Meat and Meat

Products Technoloi!v
f Including Poultry
Products Technology J

BO Sharma MVSc PhD

Senior Scientist and Course Coordinator
Livestock Products Technology Division
Indian Veterinary Research Institute
lzatnagar

t
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• Meat and Meat Products Technology
the Profession
(Including Poultry Products· Technology)
© 1999 BO Sharma

All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means:
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the
prior written permission of the author/editor and the publisher.
This book has been published on good faith that the material provided
by author/editor is original. Every effort is made to ensure accuracy of
material, but the publisher, printer . and author will not be held
responsible for any inadvertent error(s). In case of any dispute, all legal
matters to be settled under Delhi jurisdiction only.

First Edition: 1999

ISBN 81-7179-679-6

Typeset at JPBMP typesetting unit

Printed at Lordson Publishers (P) Ltd .. C-5/19, R P Bagh, Delhi 11 o 007

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 I

The need for a book on meat technology in the Indian context was
being felt since a long time. It became all the more necessary with
the introduction of meat technology in the syllabus for veterinary
graduates. More than half of the veterinary students hail from
vegetarian families and they have very little exposure to meat as
such. This book deals with the science of meat and meat products
in a systematic, clear, concise form but yet in a comprehensive
manner. The basic and emerging concepts in fresh meat technology,
processed meat technology and quality coritrol systems have been
incorporated in right earnest. Due importance has been given to
the poultry products technology in order to have an integrated
approach in a single volume. The book will be useful to
undergraduate students specialising in veterinary science, food
science and technology, postgraduate students and research fellows
in concerned specialisation at the university level. This volume will
serve as a handbook for meat plant managers, quality control
supervisors and processing technicians at the industry level.
This book could not have been written but for the inspiration
provided by Dr OS Tomer, Director, IVRI, lzatnagar who constantly
encourages his scientists to do their best in research, teaching and
extension. I have been fortunate enough in having the benefit of the
. advice of leading meat professionals especially Dr AK Chatterjee,
Dr PC Panda, Dr N Sharma and Dr Sushi! Kumar. Besides,
cooperation extended by Dr R Somvanshi, Dr JS Berwal, Dr VK
Rao and Dr SP Singh has been a big help.
I shall be satisfied if this ;-,ook serves the intended purpose. There
is no limit for the betterment and in that spirit, suggestions extended
by senior professionals and colleagues for the improvement of the
book will be highly appreciated.

BO Sharma

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 1. Indian Meat Industry .................................................................... 1
2. Structur e, Compos ition and Nutritive Value of
Meat Tissues ................................................................................ 8
3. Postmo rtem Change s ............................................................... 23
4. Some Meat Quality Parameters ................................................ 27
5. Meat Cutting and Packagi ng ..................................................... 32
6. Principl es of Various Preserv ation Techniq ues ...................... 39
7. Process ing of Meat and Meat Product s .................................. 48
8. Microbia l and Other Deterior ative Change s in
Meat and their Identific ation ..................................................... 66
9. Standar ds and Quality Control Measure s for
Meat and. Meat ~roducts ........................................................... 71
1O. Meat Food Product s Order (MFPO) .......................................... 78
11. Eating Quality and Sensory
Evaluat ion of Meat Food Product s ........ ;.................................. 82
12. Fraudul ent Substitu tion of Meat and Its Recogn ition ............ 88
13. Chemica l Compos ition and Nutritive Value of
Poultry Meat ............................................................................... 95
14. Pre-slau ghter Handlin g, Transpo rt and
Dressin g of Poultry .................................................................... 99
15. Antemo rtem and Postmo rtem Examina tion of Poultry ........ 104
16. Preserv ation of Poultry Meat .................................................. 107
17. Process ing of Some Conven ience Poultry Product s ........... 111
18. Utilisati on of Poultry Industry By-prod ucts .......................... 115
19. Structur e, Compos ition and Nutritive Value of Eggs ........... 119
20. Microbia l Spoilage of Eggs ..................................................... 124
21. Preserv ation and Mainten ance of Eggs ................................ 127
22. Role of Meat and Poultry Product s in Human Nutrition ....... 131

