnitudes of design live loads are usually specified in building
codes. The position of a live load may change, so each member of the structure
must be designed for the position of the load that causes the maximum stress
in that member. Different members of a structure may reach their maximum
stress levels at different positions of the given load. For example, as a truck
moves across a truss bridge, the stresses in the truss members vary as the
position of the truck changes. If member A is subjected to its maximum stress
when the truck is at a certain position x, then another member B may reach its
maximum stress level when the truck is in a different position y on the bridge.
The procedures for determining the position of a live load at which a particular
response characteristic, such as a stress resultant or a deflection, of a structure
is maximum (or minimum) are discussed in subsequent chapters.

Live Loads for Buildings


Live loads for buildings are usually specified as uniformly distributed surface
loads in kilonewtons per square meter. Minimum floor live loads for some
common types of buildings are given in Table 2.2. For a comprehensive list of
live loads for various types of buildings and for provisions regarding roof live
loads, concentrated loads, and reduction in live loads, the reader is referred to
the ASCE 7 Standard.

 Table 2.2    Minimum Floor Live Loads for Buildings


Live Load
Occupancy or Use kNym 2
Hospital patient rooms, residential dwellings, apartments, hotel guest
1.92
rooms, school classrooms
Library reading rooms, hospital operating rooms and laboratories 2.87
Dance halls and ballrooms, restaurants, gymnasiums 4.79
Light manufacturing, light storage warehouses, wholesale stores 6.00
Heavy manufacturing, heavy storage warehouses 11.97

Source: Based on data from ASCE/SEI 7-16, Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria
for Buildings and Other Structures.
   CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

Live Loads for Bridges


Live loads due to vehicular traffic on highway bridges (Fig. 2.8) are specified
by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications [1], which is commonly
referred to as the AASHTO LRFD Specification. (The initials LRFD indicate
that this specification is for the Load and Resistance Factor Design of bridges.)
The design vehicular live loading specified in the AASHTO LRFD
Specification is designated as HL-93 (highway loading adopted in 1993). In
HL-93, the various types of vehicles and traffic conditions on bridges are
represented by combinations of three types of standardized design loads: the
design truck, the design tandem, and the design lane.
The HL-93 design truck consists of a two-axle tractor truck with a
­single-axle semitrailer. The total weight of the truck and cargo is 325 kN. The
axle loads and axle spacing for the design truck are shown in Fig. 2.9(a).
Note that the spacing between the rear axle of the tractor truck and the axle
of the semitrailer should be varied between 4.3 m and 9 m, and the spacing
causing the maximum stress should be used for design.
The HL-93 design tandem represents a two-axle vehicle weighing 220 kN.
Its axle loads and axle spacing are shown in Fig. 2.9(b). The wheel spacing for
both the design truck and tandem is depicted in Fig. 2.9(c). It should be recognized
explicitly that both the design truck and design tandem loads do not represent the
actual weights of trucks or other vehicles but are based instead on the envelopes of
the load effects that the bridges are subjected to by heavy vehicles.
In addition to the aforementioned two series of concentrated loads, HL-93
specifies that the design lane load consisting of a uniformly distributed load of
9.3 kNym be considered (Fig. 2.9(d)). This lane load represents the effect of a
lane of medium-weight vehicles on the bridge. HL-93 further requires that the
bridge be analyzed for two load combinations: (1) the design lane load applied
simultaneously with a design truck (Figs. 2.9(a) and (d)), and (2) the design lane
load applied simultaneously with a design tandem (Figs. 2.9(b) and (d)). In each
case, the loads are positioned on the bridge to cause the maximum stress in the
member being designed. The load combination causing the most severe stress in
the member under consideration is then used for its design. Additional information

Fig. 2.8  Live Loads on Highway Bridges


DuKai photographer/Moment/Getty Images
Section 2.3  Live Loads  

35 kN 145 kN 145 kN
110 kN 110 kN 3m Lane
width
OR
Curb

4.3 m 4.3 m to 9 m 0.6 m 0.6 m


1.2 m
1.8 m
Load combination 1

Load combination 2
(a) HL-93 Truck (b) HL-93 Tandem (c) Wheel Spacing for Truck/Tandem

AND

Uniform load 9.3 kN/linear meter of lane

(d) HL-93 Lane Load


Fig. 2.9  Design Live Loads for Highway Bridges (HL-93)
Source: Based on Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. Copyright 2002. American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.

regarding multiple lanes, loadings for continuous spans, reduction in load intensity,
and so on can be found in the AASHTO LRFD Specification.
Live loads for railroad bridges are specified by the American Railway
Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA) in the Manual
for Railway Engineering [27]. These loadings, which are commonly known
as Cooper E loadings, consist of two sets of nine concentrated loads, each
separated by specified distances, representing the two locomotives followed
by a uniform loading representing the weight of the freight cars. An example
of such a loading, called the E80 loading, is depicted in Fig. 2.10. The design
loads for heavier or lighter trains can be obtained from this loading by propor-
tionately increasing or decreasing the magnitudes of the loads while keeping
the same distances between the concentrated loads. For example, the E40 load-
ing can be obtained from the E80 loading by simply dividing the magnitudes
of the loads by 2. As in the case of highway bridges considered previously,
live loads on railroad bridges must be placed so that they will cause the most
unfavorable effect on the member under consideration.

