Chapter 2 (Loads On Structures) - Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis
Chapter 2 (Loads On Structures) - Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis
Loads on Structures
2.1 Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads
2.2 Dead Loads
2.3 Live Loads
2.4 Classification of Buildings for Environmental Loads
2.5 Wind Loads
2.6 Snow Loads
2.7 Earthquake Loads
2.8 Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures
2.9 Thermal and Other Effects
2.10 Load Combinations
Summary
Problems
Earthquake-Damaged Building
Ints Vikmanis/Shutterstock.com
*
The numbers in brackets refer to items listed in the bibliography.
CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures
Although the load requirements of most local building codes are generally
based on those of the national codes listed herein, local codes may contain
additional provisions warranted by such regional conditions as earthquakes,
tornadoes, hurricanes, heavy snow, and the like. Local building codes are usu-
ally legal documents enacted to safeguard public welfare and safety, and the
engineer must become thoroughly familiar with the building code for the area
in which the structure is to be built.
The loads described in the codes are usually based on past experience and
study and are the minimum for which the various types of structures must be
designed. However, the engineer must decide if the structure might be sub-
jected to any loads in addition to those considered by the code and, if so, must
design the structure to resist the additional loads. Remember that the engineer
is ultimately responsible for the safe design of the structure.
The objective of this chapter is to describe the types of loads commonly
encountered in the design of structures and to introduce the basic concepts of
load estimation. Before discussing the specific types of loads, we begin this
chapter with a brief description of the typical structural systems used in com-
mon buildings and bridges for transmitting loads to the ground. In this first
section, we also introduce the concepts of load path and tributary area. Next,
we describe dead loads and then discuss live loads for buildings and bridges,
including the dynamic effect, or the impact, of live loads. We describe envi-
ronmental loads, including wind loads, snow loads, and earthquake loads. We
give a brief discussion of hydrostatic and soil pressures and thermal effects and
conclude with a discussion about the combinations of loads used for design
purposes.
The material presented herein is mainly based on the ASCE Standard
Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other
Structures (ASCEySEI 7-16), which is commonly referred to as the ASCE
7 Standard and is perhaps the most widely used standard in practice. Since
the intent here is to familiarize the reader with the general topic of loads on
structures, many of the details have not been included. Needless to say, the
complete provisions of the local building codes or the ASCE 7 Standard† must
be followed in designing structures.
Copies of this standard may be purchased from the American Society of Civil Engineers, 1801
†
Beam L
K
J
Girder
D
I H
Y C
G
F
Slab
E
X Column
Foundation
B
A Brace
Z
(a) Structural System for a Single-Story Building
K
J Roof slab
I
H
K
Beams
J
K L
I J Girders
G H
F
E
K L
C D
E F
Columns
A B
C D
A B
Footings
(b) (contd.)
Fig. 2.1 (contd.)
CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures
Braced frame
D
C
Slab
Braced frame
B
A
1 2 3
Column
L1 L2
lines
s1 s1 s1 s2 s2 s2
A
Interior
beams
Exterior
(edge) L3
beam
Interior
girder
Interior
column L4
Z
X C
Corner
Exterior (edge) Exterior (edge) column
girder column
Fig. 2.4 (a) A Typical Floor Framing Plan
CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures
1 2 3
L1 L2
s1 s1 s1 s2 s2 s2
s1 s1 s2
2 2 2
A
Tributary area of
exterior (edge)
beam b1
b1 b2 L3
Tributary area of
interior beam b2
b3 L4
C
s2 s2
2 2
Tributary area of
interior beam b3
(b) Tributary Areas of Beams
1 2 3
L1 L2
Tributary area of
exterior (edge) girder A2 – A3
A
L3
Tributary area of 2
interior girder
B1 – B2 L3
L3
2
L4
2
L4
C
Fig. 2.4 (contd.) (c) Tributary Areas of Girders
Section 2.1 Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads
Tributary area of
interior column B2
1 2 3
L1 L2
L1
2
A
L3
2
L3
Tributary area
of corner
column A1
L4
L4
2
C
L1 L2
2 2
Tributary area of
exterior (edge)
column C2
(d) Tributary Areas of Columns
Fig. 2.4 (contd.)