Index .......................................................................................... 137

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-

LIVESTOCK RESOURCE
India has the largest livestock population in the world. There are
192.9 million cattle, 78.8 million buffaloes, 44.8 million sheep, 118.3
million goats and 117.8 million pigs and 467 million chickens in the
country (FAO, 1994). However, Indian Livestock Census (1992)
shows slight variation in the livestocK population (Tables 1.1 and.
1.2)
Our country shares about 50% of the buffaloes and nearly 15%
each of cattle and goat population of the world. India ranks first in
the world in buffalo and goat population and sixth in the sheep
population. The contribution of livestock to the national economy is
estimated to be over 11 %. Livestock output as a percentage of
agricultural output comes to around 26%. National sample survey
has reported that in India livestock activities are carried out by over
90% of small cultivators and-low wage earners to supplement their
inco.me. This is in contrast to the concept of large sized livestock
farms in the developed countries. It is also noteworthy that 75% of
our livestock population does not conform to the specific breed
characteristics and has significantly reduced their production
potential. .
For a long time, meat industry has remained confined to a very
small section of people in our country. These people had little
knowledge of clean meat production and effective utilisation of
valued slaughterhouse by-products. The scene is now changing.
However, industry is still largely based on spent animals except for
pig and farm poultry. Most animals are utilised for meat production

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 - Meat and Meat Products Technology Indian Meat lndustrY -
after loosing their economic viability in the primary field. Cow (not modern abattoir at Mumbai in 1973. Further, in the Fourth Five-
bullock) slaughter is banned in India except in West Bengal and Year Plan, eight bacon factories were established with the foreign
Kerala. The concept of meat type animals is yet to take roots in our assistance. A few meat corporations were also formed to take up
country, although an awakening in this regard is discernible. Of late, the development of slaughterhouses.
particular ly due to export potential, buffalo is emerging as a Table 1.3 shows the populatio n, slaughter rate and meat
prospective meat animal. production figures of our traditionai meat animals. At present, other
Table I. I: Livestock POPulation-1951-92 : All India species-wise than poultry, almost 91 million animals are slaughtered annually
(in million numbers)
yielding 3.98 million tonnes of meat (Table 1.4). It may be noted that
Species 1951 1956 1961 1966 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992
nearly 60.6% is contributed by the cattle and buffaloes and 15.6%
by sheep and goats. Nearly, 99% pig population is slaughtered
Cattle 155.30 158.70 175.60 176.20 178.30 180.00 192.45 199.69 204.53
Buffalo 43.40 44.90 51.20 53.00 57.40 62.00
annually contributing 9.9% of the total meat production. Poultry with
69.78 75.97 83.50
Sheep 39.10 39.30 40.20 42.00 40.00 41.00 48.76 45.70 50.80 a population of 467 million contribute 0.44 million tonnes of meat
Goat 47.20 55.40 60.90 64.60 67.50 75.60 95.25 110.21 115.28 (10.7% of total meat production). There has been an imp~essive
Pigs 4.40 4.90 5.20 5.00 6.90 7.60 10.07 . 10.62 12.79
Total 292.80. 306.60 335.40 ·344.10 353.40 369.00
rise in the share of poultry and pig meat over the years and th,e
419.59 445.28 470.14
Livestock same trend is likely to continue in future also.
Poultry 73.50 94.80 114.20 115.40 138.50 159.20 207.74 275.32 307.07 The traditiona l form of meat industry is character ised by
unorganised sector in the hands of butcher-workers with very little
Table 1.2: Livestock POPUiation growth rate-1951-92 : All India species-wise knowlege of personnel hygiene. At present, there are 3600 licensed
slaughter houses in the country. A large number of them are outdated
Annual Growth Rate (%)
Species - -- -·---·---- --·--·-·-- ---- --------- ---- ---·- - - and of substanda rd according to the present productio n and
1951-56 1956-61 1961-66 1966-72 1972-77 1977-82 1982-87 1987-92 processing t~chnology specifications. These slaughter houses
Cattle 0.43 2.04 O.Q7 0.24 0.19
operate as service abattoirs where butchers slaughter the animals
1.35 0.74 0.48
Buffalo 0.68 2.66 0.69 1.61 1.55 2.39 1.71
for a fee and both edible and non-edible parts of the carcasses are
1.91
Sheep 0.10 0.45 0.88 -0.97 0.50 3.53 -1.29 2.14
delivered to the butchers. Most of them need modernisation with
Goat 3.26 1.91 1.19 0.88 2.29 4.73 2.96 0.90 facilities for lairage, slaughter hall, chilling room, rendering plant
Pigs 2.18 1.20 -0.78 6.65 1.95 5.79 1.07 3.79
Total Livestock 0.93 Table 1.3: Food animal POPUiation. slaughter and meat Production during 1994
1.81 0.51 0.53 0.87 2.60 1.20 1.09
Species Population Slaughtered Quantity % Share in total
Poultry 5.22 3.79 0.21 3.72 2.82 5.47 5.79 2.21 (million) (million) (OOOMT) meat production
Source : Livestock Census. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of India
Cattle 192.9 12,5 (6.5%) 1292 31.4
Meat Production Buffaloes 78.8 8.7 (11.0%) 1204 29.2
Sheep 44.8 14.2 (31.8%) 171 4.2
Meat is an important livestock product which in its widest sense Goat 118.3 47.0 (39.7%) 470 11.4
includes all those parts of the animals that are used as a food by Pigs 11.8 11.6 (98.9%) 408 9.9
Chicken 467 440 10.7
man. Though meat has a very high biological value. its production
and processing has always been the subject of social prejudice. Source : FAO Production Year Book (1994), Vol. 48
This factor has adversely affected the growth of meat industry. In etc. While it is imperative to have all these facilities in big cities, a ·
many cases, social resistance and ignorance have resulted in semi-modern approach with mechanical hoist facility is the workable
inordinate delay and deferment of abattoir modernisation schemes. proposition for medium and small sized towns.
An important milestone ·1n this area was the .establishment of a