178 kN 356 kN each 231.4 kN each 178 kN 356 kN each 231.4 kN each 116.8 kN/m

2.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 2.8 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 2.5 m 2.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 2.8 m 1.8 m 1.5 m
1.5 m 1.8 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m

Fig. 2.10  Live Loads for Railroad Bridges


   CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

Impact
When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they cause larger stresses
than those that would be produced if the same loads would have been applied
gradually. The dynamic effect of the load that causes this increase in stress in
the structure is referred to as impact. To account for the increase in stress due
to impact, the live loads expected to cause such a dynamic effect on structures
are increased by certain impact percentages, or impact factors. The impact
percentages and factors, which are usually based on past experience andyor
experimental results, are specified in the building codes. For example, the
ASCE 7 Standard specifies that the weights of reciprocating machinery and
power-driven units for buildings be increased by 50% to account for impact.
For highway bridges, the AASHTO LRFD Specification uses an impact
factor of 33% for design vehicles (truck and tandem), and empirical expressions
for impact factors to be used in designing railroad bridges are specified in [27].

2.4  Classification of Buildings for Environmental Loads


Because of the inherent uncertainty involved in predicting environmental loads
that may act on a structure during its lifetime, the consequences of the failure
of the structure are usually considered in estimating design environmental
loads, such as due to wind, snow, and earthquakes. In general, the more serious
the potential consequences of the structural failure, the larger the magnitude
of the load for which the structure should be designed.
The ASCE 7 Standard classifies buildings into four Risk Categories based
on risk to human life, health, and welfare in the event of the failure of (or dam-
age to) the structure because of the nature of its occupancy or use. These risk
categories are described in Table 2.3 and will be used in subsequent sections
for estimating environmental loads on structures.

 Table 2.3    Risk Categories of Buildings for Environmental Loads


Importance Factor

Risk category Occupancy or use Snow Loads ( I s ) Earthquake Loads ( I e )

I Buildings representing low risk to human life in the case of failure, 0.8 1.00
such as agricultural and minor storage facilities.
II All buildings other than those listed in Risk Categories I, III, and 1.0 1.00
IV. This risk category applies to most of the residential, commercial,
and industrial buildings (except those which have been specifically
assigned to another category).
III Buildings whose failure would pose a substantial risk to human 1.1 1.25
life, andyor could cause a substantial economic impact or mass
disruption of everyday public life. This category contains buildings
such as theaters, lecture and assembly halls where a large number of
people congregate in one area; elementary schools; small hospitals;
prisons; power generating stations; water and sewage treatment
plants; telecommunication centers; and buildings containing
­hazardous and explosive materials.
IV Essential facilities, including hospitals, fire and police stations, 1.2 1.50
national defense facilities and emergency shelters, communication
centers, power stations and utilities required in an emergency, and
buildings containing extremely hazardous materials.

Source: Based on data from ASCE/SEI 7-16, Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures.
Section 2.5  Wind Loads  

2.5  Wind Loads


Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The
­magnitudes of wind loads that may act on a structure depend on the geograph-
ical location of the structure, obstructions in its surrounding terrain (such as
nearby buildings), and the geometry and the vibrational characteristics of the
structure itself. Although the procedures described in the various codes for
the estimation of wind loads usually vary in detail, most of them are based
on the same basic relationship between the wind speed V and the dynamic
pressure q induced on a flat surface normal to the wind flow, which can be
obtained by applying Bernoulli’s principle and is expressed as
1
pV 2 (2.1)
q5
2
in which p is the mass density of the air. Using the unit weight of air of
12.02 Nym 3 for the standard atmosphere (at sea level, with a temperature
of 158 C), and expressing the wind speed V in meters per second (m/s), the
dynamic pressure q in pascal or N/m2 is given by
12.02  2
q 5 0.5  V 5 0.613 V 2 (2.2)
 9.81 

The wind speed V  to be used in the determination of the design loads on
a structure depends on its geographical location and can be obtained from
meteorological data for the region. The ASCE 7 Standard provides contour
maps of the basic wind speeds for the United States. These maps, which
are based on data collected at 575 weather stations, give the 3-second gust
speeds in mys. These speeds are for open terrain at the height of 10 m above
ground level. Figure 2.11 shows the basic wind speed map for structures
in the risk category II, which includes a vast majority of residential, com-
mercial, and industrial buildings. These wind speeds correspond to approx-
imately 7% probability of being exceeded in 50 years. Similar wind speed
maps for structures in risk categories I, III, and IV are given in the ASCE
7 Standard.* To account for the variation in wind speed with the height
and the surroundings in which a structure is located, the ASCE 7 Standard
modifies Eq. (2.2) as

qz 5 0.613K z K zt K d K eV 2 (2.3)

in which qz is the velocity pressure at height z in N/m2; V is the basic wind


speed in m/s (Fig. 2.11); K z is the velocity pressure exposure coefficient; K zt
is the topographic factor; K d is the wind directionality factor; and K e is the
ground elevation factor.
The velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K z , is given by