As in common practice, the column lines in the two (X and Z ) directions are
identified by letters and numbers, respectively. Note the small gaps (blank
spaces) at the intersections of members, which denote that the members are
connected by hinged or shear (non-moment-resisting) connections. The slab
(not shown) rests on the beams and transmits its load through beams to girders
and then to columns.
During the design process, an engineer needs to determine how much of
the total distributed load applied over the area of the slab is carried by each
member (i.e., a beam, a girder, or a column) of the floor system. The portion
of the slab area whose load is carried by a particular member is called the
tributary area of the member.
The slabs used in buildings and bridges are usually designed as one-way
slabs. Such slabs are assumed to be supported on two sides and bend only
in one direction like wide beams. For floor systems with one-way slabs, the
tributary area of each beam is considered to be rectangular, of a length equal
to that of the beam and a width extending to half the distance to the adjacent
beam on each side, as shown in Fig. 2.4(b). The tributary areas of girders and
columns are defined similarly and are depicted in Figs. 2.4(c) and (d), respec-
tively. The procedure for calculating loads on the members of floor systems
with one-way slabs is illustrated in Example 2.1.
CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures
For floor systems with a beam length to spacing ratio of less than 1.5 (i.e.,
Lys ,1.5 – see Fig. 2.4(a)), the slabs are designed as two-way slabs, supported
on all four sides. Such a slab is assumed to bend in two perpendicular direc-
tions like a plate and transmits its load to all four supporting beams along its
edges. Figures 2.5(a) and (b) depict the tributary areas of the edge beams sup-
porting square and rectangular two-way slabs, respectively. These figures also
show the loads carried by edge beams due to a uniformly distributed pressure
w (force per unit area) applied to the surface area of the slab.
L
A B
L wL
2
L
2
45° 45° C D
C D L L
Tributary area of 2 2
beam CD Load carried by edge beams
(a) Square Two-way Slabs
L1
B
A
A
Load carried by short
beam AC
wL2
L2
2
L2
L2
2
2 45°
C
C D
Tributary area of
beam CD
wL2
2
C D
L2 L1 – L2 L2
2 2
Load carried by long edge beams
Fig. 2.5 (b) Rectangular Two-way Slabs
Section 2.1 Structural Systems for Transmitting Loads
Example 2.1
The floor of a building, shown in Fig. 2.6(a), is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of 3.5 kPa over its surface area.
Determine the loads acting on all the members of the floor system.
Column
Floor beam
B
A
Slab
C D
3 at 4 m
Floor beam = 12 m
E F
Girder
G
H
9m
(a) Framing Plan
7 kN/m
A B
A B 9m
Tributary area 2m 31.5 kN 31.5 kN
of beam AB Load on exterior beams
1m
C D AB and GH
1m
14 kN/m
E F 4m E F
Tributary area
of beam EF 9m
63 kN 63 kN
G H Load on interior beams
9m CD and EF
(b) Load on Beams
Tributary area
of girder AG
A B
4m 31.5 kN 63 kN 63 kN 31.5 kN
C D
A G
4m 12 m C E
E F 94.5 kN 94.5 kN
4m 4m 4m
4m
G H
4.5 m 4.5 m
Fig. 2.6 (c) Load on Girders AG and BH
continued
CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures
Tributary area of
column A 94.5 kN
4.5 m
A B A
6m
C D
Column A
12 m
E F
G 94.5 kN
H
9m
Fig. 2.6 (contd.) (d) Compressive Axial Load on Columns A, B, G, and H
Solution
Beams. The tributary areas of the exterior beam AB and the interior beam EF are shown in Fig. 2.6(b). Considering
the exterior beam AB first, we can see that each one-meter length of the beam supports the load applied over a strip of the slab
area (5 2 m 3 1 m) 5 2 m 2. Thus, the load transmitted to each one-meter length of the beam AB is:
This 7 kNym load is uniformly distributed along the length of the beam, as shown in Fig. 2.6(b). This figure also shows
the reactions exerted by the supporting girders at the beam’s ends. As the beam is symmetrically loaded, the magnitudes of the
reactions are equal to half of the total load acting on the beam:
1
RA 5 RB 5 (7 kNym)(9 m) 5 31.5 kN
2
The load on the interior beam EF is computed in a similar manner. From Fig. 2.6(b), we see that the load transmitted to
each one-meter length of the beam EF is
This load acts as a uniformly distributed load of magnitude 14 kNym along the beam’s length. The reactions of the interior
beam are:
1
RE 5 RF 5 (14 kNym)(9 m) 5 63 kN
2
Because of the symmetry of the framing plan and loading, the remaining beams CD and GH are subjected to the same loads
as the beams EF and AB, respectively. Ans.