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 - Meat and Meat Products TechnoloHY
Indian Meat lndustrY -
Table 1.4: Value of meat 11nd meat Products from live dev~lo~ed countries. India has additional advantage of geographic
stock sector rI 994·9SJ pr.ox1m1ty to gulf countr.ies. There is an urgent need to tap the world
Products Value (Rs. in crores) meat export mar.ket by establis hing modern and hygienic
Beef and buffalo meat 1923 slaughterhouses with chilling facilities solely for export purposes.
Mutton 6350 Table t .s: Growth of meat and meat Product eKPOrt
Pork 584 Year Value Year
Poultry meat 6407 Value
(Rs in crores) (Rs in crores)
Meat products 526
Hides 628 1985-86 74 1991-92 231
Skin 609 1986-87 76 1992-93 287
Other by-products 233 1987-88 88 1993-94 245
Total 17260 1988-89 94 1994-95 403
1989-90 114 1995-96 627
During the last decade, ten modern abattoir complexes have 1990-91 140
come up in public sector. An equal number have become functional
in private sector also. Eight new projects on modern mechanised Source : Economic Survey of India
abattoirs were initiated in 1990-91. In the Eighth Plan, five private Table 1.6: ExPort of meat and meat Products fquantifY in ooo MT
sector export abattoirs are nearing completion. These developmental value in Rs in croresJ
activities are necessary to improve the image of the Indian meat 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93
sector. lte
Qty Value Qty Value Qty Value
World Scene Buffalo meat 63.50 • 107.00 81.40 189.0. 81.60 214.4
Sheep/Goat meat 8.30 31.00 7.60 32.5 13.70 75.0
Meat industry, although in a very devel0ping stage in India, is the Processed meat 0.16 0.82 0.19 1.0 C.15 1.0
top food industry in the world. An analysis of world meat scenario
reveals that Europe leads in production followed by Asia. Developed
continents (N. America, Europe and Oceania) contribute about 60% Table 1.7: Product destination
Item Major markets
to total meat production but they have a monopoly in meat exports
as their share was as high as 84%. Nearly 55% of all world meat Buffalo meat Malaysia, UAE, Jordan, Oman and UAR
exports are being shared by European countries alone. The share Sheep/Goat meat Saudi Arabia, UAE, Oman, Baharain and UK
Processed meat Jordan, Russia, Oman, Seychelles, Baharain
of Asia in world meat export is very low (6.5%) but it is on the rise.
Poultry Products Bangladesh, UAE, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Maldives
It is disheartening to note that India with a vast raw material base,
contributes less than 1% to the world meat production. Our share If the quality of Indian meat is strictly controlled, the country
in the export of meat is also of the same magnitude.The export of may boost its meat exports by selling to developing Asian, African
meat trom India mainly comprises ol fresh chilled meat, frozen meat and Latin American countries, that import about 25% of the world
and lrozen meat products (Tables 1.5 and 1.6). A maior chunk of meat exports.These measures will also help in fetching better prices
meat exports amounting to Rs.400 crores is contributed by bufta\o for our produce which is nearly 30% lower than the average world
meat (1994-95). Malaysia and UAE are the principal importers of meat export price. ·
buffalo meat trom India (Table 1.7). However, lnd'1an exports of meat'
constitute barely 0.8% of global export of this commodity. A great Processed Meat Industry
potential exists for exporting buffalo meat, beef and poultry in view Most of the meat produced in the c0untry is sold by the retail butcher
of increased demand in gulf countries and higher cost of meat from
shops to the consumers as fresh hot meat (unchilled). This meat is