2.01( zyz g )2ya for 4.6 m # z # z g



Kz 5  
4.6 m 
2 yα (2.4)
2.01  z  for z , 4.6 m
  g 

* The site-specific wind speeds at all U.S. locations for the four risk categories are also available
at the Applied Technology Council website: https://hazards.atcouncil.org/.
   CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

95(42)
100(45)
105(47)
110(49) 101(45)
105(47)
90(40) 103(46)
110(49)
115(51)
105(47) 120(54)
130(58)
114(51)
Crosshatching on Map
140(63)
indicates a Special
Wind Region 107(48)

140(63)
104
105(47) (46) 150(67)
90(40)
95(42) 104(46)

100(45) 105(47)
150(67) 105(47) 140(63)
140(63) 150(67)
130(58) 105(47) 160(72)
120(54) 160(72) 170(76)
110(49) 103(46) 170(76)
105(47) 180(80)
110(49)
150(67)
115(51)
120(54) 140(63)
130(58)
110(49)

120(54) Location V (mph) V (m/s)

130(58) Guam 195 (87)


Virgin Islands 165 (74) 150(67) 160(72)
140(63) American Samoa 160 (72) 170(76)
160(72)
150(67) Hawaii See ASCE/SEI 7–16
160(72)

Notes:
1. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour (m/s) at 33 ft (10 m) above ground for
­Exposure C category.
2. Linear interpolation between contours is permitted.
3. Islands and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed contour of the coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions shall be examined for unusual wind conditions.
5. Wind speeds correspond to approximately a 7% probability of exceedance in 50 years (Annual Exceedance
Probability 5 0.00143, MRI 5 700 Years).
Fig. 2.11  Basic Wind Speeds for the United States for Risk Category II Buildings
Source: Based on ASCE/SEI 7-16, Minimum Design Loads and Associated Design Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures.

in which z 5 height above ground in meters; z g 5 gradient height in meters;


and a 5 power law coefficient. The constants z g and a depend on the obstruc-
tions on the terrain immediately surrounding the structure. The ASCE 7
Standard classifies the terrains to which the structures may be exposed into
three categories. These three categories are briefly described in Table 2.4,
which also provides the values of the constants for each of the categories.
A more detailed description of the exposure categories can be found in the
ASCE 7 Standard. The topographic factor, K zt , takes into account the effect of
increase in wind speed due to abrupt changes in topography, such as isolated
hills and steep cliffs. For structures located on or near the tops of such hills,
the value of K zt should be determined using the procedure specified in the
ASCE 7 Standard. For other structures, K zt 51. The wind directionality factor,
K d , takes into account the reduced probability of maximum winds coming
from the direction that is most unfavorable for the structure. Numerical values
of K d for various types of structures are given in the ASCE 7 Standard. For
Section 2.5  Wind Loads  

  Table 2.4    Exposure Categories for Buildings for Wind Loads


Constants
Exposure Category zg m x

Urban and suburban areas with closely B 365.76 7.0


spaced obstructions of the size of single
­family houses or larger. This terrain must
­prevail in the upwind direction for a d­ istance
of at least 792 m or 20 times the building
height, whichever is greater
Applies to all buildings to which exposures C 274.32 9.5
B or D do not apply
Flat, unobstructed areas and water D 213.36 11.5
surfaces. This terrain must prevail in the
upwind direction for a distance of at least
1,524 m or 20 times the building height,
whichever is greater

Source: Based on data from ASCEySEI 7-16, Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria
for Buildings and Other Structures.

example, for designing the main wind-force resisting systems of buildings,


K d 5 0.85.
As the basic dynamic pressure equation (Eq. 2.2) is based on the air
density ( p 5 12.02 Nym 3 ) at sea level, the ASCE 7 Standard adjusts for
lower air densities at higher elevations via the ground elevation factor, K e , in
Eqs. (2.3). For a ground elevation ze above sea level, the reduction factor K e
can be evaluated using the formula:

K e 5 e(20.000119 ze ) for ze . 0 (2.5)

For ground elevations below sea level, K e 51. The ASCE 7 Standard per-
mits the use of the conservative approximation K e 51 for all elevations if the
designer chooses to do so.
The external wind pressures to be used for designing the main framing
of structures are given by
pz 5 qz GC P for windward wall
(2.6)
ph 5 qh GC p for leeward wall, sidewalls, and roof

in which h 5 mean roof height above ground; qh 5 velocity pressure at height


h (evaluated by substituting z 5 h in Eq. (2.3)); pz 5 design wind pressure
at height z above ground; ph 5 design wind pressure at mean roof height h;
G 5 gust effect factor; and C p 5 external pressure coefficient .
The gust effect factor, G, is used to consider the loading effect of wind
turbulence on the structure. For a rigid structure whose fundamental fre-
quency is greater than or equal to 1 Hz, G 5 0.85 . For flexible structures,
the value of G should be calculated using the equations given in the ASCE
7 Standard.
The values of the external pressure coefficients, C p, based on wind tunnel
and full-scale tests, have been provided in the ASCE 7 Standard for various types
CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

of structures. Figure 2.12 shows the coefficients specified for designing the main
framing of structures. We can see from this figure that the external wind pressure
varies with height on the windward wall of the structure but is uniform on the
leeward wall and the sidewalls. Note that the positive pressures act toward the
surfaces, whereas the negative pressures, called suctions, act away from the sur-
faces of the structures.