Girders. The girder loads can be conveniently obtained by applying the beam reactions as concentrated loads (in reverse direc-
tions) at their corresponding support (connection) points on the girder. As shown in Fig. 2.6(c), since girder AG supports exterior
beams AB and GH at points A and G, the reactions (31.5 kN) of the two exterior beams are applied at these points. Similarly, the
reactions of two interior beams (CD and EF ) are applied at points C and E, where these interior beams are supported on the girder.
Note that the sum of the magnitudes of all four concentrated loads applied to the girder equals its tributary area (4.5 m 3 12 m)
multiplied by the floor load intensity (3.5 kNym 2 ), that is (see Fig. 2.6(c))
continued
Section 2.2 Dead Loads
1
RA 5 RG 5 [2(31.5) 1 2(63)] 5 94.5 kN
2
Because of symmetry, the load on girder BH is the same as on girder AG. Ans.
Columns. As shown in Fig. 2.6(d), the axial load on column A is obtained by applying the reaction RA ( 5 94.5 kN) of girder
AG on the column with its direction reversed. This column axial load can also be evaluated by multiplying the tributary area
(4.5 m 3 6 m) of column A by the floor load intensity (3.5 kNym 2 ), that is (see Fig. 2.6(d))
Because of symmetry, the three remaining columns are subjected to the same axial compressive load as column A. Ans.
Finally, the sum of the axial loads carried by all four columns must be equal to the product of the total surface area of the
floor times the floor load intensity:
Example 2.2
The floor system of a building consists of a 125 mm thick reinforced concrete slab resting on four steel floor beams, which in
turn are supported by two steel girders, as shown in Fig. 2.7(a). The cross-sectional areas of the floor beams and the girders are
9,500 mm 2 and 33,700 mm 2, respectively. Determine the dead loads acting on the beams CG and DH and the girder AD.
continued
CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures
8m Tributary
125 mm area for
concrete beam CG
slab
E F G H
Steel floor beam
(A = 9,500 mm2) 1.5 m 1.5 m
C G D H A B C D
70.5 kN 70.5 kN
38.4 kN 38.4 kN 20.4 kN 20.4 kN 3m 3m 3m
8m 8m 9m
(b) Load on Beam CG (c) Load on Beam DH (d) Load on Girder AD
Fig. 2.7
Solution
Beam CG. As shown in Fig. 2.7(a), the tributary area for beam CG has a width of 3 m (i.e., half the distance between beams CG
and BF plus half the distance between beams CG and DH ) and a length of 8 m. We use the unit weights of reinforced concrete
and structural steel from Table 2.1 to compute the dead load per meter of length of beam CG as follows:
125
Concrete slab: (23.6 kNym 3 )(3 m)(1 m) m 5 8.9 kN
1000
9,500
Steel beam: (77 kNym 3 ) m 2 (1 m) 5 0.7 kN
1,000,000
Total load 5 9.6 kN Ans.
This 9.6 kN m load is uniformly distributed on the beam, as shown in Fig. 2.7(b). This figure also shows the reactions exerted
by the supporting girders at the ends of the beam. As the beam is symmetrically loaded, the magnitudes of the reactions are:
Note that the magnitudes of these end reactions represent the downward loads being transmitted to the supporting girders AD
and EH at points C and G, respectively.
Beam DH. The tributary area for beam DH is 1.5 m wide and 8 m long. The dead load per meter of length of this beam is
computed as follows:
125
Concrete slab: (23.6 kNym 3 )(1.5 m)(1 m) m 5 4.4 kN
1,000
Steel beam: (same as for beam CG ) 5 0.7 kN
Total load 5 5.1 kN Ans.
e
Section 2.3 Live Loads
Girder AD. Because of the symmetry of the framing system and loading, the loads acting on beams BF and AE are the same
as those on beams CG and DH , respectively. The load on girder AD consists of the uniformly distributed load due to its own
weight, which has a magnitude of
33,700
(77 kNym 3 ) m 2 (1 m) 5 2.6 kN
1,000,000
and the concentrated loads transmitted to it by the beams at points A, B, C, and D, as shown in Fig. 2.7(d). Ans.