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 Meat' and Meat Products Technolol?v
Indian Meat lndustnr -
then cooked ih the households in many different ways depending women entering the outdoor work force. It may be pointed out that
on their taste and preferences. A very small proportion- less than increase in consumption of value added processed meat products
3% is sold as processed meat. The production of processed meat is closely linked with increase in disposable income and growth of
products in the organized sector got a fillip with the establishment urbanisation. Thus, convenience type meat products are going to
of bacon factories in the Fourth Plan. These bacon factories have spectacular growth in the coming years. Due to nutritional
stimulated the establishment of many processing units in those awareness and liberal food habits of the newer generation, the
areas. Nearly 220 licensed manufacturers under MFPO (1973) adoption of western type products with indigenous. ffavour profiles
produce 22,000 tonnes of processed meat which comprises 50% is bound to take place at a rapid rate.
cured products, 20% sausages and 20% canned products. Our We must strive to export processed meat products rather than
production figures are in sharp contrast to developed countries live animals and fresh meat. There is a need to study the
where 65 to 80% of the total meat produced is sold in the processed consumption pattern of meat products in importing countries, so
form. Lately, however, lridian dynamics is changing in favour of · that we can tailor our products according to their requirements. A
processed meat products especially in metropolis and big cities. shift from primary products to value added products besides fetching
Several traditional meat products like meat kabab, chicken biryani, more profits will decrease the transportation cost and generate more
tandoori chicken, meat curry etc. are popular in the non-vegetarian employment. It will also encourage more efficient ·utilisation of meat
population for a long time. Some other foods products adopted in by-products.
meat like meat samosa, meat tikka, meat kofta, meat pickle etc.
have been able to create an impact on the urban consumer. Various
region-specific meat products like Nihari (Delhi), Goa sausage
(Goa), Pork pickle (Himachal Pradesh), Yakini and Gustaba
(Kashmir), Rapka (Arunachal Pradesh) etc. have good acceptability
in their traditional consumers.
Western type meat products like cured ham, bacon, sausages,
frankfurters, hot dog, meat patties/burgers, luncheon meat and
loaves, liver paste etc. have good demand in cities. Eight bacon
factories, five meat corporations and a fairly good number of MFPO
licensees in ·private sector have taken up the productidn of a wide
range of these products. They are catering to the requirements of
defence, restaurants and household consumers. Canned meat
products are relatively new entrants in the domestic market and
are primarily being manufactured for defence supplies. The prices
of canned meats are comparatively high rendering them beyond
the reach of common consumers, although their presence can be
noticed in the departmental stores in the metropolitan cities.
Processed meat products are poised for continuous growth in
the country. In big cities, there is an ever increasing demand for
'heat and serve' and 'ready to eat' convenience or fast foods. These
are delicious, nutritious and if required, easy to carry home. The
growth of fast food parlours and restaurants is attributed to the rapid
urbanisation, changing life styles and upwards in the number of

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 !structure. Composition and Nut
ritive Value of Meat Tissues -

Epim ysiu m

. '4~,:-.,... >.,_ ..