qhGCp qhGCp qhGCp


qzGCp
Wind
B
qzGCp qhGCp h
z qhGCp

qhGCp L
L
Plan Elevation

Gable, Hip Roof

qhGCp qhGCp
qhGCp

Wind qzGCp qzGCp qhGCp


B
qzGCp
qhGCp h h
qhGCp
qhGCp
L L L
Plan Elevation Elevation

Monoslope Roof (Note 4)

qhGCp qhGCp qhGCp

Wind B qzGCp qhGCp


qhGCp
qzGCp
h

qhGCp
L L
Plan Elevation

Mansard Roof (Note 6)

Fig. 2.12  External Pressure Coefficients, C p , for Loads on Main Wind-Force


Resisting Systems for Enclosed or Partially Enclosed Buildings of All Heights
Source: Based on ASCE/SEI 7-16, Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures.
Section 2.5  Wind Loads  

Wall Pressure Coefficients, C p


Surface LyB Cp Use with
Windward wall All values 0.8 qz
0–1 – 0.5
Leeward wall 2 – 0.3 qh
≥ 4 – 0.2
Side wall All values – 0.7 qh

Roof Pressure Coefficients, C p , for use with qh


Windward Leeward
Wind Angle, θ (degrees) Angle, θ (degrees)
direction
hyL 10 15 20 25 30 35 45 ≥ 60# 10 15 ≥ 20
– 0.7 – 0.5 – 0.3 – 0.2 – 0.2 0.0* 0.4
≤ 0.25 0.01θ – 0.3 – 0.5 – 0.6
– 0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4
Normal to
ridge for u 0.5 – 0.9 – 0.7 – 0.4 – 0.3 – 0.2 – 0.2 0.0*
0.01θ – 0.5 – 0.5 – 0.6
≥ 108 – 0.18 – 0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4
– 1.3** – 1.0 – 0.7 – 0.5 – 0.3 – 0.2 0.0*
≥ 1.0 0.01θ – 0.7 – 0.6 – 0.6
– 0.18 – 0.18 – 0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.2 0.3
Horiz distance from *Value is provided for interpolation purposes.
Cp
windward edge
0 to hy2 – 0.9, – 0.18
≤ 0.5
Normal to hy2 to h –  0.9, – 0.18 **Value can be reduced linearly with area over which it
ridge for u h to 2 h –  0.5, – 0.18 is applicable as follows.
< 10° and
>2h – 0.3, – 0.18
Parallel to
ridge for all u Area (sq m) Reduction factor
0 to hy2 – 1.3**, – 0.18
≤ 9.3 1.0
≥ 1.0
23.2 0.9
> hy2 – 0.7, – 0.18
≥ 92.9 0.8
Notes:
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
2. Linear interpolation is permitted for values of LyB, hyL, and u other than shown. Interpolation shall only be carried out between
values of the same sign. Where no value of the same sign is given, assume 0.0 for interpolation purposes.
3. Where two values of C p are listed, this indicates that the windward roof slope is subjected to either positive or negative pressures
and the roof structure shall be designed for both conditions. Interpolation for intermediate ratios of hyL in this case shall only be
carried out between C p values of like sign.
4. For monoslope roofs, the entire roof surface is either a windward or leeward surface.
5. Notation:
B: Horizontal dimension of building, in meters, measured normal to wind direction.
L: Horizontal dimension of building, in meters, measured parallel to wind direction.
h: Mean roof height in meters, except that eave height shall be used for u #10 degrees.
z: Height above ground, in meters.
G: Gust effect factor.
qz , qh: Velocity pressure, in Nym 2, evaluated at respective height.
θ: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
6. For mansard roofs, the top horizontal surface and leeward inclined surface shall be treated as leeward surfaces from the table.
7. Except for MWFRSs at the roof consisting of moment resisting frames, the total horizontal shear shall not be less than that deter-
mined by neglecting wind forces on roof surfaces.
#For roof slopes greater than 808, use C p 5 0.8.
Fig. 2.12  (contd.)
   CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

Example 2.3

Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of the rigid gabled frame of a nonessential industrial building shown in
Fig. 2.13(a). The structure is located in a suburb of Boston, Massachusetts, where the terrain is representative of exposure B.
The wind direction is normal to the ridge of the frame as shown.