Source: Based on data from ASCE/SEI 7-16, Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria
for Buildings and Other Structures.
CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures
35 kN 145 kN 145 kN
110 kN 110 kN 3m Lane
width
OR
Curb
Load combination 2
(a) HL-93 Truck (b) HL-93 Tandem (c) Wheel Spacing for Truck/Tandem
AND
regarding multiple lanes, loadings for continuous spans, reduction in load intensity,
and so on can be found in the AASHTO LRFD Specification.
Live loads for railroad bridges are specified by the American Railway
Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA) in the Manual
for Railway Engineering [27]. These loadings, which are commonly known
as Cooper E loadings, consist of two sets of nine concentrated loads, each
separated by specified distances, representing the two locomotives followed
by a uniform loading representing the weight of the freight cars. An example
of such a loading, called the E80 loading, is depicted in Fig. 2.10. The design
loads for heavier or lighter trains can be obtained from this loading by propor-
tionately increasing or decreasing the magnitudes of the loads while keeping
the same distances between the concentrated loads. For example, the E40 load-
ing can be obtained from the E80 loading by simply dividing the magnitudes
of the loads by 2. As in the case of highway bridges considered previously,
live loads on railroad bridges must be placed so that they will cause the most
unfavorable effect on the member under consideration.
178 kN 356 kN each 231.4 kN each 178 kN 356 kN each 231.4 kN each 116.8 kN/m
2.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 2.8 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 2.5 m 2.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 2.8 m 1.8 m 1.5 m
1.5 m 1.8 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m
Impact
When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they cause larger stresses
than those that would be produced if the same loads would have been applied
gradually. The dynamic effect of the load that causes this increase in stress in
the structure is referred to as impact. To account for the increase in stress due
to impact, the live loads expected to cause such a dynamic effect on structures
are increased by certain impact percentages, or impact factors. The impact
percentages and factors, which are usually based on past experience andyor
experimental results, are specified in the building codes. For example, the
ASCE 7 Standard specifies that the weights of reciprocating machinery and
power-driven units for buildings be increased by 50% to account for impact.
For highway bridges, the AASHTO LRFD Specification uses an impact
factor of 33% for design vehicles (truck and tandem), and empirical expressions
for impact factors to be used in designing railroad bridges are specified in [27].
I Buildings representing low risk to human life in the case of failure, 0.8 1.00
such as agricultural and minor storage facilities.
II All buildings other than those listed in Risk Categories I, III, and 1.0 1.00
IV. This risk category applies to most of the residential, commercial,
and industrial buildings (except those which have been specifically
assigned to another category).
III Buildings whose failure would pose a substantial risk to human 1.1 1.25
life, andyor could cause a substantial economic impact or mass
disruption of everyday public life. This category contains buildings
such as theaters, lecture and assembly halls where a large number of
people congregate in one area; elementary schools; small hospitals;
prisons; power generating stations; water and sewage treatment
plants; telecommunication centers; and buildings containing
hazardous and explosive materials.
IV Essential facilities, including hospitals, fire and police stations, 1.2 1.50
national defense facilities and emergency shelters, communication
centers, power stations and utilities required in an emergency, and
buildings containing extremely hazardous materials.
Source: Based on data from ASCE/SEI 7-16, Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures.
Section 2.5 Wind Loads
The wind speed V to be used in the determination of the design loads on
a structure depends on its geographical location and can be obtained from
meteorological data for the region. The ASCE 7 Standard provides contour
maps of the basic wind speeds for the United States. These maps, which
are based on data collected at 575 weather stations, give the 3-second gust
speeds in mys. These speeds are for open terrain at the height of 10 m above
ground level. Figure 2.11 shows the basic wind speed map for structures
in the risk category II, which includes a vast majority of residential, com-
mercial, and industrial buildings. These wind speeds correspond to approx-
imately 7% probability of being exceeded in 50 years. Similar wind speed
maps for structures in risk categories I, III, and IV are given in the ASCE
7 Standard.* To account for the variation in wind speed with the height
and the surroundings in which a structure is located, the ASCE 7 Standard
modifies Eq. (2.2) as
qz 5 0.613K z K zt K d K eV 2 (2.3)
* The site-specific wind speeds at all U.S. locations for the four risk categories are also available
at the Applied Technology Council website: https://hazards.atcouncil.org/.
CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures
95(42)
100(45)
105(47)
110(49) 101(45)
105(47)
90(40) 103(46)
110(49)
115(51)
105(47) 120(54)
130(58)
114(51)
Crosshatching on Map
140(63)
indicates a Special
Wind Region 107(48)
140(63)
104
105(47) (46) 150(67)
90(40)
95(42) 104(46)
100(45) 105(47)
150(67) 105(47) 140(63)
140(63) 150(67)
130(58) 105(47) 160(72)
120(54) 160(72) 170(76)
110(49) 103(46) 170(76)
105(47) 180(80)
110(49)
150(67)
115(51)
120(54) 140(63)
130(58)
110(49)
Notes:
1. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour (m/s) at 33 ft (10 m) above ground for
Exposure C category.
2. Linear interpolation between contours is permitted.
3. Islands and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed contour of the coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions shall be examined for unusual wind conditions.
5. Wind speeds correspond to approximately a 7% probability of exceedance in 50 years (Annual Exceedance
Probability 5 0.00143, MRI 5 700 Years).
Fig. 2.11 Basic Wind Speeds for the United States for Risk Category II Buildings
Source: Based on ASCE/SEI 7-16, Minimum Design Loads and Associated Design Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures.
Source: Based on data from ASCEySEI 7-16, Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria
for Buildings and Other Structures.
For ground elevations below sea level, K e 51. The ASCE 7 Standard per-
mits the use of the conservative approximation K e 51 for all elevations if the
designer chooses to do so.
The external wind pressures to be used for designing the main framing
of structures are given by
pz 5 qz GC P for windward wall
(2.6)
ph 5 qh GC p for leeward wall, sidewalls, and roof
of structures. Figure 2.12 shows the coefficients specified for designing the main
framing of structures. We can see from this figure that the external wind pressure
varies with height on the windward wall of the structure but is uniform on the
leeward wall and the sidewalls. Note that the positive pressures act toward the
surfaces, whereas the negative pressures, called suctions, act away from the sur-
faces of the structures.
qhGCp L
L
Plan Elevation
qhGCp qhGCp
qhGCp
qhGCp
L L
Plan Elevation
Example 2.3
Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of the rigid gabled frame of a nonessential industrial building shown in
Fig. 2.13(a). The structure is located in a suburb of Boston, Massachusetts, where the terrain is representative of exposure B.
The wind direction is normal to the ridge of the frame as shown.
2
/m
. 4N 55
92 m
2
4.2
N/ N/
5.0 m 3.3 m2
32
3.5 m
L = 12 m
Fig. 2.13
Solution
Roof Slope and Mean Roof Height. From Fig. 2.13(a), we obtain
5.0
tan u 5 5 0.83, or u 5 39.88
6.0
5
h 5 3.5 1 5 6 m
2
h 6
5 5 0.5
L 12
Velocity Pressure at z 5 h 5 6 m. From Fig. 2.11, we obtain the basic wind speed for Boston as
V 5 58 mys
From Table 2.4, for the exposure category B, we obtain the following values of the constants:
Using K zt 51, K d 5 0.85 for main wind-force resisting systems, and K e 51 for ground elevation at sea level, we apply Eq. (2.3)
to obtain the velocity pressure at height h as
qh 5 0.613K h K zt K d K eV 2
5 0.613 ( 0.62 )(1)( 0.85)(1)( 58 )
2
5 1,086.7 Nym 2
External Wind Pressure on Roof. For rigid structures, the gust effect factor is
G 5 0.85
continued
Section 2.6 Snow Loads
For u < 408 and hyL 5 0.5, the values of the external pressure coefficients are (Fig. 2.12):
Finally, by substituting the values of qh, G, and C p into Eq. (2.6), we obtain the following wind pressures: for the windward side,
ph 5 qh GC p 5 (1,086.7 )( 0.85)( 0.35) 5 323.3 Nym 2 Ans.
and
ph 5 qh GC p 5 (1,086.7 )( 0.85)(20.1) 5292.4 Nym 2 Ans.
and for the leeward side
ph 5 qh GC p 5 (1,086.7 )( 0.85)(20.6 ) 52554.2 Nym 2 Ans.
These wind pressures are applied to the roof of the frame, as shown in Fig. 2.13(b). The two wind pressures (positive and negative)
on the windward side are treated as separate loading conditions, and the structure is designed for both conditions.