Structure~
C'C~mPosition and
NufFitive Value of
Meat Tissues
Fil!. 2.1: Cross·section of a fYPical
striated muscle deP
Meat is predominantly compos connective tissue and muscle fibre ictinl! arranaement of
s
ed of muscle tissue alongwith
types of connective tissue. various
The skeletal muscle is the
muscle tissue in meat, althoug principal Sar~olemma
h very little of smooth tissue
present. The main connective is also
tissue types are adipose tiss
bone and connective tissue ue (fat),
proper.
STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE TISSU
E
~nimal musculature is mostly
of mesodermal origin.There are
than 300 muscles in the ani more Myo filam ents
mal body. These muscles con Nucl ei Reti culin fibre s Colla gen and Elas lln
about 30-45% of the live weight stitute
or 35-60% of the carcass wei _flbre'.'.J
meat animals. In addition to ght of
the skeletal muscle, which form
bulk of meat, a little of smooth s the
and cardiac muscles are also Endo mys ium
in blood vessels and heart resp present
ectively. Smooth and cardiac mu
are inv olu nta ry in nat ure . scles
Ske leta l and car dia c mu scl Fii!. 2.2: Schematic diaaram of a mus
som etim es referred as stri es are cle
ate d mu scle s due to the ir fibre
microscopic appearance. spe cifi c the bundles of muscle fibres
or fasciculi. This connective
called perimysium. It contain tissue is
s. ma jor blood vessels and
Skeletal Muscle and Associated Con Muscle fibres or specialised nerves.
nective Tissue muscle cells are the structural
units bf
In general, skeletal muscles the ske leta l mu scl e tiss ue.
are directly attached to the Eac h mu scle fibr e (Fig . 2.2
bones, surrounded by a connective tiss ) is
although some attach indirec ue layer called endomysium, ben
tly via ligament, cartilage, fasc which is delicate sarcolemma eath
skin. Each muscle is surrounde ia and or muscle cell membrane. It tran
d by a sheath of connective nervous signals along the sur smits
known as epimvsium (Fig. 2.1 tissue face of muscle fibre.
). From the inner surface of epim Ske leta l mu scl e fibr es are
a septum of connective tissue ysiu m, lon g, nar row , alm ost tub ula
penetrates into muscle and sur multinucleated cells which ma r
rounds y extend from one end to the
other