2
/m
. 4N 55
92 m
2
4.2
N/ N/
5.0 m 3.3 m2
32

3.5 m

L = 12 m

Fig. 2.13

Solution
Roof Slope and Mean Roof Height. From Fig. 2.13(a), we obtain
5.0
tan u 5 5 0.83, or u 5 39.88
6.0
5
h 5 3.5 1 5 6 m
2
h 6
5 5 0.5
L 12

Velocity Pressure at z 5 h 5 6 m. From Fig. 2.11, we obtain the basic wind speed for Boston as

V 5 58 mys

From Table 2.4, for the exposure category B, we obtain the following values of the constants:

z g 5 365.76 m and a 5 7.0

By using Eq. (2.4), we determine the velocity pressure exposure coefficient:


2 ya
 h 6 
2y 7

K h 5 2.01  5 2.01 5 0.62


 zg   365.76 

Using K zt 51, K d 5 0.85 for main wind-force resisting systems, and K e 51 for ground elevation at sea level, we apply Eq. (2.3)
to obtain the velocity pressure at height h as
qh 5 0.613K h K zt K d K eV 2
5 0.613 ( 0.62 )(1)( 0.85)(1)( 58 )
2

5 1,086.7 Nym 2

External Wind Pressure on Roof. For rigid structures, the gust effect factor is

G 5 0.85
continued
Section 2.6  Snow Loads  

For u < 408 and hyL 5 0.5, the values of the external pressure coefficients are (Fig. 2.12):

For windward side: C p 5 0.35 and 20.1



For leeward side: C p 520.6

Finally, by substituting the values of qh, G, and C p into Eq. (2.6), we obtain the following wind pressures: for the windward side,
ph 5 qh GC p 5 (1,086.7 )( 0.85)( 0.35) 5 323.3 Nym 2  Ans.
and
ph 5 qh GC p 5 (1,086.7 )( 0.85)(20.1) 5292.4 Nym 2 Ans.
and for the leeward side
ph 5 qh GC p 5 (1,086.7 )( 0.85)(20.6 ) 52554.2 Nym 2 Ans.

These wind pressures are applied to the roof of the frame, as shown in Fig. 2.13(b). The two wind pressures (positive and negative)
on the windward side are treated as separate loading conditions, and the structure is designed for both conditions.

Once the external wind pressures have been established, they are com-
bined with the internal pressures to obtain the design wind pressures. With
the design wind pressures known, we can determine the corresponding design
loads on members of the structures by multiplying the pressures by the appro-
priate tributary areas of the members.

2.6  Snow Loads


In many parts of the United States and the world, snow loads must be con-
sidered in designing structures. The design snow load for a structure is based
on the ground snow load for its geographical location, which can be obtained
from building codes or meteorological data for that region. The ASCE 7
Standard provides contour maps (similar to Fig. 2.11) of the ground snow
loads for various parts of the United States. These maps, which are based on
data collected at 204 weather stations and over 9000 other locations, give the
snow loads in kNym 2 that have a 2% probability of being exceeded in any
given year.*
Once the ground snow load has been established, the design snow load for
the roof of the structure is determined by considering such factors as the struc-
ture’s exposure to wind and its thermal, geometric, and functional characteris-
tics. In most cases, there is less snow on roofs than on the ground. The ASCE 7
Standard recommends that the design snow load for flat roofs be expressed as
p f 5 0.7CeCt I s pg (2.7)
in which p f 5 design flat-roof snow load in kNym 2 ; pg 5 ground snow load in
kNym 2 ; Ce 5exposure factor ; Ct 5thermal factor ; and I s 5importance factor.
In Eq. (2.7), the numerical factor 0.7, which is referred to as the basic
exposure factor, accounts for the general effect of wind, which is likely to blow

*The site-specific ground snow loads at all U.S. locations are also available at the Applied Tech-
nology Council website: https://hazards.atcouncil.org/.
   CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

some of the snow off the roofs. The local effects of wind, which depend on the
particular terrain surrounding the structure and the exposure of its roof, are
accounted for by the exposure factor Ce . The ASCE 7 Standard provides the
values of Ce , which range from 0.7 for structures in windy areas with exposed
roofs to 1.2 for structures exposed to little wind.
The thermal factor, Ct , accounts for the fact that there will be more
snow on the roofs of unheated structures than on those of heated ones. The
values of Ct are specified as 1.0 and 1.2 for heated and unheated structures,
respectively. The importance factor I s in Eq. (2.7) accounts for hazard to
human life and damage to property in the case of failure of the structure. The
values of I s to be used for estimating roof snow loads are given in Table 2.3.
The design snow load for a sloped roof is determined by multiplying the
corresponding flat-roof snow load by a slope factor Cs . Thus,
ps 5 Cs p f (2.8)
in which ps is the design sloped-roof snow load considered to act on the hori-
zontal projection of the roof surface, and the slope factor Cs is given by