Once the external wind pressures have been established, they are com-
bined with the internal pressures to obtain the design wind pressures. With
the design wind pressures known, we can determine the corresponding design
loads on members of the structures by multiplying the pressures by the appro-
priate tributary areas of the members.
*The site-specific ground snow loads at all U.S. locations are also available at the Applied Tech-
nology Council website: https://hazards.atcouncil.org/.
CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures
some of the snow off the roofs. The local effects of wind, which depend on the
particular terrain surrounding the structure and the exposure of its roof, are
accounted for by the exposure factor Ce . The ASCE 7 Standard provides the
values of Ce , which range from 0.7 for structures in windy areas with exposed
roofs to 1.2 for structures exposed to little wind.
The thermal factor, Ct , accounts for the fact that there will be more
snow on the roofs of unheated structures than on those of heated ones. The
values of Ct are specified as 1.0 and 1.2 for heated and unheated structures,
respectively. The importance factor I s in Eq. (2.7) accounts for hazard to
human life and damage to property in the case of failure of the structure. The
values of I s to be used for estimating roof snow loads are given in Table 2.3.
The design snow load for a sloped roof is determined by multiplying the
corresponding flat-roof snow load by a slope factor Cs . Thus,
ps 5 Cs p f (2.8)
in which ps is the design sloped-roof snow load considered to act on the hori-
zontal projection of the roof surface, and the slope factor Cs is given by
C 51 for 0 # u , 308
For warm roofs s u 2 308
(Ct # 1.0 ) Cs 5 1 2 408 for 308 # u # 708 (2.9)
Cs 5 0 for u . 708
C 51 for 0 # u , 458
For cold roofs s u 2 458
(Ct 5 1.2) Cs 5 1 2 258 for 458 # u # 708 (2.10)
C 50 for u . 708
s
In Eqs. (2.9) and (2.10), u denotes the slope of the roof from the horizontal, in
degrees. These slope factors are based on the considerations that more snow is
likely to slide off of steep roofs, as compared to shallow ones, and that more
snow is likely to melt and slide off the roofs of heated structures than those
of unheated structures.
The ASCE 7 Standard specifies minimum values of snow loads for
which structures with low-slope roofs must be designed. For such structures,
if pg # 0.96 kNym 2, then p f shall not be less than pg I s; if pg . 0.96 kNym 2, then
p f shall not be less than 0.96 I s kNym 2. These minimum values of p f apply to
monoslope, hip, and gable roofs with u # 158.
In some structures, the snow load acting on only a part of the roof may
cause higher stresses than when the entire roof is loaded. To account for such
a possibility, the ASCE 7 Standard recommends that the effect of unbalanced
snow loads also be considered in the design of structures. A detailed descrip-
tion of unbalanced snow load distributions to be considered in the design of
various types of roofs can be found in the ASCE 7 Standard. For example, for
gable roofs with 2.388 # u # 30.28, and the horizontal distance from the eave
to the ridge, W # 6.1m , the ASCE 7 Standard specifies that the structures be
designed to resist an unbalanced uniform load of magnitude pg I s applied to the
leeward side of the roof, with the windward side free of snow.
Section 2.6 Snow Loads
Example 2.4
Determine the design snow loads for the roof of the gabled frame of an apartment building shown in Fig. 2.14(a). The building
is located in Chicago, Illinois, where the ground snow load is 1.2 kNym 2. Because of several trees near the structure, assume the
exposure factor is Ce 51.
Solution
Flat-Roof Snow Load.
pg 5 1.2 kNym 2
Ce 5 1
Ct 5 1 ( heated structure )
I s 51 ( from Table 2.3 for nonessential building, risk category II )
q = 35°
12 m
Fig. 2.14 (a) (b) Balanced Snow Load
The slope is u 5 358, which is greater than 158, so the minimum values of p f need not be considered.
Sloped-Roof Snow Load. By applying Eq. (2.9), we compute the slope factor as
This load is called the balanced design snow load and is applied to the entire roof of the structure, as shown in Fig. 2.14(b).
As the slope is u 5 358, which is greater than 30.28 , the unbalanced snow load does not need to be considered.
Ans.
CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures
V 5 CSW (2.11)
1.4D (2.14a)
0.9D 1 W (2.14f)
0.9D 1 E (2.14g)
SUMMARY
In this chapter, we learned about the loads that act on common civil engineer-
ing structures and the structural systems used for transmitting loads. These
loads can be grouped into three classes: (1) dead loads, (2) live loads, and
(3) environmental loads.
Summary
Dead loads have constant magnitudes and fixed positions, and they act
permanently on the structure. Live loads have varying magnitudes andyor
positions and are caused by the use or occupancy of the structure. Each mem-
ber of the structure must be designed for that position of the live load that
produces the most unfavorable effect on that member. For structures subjected
to rapidly applied live loads, the dynamic effect, or the impact, of the loads
should be considered in design.
The external wind pressures used for designing the main framing of struc-
tures are given by
where h is the mean roof height, G is the gust effect factor, C p is the exter-
nal pressure coefficient, and qz is the velocity pressure at height z, which is
expressed in N/m2 as
qz 5 0.613K z K zt K d K eV 2 (2.3)
p f 5 0.7CeCt I s pg (2.7)
ps 5 Cs p f (2.8)
V 5 CS W (2.11)
p 5 g h (2.13)
6m (A = 21,100 mm2)
100 mm thick
concrete slab
D E F 2 at 3.6 m = 7.2 m
2 at 4 m = 8 m Steel floor beam
(A = 11,800 mm2)
Fig. P2.1, P2.2
130 mm
10 m concrete
2 at 12 m = slab
F J
G H I 24 m
H
E F G
3 at 5 m = 15 m
( A 5 10,450 mm 2 ), which are supported by two steel girders direction is normal to the ridge as shown. Use K d 5 0.85 for
( A 5 27,700 mm 2 ). The girders, in turn, are supported by four main wind-force resisting systems, and K e 51.
columns, as shown in Fig. P2.8. Determine the dead loads acting
on the girder AG. Wind 5m
A 6m B Steel
Steel girder column
(A = 27,700 mm2) 100 mm thick
concrete slab 12 m
C D
3 at 3 m = 9 m
E F
Steel floor beam
12 m
(A = 10,450 mm2)
G H Fig. P2.13, P2.17
Fig. P2.8, P2.11 2.14 Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of
the rigid-gabled frame of a building for an essential disaster
Section 2.3 operation center shown in Fig. P2.14. The building is located
2.9 For the apartment building whose floor system was in Kansas City, Missouri, where the terrain is representative
described in Problem 2.5, determine the live loads acting on the of exposure C and the basic wind speed for risk category IV
beam CD and the girder AE. See Fig. P2.5. buildings is 54 mys. Assume the wind direction is normal to the
ridge, as shown in the figure. Use K d 5 0.85 for main wind-force
2.10 For the gymnasium whose floor system was described in resisting systems, and K e 51.
Problem 2.7, determine the live loads acting on beam BF and
girder AD. See Fig. P2.7. 2.15 Determine the external wind pressures on the windward
and leeward walls of the building of Problem 2.14. See
2.11 The roof of the office building considered in Problem 2.8 Fig. P2.14.
is subjected to a live load of 1.0 kNym 2. Determine the live loads
acting on the beam EF , the girder AG, and the column A. See
Fig. P2.8.
10 m
Section 2.5
2.12 Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of the Plan
rigid-gabled frame of an apartment building shown in Fig. P2.12.
The building is located in the Los Angeles area of California, Wind
3.3 m
where the terrain is representative of exposure B. The wind
direction is normal to the ridge as shown. Use K d 5 0.85 for
main wind-force resisting systems, and K e 51. 10 m
Wind
5m 12 m
Elevation
12 m Section 2.6
2.16 Determine the balanced design snow load for the roof
10 m of the disaster operation center building of Problem 2.14. The
ground snow load in Kansas City is 0.96 kNym 2 . Because of
Fig. P2.12 trees near the building, assume the exposure factor is Ce 51. See
Fig. P2.14.
2.13 Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of the
rigid-gabled frame of a school building shown in Fig. P2.13. 2.17 Determine the balanced design snow load for the roof of
The structure is located in a suburb of Chicago, Illinois, where the school building of Problem 2.13. The ground snow load in
the terrain is representative of exposure B and the basic wind Chicago is 1.2 kNym 2. Assume the exposure factor is Ce 5 1.
speed for risk category III buildings is 51 mys. Assume the wind See Fig. P2.13.