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- Meat and Meat Products Technoloi!Y !structure. ComPosition·and Nutritive Value of Meat Tissues -
these three types. Red muscle fibres have smaller diameter, lower
glycolytic metabolism and ATPase activity but higher oxidative
metabolism as compared to white muscle fibres.
Myofibrils have a number of elongated unbranched contractile
muscle fibre that occupy almost 80% of its volume. They are
Bundle or muscle fibres
responsible for the cross-striated appearance of the muscle fibre.
Each myofibril is about 1µg in thickness and may run the length of
muscle fibre. The cross-striated myofibrils remain embedded in the
cytoplasm of the muscle fibre called sarcomplasm. The myofibrils
are surrounded by a complex system of membrane tubules. The
longitudinal tubules called sarcoplasmic reticulum run parallel to
Muscle fibre· myofibrils. Another series of tubules run transversely as
invaginations of the sarcolemma. The sarcoplasmic reticulum and
T-tubules are arranged in a sequence and play an important role in
generating ca++ fluxes in the excitation-contraction mechanism.
Sarcoplasm also contains glycogen particles, lipid droplets etc.
At low magnification (2000x), myofibrils, the intracellular
contractile elements, show characteristic banded or striated pattern
(Fig. 2.4). This situation arises due to the orderly arrangement of
dark or A-band and light or I-band. A clear area in the centre of 'I
:~
Myofibril dark band called H-zone is bisected by a dark M-line. The light or- ··l
I-band is also bisected by a dark Z-line. The distance-Between two
adjacent Z-lines is called sarcomere. In fact, the sarcomere is the
funciTonafonit of myofibril.
At 20,000x magnification, the myofibril itself is seen to be
composed of a number of thick arid thin filaments. Thick filaments
A· portion cir traverse the entire width of A-band whereas thin filaments extend
myofibril
from Z-line .to the edge of H-zone. Thus, only thick filaments are
~ ... "--..-:-u'-\09"'
~.. ._.1....... ..,~,.J............- present· in the H-zone. These thick and thin filaments consist of
~ ... r··(e11 .. "-'""-......... ,contractile proteins myosin(Fig. 2.5) arid actin (Fig. 2:6) respectively.
-~-,.-+..:-..;-.:-
Connective tissue serves as the major supportive elemllnt of the
animal body." It envelops the muscle fibres (endomysium) and
bundles (perimysium) and finally the entire muscle (epimysium)
connective tissue fibres form the bulk of tendons and ligaments.
The tendons attach muscle with bone whereas ligaments connect
two bones or support organs. Connective tissue consists chiefly of
Fil!. 2.3: Structure of a skeletal muscle rschematicJ
a mucopolysaccharide matrix in which fibres of collagen, elastin
end of the muscle (Fig. 2.3). The nuclei are distributed peripherally and reticulin are embedded. Collagen fibres predominate over those
close to the sarcolemma. Muscle fibres are usually 10-100µ in of reticulin and elastin. Adipose tissue is a specialised type of
diameter with conical or tapering ends and their length ranges from connective tissue which is primarily made up of cells storing fat
1-40 mm. The individual fibre may also be classified as red, droplets. It is seen around kidneys, omentum and in and around
intermediate and white. Most animal muscles contain a mixture of various muscles and organs. '

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- Meat and Meat Products Technoloay Structure. Composition and Nutritive Value of Meat Tissues
Smooth Muscles
Smooth muscles are found in the gastro-intestinal tract, blood ~l-band-->F+-A-band~*"-1-band-.I
vessels, lymphatics and skin in close association with the connective :' ~ t i
I
tissue layers. These are involuntary in nature. Smooth muscle fibres I
I
are long, unevenly thickened in the centre and tapering on both the I H-zone
I
!
I
sides.. The myofibrils are homogenous and do not show alternating I I
' r.
dark and light bands like those of skeletal muscle. There are no Z I

- . :l3'·'~· ,
or M-lines. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is also not much developed.

Cardiac Muscles ~· )t·

I

-~- ·==-
The cardiac muscles found in the heart are also involuntary. Their
muscle fibres are rounded to irregular in shape and give off branches
which get mixed up with those· of nearby fibres. The nuclei are Z· I
. I z
placed in the centre of the fibre. Myofibrils depict striations similar
(a)2000X
to skeletal muscle. The sarcoplasm shows numerous and much
more mitochon dria than the skeletal or smooth muscles. The
intercalated discs are present at the position of Z-lines. I< Sarcomere
'
'
COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE TISSUE
Muscle tissue contains approximately 75% water and 25% solids,
of which 19% are proteins. Lipids constitute about 2.5 to 5% of
muscle. Chemical composition of a fresh animal muscle is presented
II
z
thin filament
in Table 2 .1. For simplific ation, meat can be taken as the
postmortem aspect of a muscle. (b) 20,000 x