 C 51 for 0 # u , 308
For warm roofs  s u 2 308

(Ct # 1.0 )  Cs 5 1 2 408 for 308 # u # 708 (2.9)
 Cs 5 0 for u . 708

 C 51 for 0 # u , 458
For cold roofs  s u 2 458

(Ct 5 1.2)  Cs 5 1 2 258 for 458 # u # 708 (2.10)
C 50 for u . 708
 s

In Eqs. (2.9) and (2.10), u denotes the slope of the roof from the horizontal, in
degrees. These slope factors are based on the considerations that more snow is
likely to slide off of steep roofs, as compared to shallow ones, and that more
snow is likely to melt and slide off the roofs of heated structures than those
of unheated structures.
The ASCE 7 Standard specifies minimum values of snow loads for
which structures with low-slope roofs must be designed. For such structures,
if pg # 0.96 kNym 2, then p f shall not be less than pg I s; if pg . 0.96 kNym 2, then
p f shall not be less than 0.96 I s kNym 2. These minimum values of p f apply to
monoslope, hip, and gable roofs with u # 158.
In some structures, the snow load acting on only a part of the roof may
cause higher stresses than when the entire roof is loaded. To account for such
a possibility, the ASCE 7 Standard recommends that the effect of unbalanced
snow loads also be considered in the design of structures. A detailed descrip-
tion of unbalanced snow load distributions to be considered in the design of
various types of roofs can be found in the ASCE 7 Standard. For example, for
gable roofs with 2.388 # u # 30.28, and the horizontal distance from the eave
to the ridge, W # 6.1m , the ASCE 7 Standard specifies that the structures be
designed to resist an unbalanced uniform load of magnitude pg I s applied to the
leeward side of the roof, with the windward side free of snow.
Section 2.6  Snow Loads  

Example 2.4

Determine the design snow loads for the roof of the gabled frame of an apartment building shown in Fig. 2.14(a). The building
is located in Chicago, Illinois, where the ground snow load is 1.2 kNym 2. Because of several trees near the structure, assume the
exposure factor is Ce 51.

Solution
Flat-Roof Snow Load.

pg 5 1.2 kNym 2
Ce 5 1
Ct 5 1 ( heated structure )
I s 51 ( from Table 2.3 for nonessential building, risk category II )

W=6m 0.74 kN/m2

q = 35°

12 m
Fig. 2.14 (a) (b) Balanced Snow Load

From Eq. (2.7), the flat-roof snow load is obtained as


p f 5 0.7CeCt I s pg 5 0.7 (1)(1)(1)(1.2 )
5 0.84 kNym 2

The slope is u 5 358, which is greater than 158, so the minimum values of p f need not be considered.
Sloped-Roof Snow Load. By applying Eq. (2.9), we compute the slope factor as

u 2 308 358 2 308


Cs 5 1 2 51 2 5 0.88
408 408
From Eq. (2.8), we determine the design sloped-roof snow load:

ps 5 Cs p f 5 0.88 ( 0.84 ) 5 0.74 kNym 2  Ans.

This load is called the balanced design snow load and is applied to the entire roof of the structure, as shown in Fig. 2.14(b).
As the slope is u 5 358, which is greater than 30.28 , the unbalanced snow load does not need to be considered.
 Ans.
   CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

2.7  Earthquake Loads


An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface.
Although the ground surface moves in both horizontal and vertical directions
during an earthquake, the magnitude of the vertical component of ground
motion is usually small and does not have a significant effect on most struc-
tures. It is the horizontal component of ground motion that causes structural
damage and that must be considered in designs of structures located in earth-
quake-prone areas.
During an earthquake, as the foundation of the structure moves with the
ground, the above-ground portion of the structure, because of the inertia of its
mass, resists the motion, thereby causing the structure to vibrate in the hori-
zontal direction (Fig. 2.15). These vibrations produce horizontal shear forces
in the structure. For an accurate prediction of the stresses that may develop
in a structure in the case of an earthquake, a dynamic analysis, considering
the mass and stiffness characteristics of the structure, must be performed.
However, for low- to medium-height rectangular buildings, most codes employ
equivalent static forces to design for earthquake resistance. In this empirical
approach, the dynamic effect of the earthquake is approximated by a set of
lateral (horizontal) forces applied to the structure, and static analysis is per-
formed to evaluate stresses in the structure.
The ASCE 7 Standard permits the use of this equivalent lateral-force pro-
cedure for earthquake design of buildings. According to the ASCE 7 Standard,
the total lateral seismic force that a building is designed to resist is given by
the equation

V 5 CSW (2.11)

in which V 5 total lateral force or base shear, W 5 effective seismic weight


of the building that includes the total dead and a part of the live load, and
CS 5 seismic response coefficient. The latter is defined by the equation
S DS
CS 5 (2.12)
RyI e

Fig. 2.15  Effect of Earthquake on a


Structure
Section 2.9  Thermal and Other Effects  

in which S DS is the design spectral response acceleration in the short period


range; R denotes the response modification coefficient; and I e represents the
importance factor for earthquake loads based on the building’s risk category.
The ASCE 7 Standard further specifies upper and lower limits for the values
of CS to be used in design.
The design spectral response acceleration ( S DS ) used in the evaluation of
the design base shear depends on the geographical location of the structure
and can be obtained using the contour maps provided in the ASCE 7 Standard.
The response modification coefficient R takes into consideration the energy-
dissipation capacity of the structure; its values range from 1 to 8. For exam-
ple, for plain unreinforced masonry shear walls, R 51.5, whereas for moment
resisting frames, R 58. The values of I e to be used for estimating earthquake
loads are given in Table 2.3.
The total lateral force V thus obtained is then distributed to the vari-
ous floor levels of the building using the formulas provided in the ASCE 7
Standard. For additional details about this equivalent lateral-force procedure
and for limitations on the use of this procedure, the reader is referred to the
ASCE 7 Standard.

