DAVAO DOCTORS COLLEGE

MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE DEPARTMENT

STUDENT NOTES: RESEARCH 1

RESEARCH 1 A. Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes

surveys and fact-finding enquiries
Research in common parlance refers to a search for of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive
knowledge. Once can also define research as research is description of the state of
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information affairs as it exists at present. In social science and
on a specific topic. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all business research we quite often use the term Ex post
possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the facto research for descriptive research studies. The
unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness main characteristic of this method is that the researcher
makes us probe and attain has no control over the variables; he can only report
full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This what has happened or what is happening.
inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and
the method, which man employs for obtaining the B. Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or
knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure)
termed as research. Research is an academic activity and as research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for
such the term should be used in a technical sense. an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH: research is mainly concerned with generalisations and
with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge
for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions
research.” Research concerning some natural
through the application of scientific
phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth
examples of fundamental research.
which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own
C. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based
specific purpose, we may think of
on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
research objectives as falling into a number of following
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in
broad groupings:
terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other
hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For
new insights into it (studies with this
instance, when we are interested in
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative
investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e.,
research studies);
why people think or do certain things), we quite often
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of
individual, situation or a group
qualitative research. This type of research aims at
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive
discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in
research studies);
depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of
3. To determine the frequency with which something
such research are word association tests, sentence
occurs or with which it is associated
completion tests, story completion tests and similar
with something else (studies with this object in view are
other projective techniques.
known as diagnostic research
studies);
D. Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally
variables (such studies are known as
used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
hypothesis-testing research studies).
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other
hand, empirical research relies on experience or
TYPES OF RESEARCH
observation alone, often without due regard for system
and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with
The basic types of research are as follows:
conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment. We can also call it as
 experimental type of research. In such a research it is Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain
necessary to indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the
get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply
about doing certain things to stimulate the production particular research techniques, but they also need to know
of desired information. In such a research, the which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and
researcher must first provide himself with a working which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions
works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove underlying various techniques and they need to know the
his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and
which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others
materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher
information. Such research is thus characterised by the to design his methodology for his problem as the same may
experimenter’s control over the variables under study differ from problem to problem.
and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study
its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof Scientific Method
is sought that certain variables affect other variables in
some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by
empirical studies is today considered to be the most logical considerations. The ideal of science is to achieve a
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis. systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method
attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation,
Research Methods versus Methodology observation, logical arguments from accepted
postulates and a combination of these three in varying
Research methods may be understood as all those proportions.” In scientific method, logic aids
methods/techniques that are used for conduction of in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that
research. Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the their possible alternatives become clear. Further, logic
methods the researchers use in performing research develops the consequences of such alternatives, and when
operations. In other words, all those methods which are used these are compared with observable phenomena, it becomes
by the researcher during the course of studying his research possible for the researcher or the scientist to state which
problem are termed as research methods. alternative is most in harmony with the observed facts. All
Since the object of research, particularly the applied this is done through experimentation and survey
research, it to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific
available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have method.
to be related to each other to make a solution possible.
Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the The scientific method is based on certain basic postulates:
following three groups: 1. It relies on empirical evidence;
1. In the first group we include those methods 2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
which are concerned with the collection of 3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
data. These methods will be used where the 4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing
data already available are not sufficient to but making only adequate and correct statements
arrive at the required solution; about population objects;
2. The second group consists of those statistical 5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
techniques which are used for establishing 6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for
relationships between the data and the critical scrutiny are for use in testing the conclusions
unknowns; through replication
3. The third group consists of those methods 7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can
which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the be termed as scientific theories.
results obtained.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the
research problem. It may be understood as a science of
studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study
the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher
in studying his research problem along with the logic behind
them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the
research methods/techniques but also the methodology.
 point for research. They also affect the manner in which
tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and
indirectly the quality of data which is required for the
analysis. In most types of research, the development of
working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis
should be very specific and limited to the piece of
research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of
the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting
the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It
sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more
important facets of the problem. It also indicates the type
of data required and the type of methods of data analysis
to be used.
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having
been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be
required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to
1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of state the conceptual structure within which research would
research problems, viz., those which relate to states of be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates
nature and those which relate to relationships between research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal
variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out information. In other words, the function of research design
the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all
would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated these can be achieved depends mainly on the research
in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four
relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii)
particular solution has to be considered before a working Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. A flexible research
formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of design which provides opportunity for considering many
a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if
constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially the purpose of the research study is that of exploration.
two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, 5. Determining sample design: All the items under
viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all
view. the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the
brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory items are covered no element of chance is left and
for a research worker writing a thesis to write a synopsis of highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not
the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an
Research Board for approval. At this juncture the researcher inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of
should undertake extensive literature survey connected with observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of
the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing checking the element of bias or its extent except through
journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of
first place to go to. Academic journals, conference inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy.
proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice
tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this under many circumstances. For instance, blood testing is
process, it should be remembered that one source will lead done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select
to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to only a few items from the universe for our study
the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library purposes. The items so selected constitute what is
will be a great help to the researcher at this stage. technically called a sample.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive 6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is
literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence,
the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data
out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such which differ considerably in context of money costs, time
the manner in which research hypotheses are developed and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
is particularly important since they provide the focal
 Primary data can be collected either through experiment 7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very
or through survey. If the researcher conducts an important step in the research process. If the execution
experiment, he observes some quantitative of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be
measurements, or the data, with the help of which he collected would be adequate and dependable. The
examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the researcher should see that the project is executed in a
case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be
more of the following ways: conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data
can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation,
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of questions as well as the possible answers may be coded.
information by way of investigator’s own observation, If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
without interviewing the respondents. The information arrangements should be made for proper selection and
obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not training of the interviewers.
complicated by either the past behaviour or future 8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the
intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method is no researcher turns to the task of analysis them. The analysis
doubt an expensive method and the information of data requires a number of closely related operations
provided by this method is also very limited. As such this such as establishment of categories, the application of
method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation
are concerned. and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a data should necessarily be condensed into a few
rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set of pre- manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus,
conceived questions through personal interviews. This researcher should classify the raw data into some
method of collecting data is usually carried out in a purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is
structured way where output depends upon the ability of usually done at this stage through which the categories of
the interviewer to a large extent. data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated
(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the
information involves contacting quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is
the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical
widely used method but it plays an important role in procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form
industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at
when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited this juncture.
time. 9. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above,
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if
respondents do come in contact with each other if this any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the
method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the
to the respondents with a request to return after usual question which should be answered while testing
completing the same. It is the most extensively hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test,
used method in various economic and business surveys. F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the
Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use
testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature
weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire. Questionnaire and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will
to be used must be prepared very carefully so that result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,
information. generalisations established on the basis of data may be
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent
are appointed and given training. They are provided with researches in times to come.
schedules containing relevant questions. These 10. Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested
enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
Data are collected by filling up the schedules by researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a
enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies
Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the
as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek
on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is
work. known as interpretation. The process of interpretation
 may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn
may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the
researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
done by him. Writing of report must be done with great
care keeping in view the following:

1. The layout of the report should be as follows:

(i) the preliminary pages;
(ii) the main text, and
(iii) the end matter.

In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and

date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then
there should be a table of contents followed by a list of
tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the
report.

The main text of the report should have the following

parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of
the objective of the research and an explanation of
the methodology adopted in accomplishing the
research. The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would
appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the
findings are extensive, they should be summarized.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be
presented in logical sequence and broken-down into
readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text,
researcher should again put down the results of his
research clearly and precisely.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style
simple language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it
seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used
only if they present the information more clearly and
forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the
various constraints experienced in conducting research
operations may as well be stated.