2.8  Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures


Structures used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as well as coastal
structures partially or fully submerged in water must be designed to resist
hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure acts normal to the submerged sur-
face of the structure, with its magnitude varying linearly with height, as shown
in Fig. 2.16. Thus, the pressure at a point located at a distance h below the
surface of the liquid can be expressed as
p 5 g h (2.13)
in which g 5 unit weight of the liquid.
Underground structures, basement walls and floors, and retaining walls
must be designed to resist soil pressure. The vertical soil pressure is given by
Eq. (2.13), with g now representing the unit weight of the soil. The lateral soil
pressure depends on the type of soil and is usually considerably smaller than
Fig. 2.16  Hydrostatic Pressure the vertical pressure. For the portions of structures below the water table, the
combined effect of hydrostatic pressure and soil pressure due to the weight of
the soil, reduced for buoyancy, must be considered.

2.9  Thermal and Other Effects


Statically indeterminate structures may be subjected to stresses due to tem-
perature changes, shrinkage of material, fabrication errors, and differential
settlements of supports. Although these effects are usually not addressed in
building codes, they may cause significant stresses in structures and should be
considered in their designs. The procedures for determining the forces induced
in structures due to these effects are considered in Part III.
   CHAPTER 2  Loads on Structures

2.10  Load Combinations


As stated previously, once the magnitudes of the design loads for a structure
have been estimated, an engineer must consider all loads that might act simul-
taneously on the structure at a given time. For example, it is highly unlikely
that an earthquake and the maximum wind loads will occur simultaneously.
Based on past experience and probability analysis, the ASCE 7 Standard spec-
ifies that the buildings be designed so that their strength equals or exceeds the
following combinations of factored loads:

1.4D (2.14a)

1.2 D 11.6 L 1 0.5( Lr or S or R) (2.14b)

1.2 D 11.6 ( Lr or S or R) 1 ( L or 0.5W ) (2.14c)

1.2 D 1 W 1 L 1 0.5( Lr or S or R) (2.14d)

1.2 D 1 E 1 L 1 0.2 S (2.14e)

0.9D 1 W (2.14f)

0.9D 1 E (2.14g)

in which D 5 dead load, E 5 earthquake load , L 5 live load , Lr 5 roof live


load, R 5 rain load, S 5 snow load , and W 5 wind load.
It is important to realize that the structure must be designed to
have adequate strength to resist the most unfavorable of all the load
combinations.
In addition to the aforementioned strength or safety requirements, a struc-
ture must also satisfy any serviceability requirements related to its intended
use. For example, a high-rise building may be perfectly safe, yet unserviceable
if it deflects or vibrates excessively due to wind. The serviceability require-
ments are specified in building codes for most common types of structures
and are usually concerned with deflections, vibrations, cracking, corrosion,
and fatigue.

SUMMARY
In this chapter, we learned about the loads that act on common civil engineer-
ing structures and the structural systems used for transmitting loads. These
loads can be grouped into three classes: (1) dead loads, (2) live loads, and
(3) environmental loads.
Summary  

Dead loads have constant magnitudes and fixed positions, and they act
permanently on the structure. Live loads have varying magnitudes andyor
positions and are caused by the use or occupancy of the structure. Each mem-
ber of the structure must be designed for that position of the live load that
produces the most unfavorable effect on that member. For structures subjected
to rapidly applied live loads, the dynamic effect, or the impact, of the loads
should be considered in design.
The external wind pressures used for designing the main framing of struc-
tures are given by

pz 5 qz GC p for windward wall


(2.6)
ph 5 qh GC p for leeward wall, sidewalls, and roof

where h is the mean roof height, G is the gust effect factor, C p is the exter-
nal pressure coefficient, and qz is the velocity pressure at height z, which is
expressed in N/m2 as

qz 5 0.613K z K zt K d K eV 2 (2.3)

with K z 5 velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K zt 5 topographic factor,


K d 5 directionality factor, K e 5 ground elevation factor, and V 5 basic wind
speed in mys.
The design flat-roof snow load for buildings is given by

p f 5 0.7CeCt I s pg (2.7)

where pg 5 ground snow load, Ce 5 exposure factor, and Ct 5 thermal factor .


The design sloped-roof snow load is expressed as

ps 5 Cs p f (2.8)

with Cs 5 slope factor.


The total lateral seismic design force for buildings is given by

V 5 CS W (2.11)

in which CS 5 seismic response coefficient and W 5 effective seismic weight


of the building.
The magnitude of the hydrostatic pressure at a point located at a distance
h below the surface of the liquid is given by

p 5 g h (2.13)

in which g 5 unit weight of the liquid.


The effects of temperature changes, shrinkage of material, fabrication
errors, and support settlements should be considered in designing statically
indeterminate structures. The structure must be designed to withstand the most
unfavorable combination of loads.
PROBLEMS

Section 2.1 Section 2.2


2.1 The roof of a single-story storage building, shown in 2.5  The floor system of an apartment building consists of a
Fig. P2.1, is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of 0.96 kPa 100 mm thick reinforced concrete slab resting on three steel
over its surface area. Determine the loads acting on the floor floor beams, which in turn are supported by two steel girders, as
beam BE and the girder AC of the framing system. shown in Fig. P2.5. The areas of cross section of the floor beams
and the girders are 11,800 mm 2 and 21,100 mm 2, respectively.
2.2  For the building described in Problem 2.1, calculate the Determine the dead loads acting on the beam CD and the
axial load acting on the column C. See Fig. P2.1. girder AE.

2.6  Solve Problem 2.5 if a 150 mm thick brick wall, which is


Floor beam Girder Column 2.1 m high and 7.5 m long, bears directly on the top of beam
A B C CD. See Fig. P2.5.

Steel girder 7.5 m

6m (A = 21,100 mm2)
100 mm thick
concrete slab

D E F 2 at 3.6 m = 7.2 m
2 at 4 m = 8 m Steel floor beam
(A = 11,800 mm2)
Fig. P2.1, P2.2

Fig. P2.5, P2.6, P2.9


2.3  The floor of an apartment building, shown in Fig. P2.3,
is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of 2.2 kPa over its
surface area. Determine the loads acting on the floor beams 2.7  The floor system of a gymnasium consists of a 130 mm thick
AF, BG , and CH and the girders AC and FH of the framing concrete slab resting on four steel beams ( A 5 9,100 mm 2 ) that,
system. in turn, are supported by two steel girders ( A 5 25,600 mm 2 ),
2.4  For the building described in Problem 2.3, calculate the as shown in Fig. P2.7. Determine the dead loads acting on beam
axial loads acting on the columns A, F, and H . See Fig. P2.3. BF and girder AD.

Girder Steel floor beam


Floor beam Column Steel girder (A = 25,600 mm2)
A C E (A = 9,100 mm2)
B D
A D Steel
B C
column

130 mm
10 m concrete
2 at 12 m = slab
F J
G H I 24 m

H
E F G
3 at 5 m = 15 m

Fig. P2.7, P2.10


K L M N O
4 at 7.5 m = 30 m
2.8  The roof system of an office building consists of a 100 mm
Fig. P2.3, P2.4 thick reinforced concrete slab resting on four steel beams
Problems  

( A 5 10,450 mm 2 ), which are supported by two steel girders direction is normal to the ridge as shown. Use K d 5 0.85 for
( A 5 27,700 mm 2 ). The girders, in turn, are supported by four main wind-force resisting systems, and K e 51.
columns, as shown in Fig. P2.8. Determine the dead loads acting
on the girder AG. Wind 5m
A 6m B Steel
Steel girder column
(A = 27,700 mm2) 100 mm thick
concrete slab 12 m
C D
3 at 3 m = 9 m
E F
Steel floor beam
12 m
(A = 10,450 mm2)
G H Fig. P2.13, P2.17

Fig. P2.8, P2.11 2.14  Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of
the rigid-gabled frame of a building for an essential disaster
Section 2.3 operation center shown in Fig. P2.14. The building is located
2.9 For the apartment building whose floor system was in Kansas City, Missouri, where the terrain is representative
described in Problem 2.5, determine the live loads acting on the of exposure C and the basic wind speed for risk category IV
beam CD and the girder AE. See Fig. P2.5. buildings is 54 mys. Assume the wind direction is normal to the
ridge, as shown in the figure. Use K d 5 0.85 for main wind-force
2.10  For the gymnasium whose floor system was described in resisting systems, and K e 51.
Problem 2.7, determine the live loads acting on beam BF and
girder AD. See Fig. P2.7. 2.15  Determine the external wind pressures on the windward
and leeward walls of the building of Problem 2.14. See
2.11  The roof of the office building considered in Problem 2.8 Fig. P2.14.
is subjected to a live load of 1.0 kNym 2. Determine the live loads
acting on the beam EF , the girder AG, and the column A. See
Fig. P2.8.
10 m

Section 2.5
2.12  Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of the Plan
rigid-gabled frame of an apartment building shown in Fig. P2.12.
The building is located in the Los Angeles area of California, Wind
3.3 m
where the terrain is representative of exposure B. The wind
direction is normal to the ridge as shown. Use K d 5 0.85 for
main wind-force resisting systems, and K e 51. 10 m

Wind
5m 12 m
Elevation

Fig. P2.14, P2.15, P2.16

12 m Section 2.6
2.16  Determine the balanced design snow load for the roof
10 m of the disaster operation center building of Problem 2.14. The
ground snow load in Kansas City is 0.96 kNym 2 . Because of
Fig. P2.12 trees near the building, assume the exposure factor is Ce 51. See
Fig. P2.14.
2.13  Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of the
rigid-gabled frame of a school building shown in Fig. P2.13. 2.17  Determine the balanced design snow load for the roof of
The structure is located in a suburb of Chicago, Illinois, where the school building of Problem 2.13. The ground snow load in
the terrain is representative of exposure B and the basic wind Chicago is 1.2 kNym 2. Assume the exposure factor is Ce 5 1.
speed for risk category III buildings is 51 mys. Assume the wind See Fig. P2.13.

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