Water fil;!. 2.4: Mllofibril depicting

faJ Tllr>ical dark fAJ band. lil;!ht flJ band. H-zone. M-Line and Z-lines.
This is the largest component comprising two third to three fourth fbJ Thick and thin filaments
of the muscle tissue. Due to polar behaviour, 'h'.8.ter molecules are
attached with the electrically charged groups of muscle proteins.
About 40.5% of the total water in muscle is so tightly bound that it is
almost impossible to dislocate it. The attraction of molecules ke_eps
on decreasing as the distance from the reactive groups increases.
Thus, most of the water exists in immobilised and free forms. When
pH of meat is more than isoelectric point, the enhanced negative
charge increases the interfilamental space resulting in retention of
excess water. It may be noted that almost 70% of water content in
fresh meat is located within the myofibrils. Further, an increased
water holding capacity is associated with juiciness and tenderness
Fil;!. 2.5: Sketch showing one mYosin molecule
of cooked meat.
 - Meat and Meat Products Technoloav
lsrructure. Composition and Nutritive
Trop .onin com plex Value of Meat Tissues -
usually in the presence of ATP,
G-actin is polymerised to a hi~h
molecular weight fibrous or F-a
ctin. At low ionic strength, F-actm
depolymerises to yield G-actin usu
ally with bound ADP. :. ·
Table 2.1: Chemical comPosition of a
fllPical animal muscle
Component · Per cent (wet basis)
1. Water

Trop o·my osin threa d

{dou ble helix )
\
Actin (dou ble helix )
2. Protein
a) Myofibrillar proteins
Myosin
75
19
11.5
Actin
Fie. 2.6: Sketch showina arraneement Tropomyosin
of actin molecules
Troiponins C, I and T
Protein Connectins
Desmin
Muscle proteins have been bro
adly classified into three cate- b) Sarcomplasmic proteins
5.5
gories: Myoglobin
i. Myofibrillar proteins Glycolytic enzymes
soluble in dilute salt solution c) Storma or connective tissue
ii. Sarcoplasmic proteins soluble in water or very dilute s::ilt proteins 2.0
· Collagen
solution Elastin
iii. Stroma or connective
Sarcolemma
tissue proteins almost insoluble. Sarcoplasmic reticulum
3. Lipids
MYofi/Jrillar Proteins These proteins 2.5
constitute contractile par t of Neutral lipid
the muscle and make up about 60% Phospholipid
of the total protein in the skeletal
muscle. Thick filaments constitute Cerebrosides
the A-band of the sarcomere and
consist of the protein myosin. The Cholesterol
re are 00-400 molecule of myosin '4. Carbohydrates
in each thick filament. Myosin 1.2
is a long asymmetrical molecu Glycogen
containing a globular head and le
two identical polypeptide chains. Glucose-6-phosphate
has a relatively high charge· and It
shows a strong affinity for the Glucose
divalent cations, calcium and mag Lactic acid
nesium. Tryptic digestion splits 5. Miscellaneous soluble non-prote
myosin into two large pieces in subs
-~and light mesomyosin 2.3
meromyosin head portion carries . Heavy a) Nitrogenous subs
the AT~nd possesses Creatine
actin binding ability. This ATPase
activity of myosin is stimulated by lonosine monophosphate (IMP)
Ca++ ions and inhibited by Mg++ Nucleotides
ions.
The thin filam ent constitute I-ba Carnosine, Anserine
nd of the sarcomere and extent b) Inorganic subs
on either side of the Z-line bey
ond I-ba nd also into the A-band Total soluble phosphorus
between.the thick myosin filaments
. Actin is the main protein of the K, Na, Mg, Ca, Zn and Trace elem
~· Actin occurs ents
in two different forms. Globular 6. Vitamins
actin is a mon ome re form, eac or G- Fat soluble vitamins
Minute quantities
h molecule of which binds one
molecule of ATP or ADP with high Water soluble vitamins
affinity. Further, each molecule
of G-actin binds one ca++ ion very
tightly. At high ionic strength and Sou rce: Lawrie (1975)
- Meat and Meat Products Technoloa!il
!structure. Composition and Nutritive Value of Meat Tissues -
Relatively small quantities of other proteins generally referred as At a given time, meat colour depends on the chemical state of
regulatory proteins are associated with major myofibrillar proteins. myoglobin.
Tropomyosin is a fibrous protein which occurs as a double helix.
These helical strands are present in close association with in Stroma or connective tissue Proteins The connective tissue is
filament~, extending through the grooves of action helix. Troponin is composed of an amorphous ground substance or matrix in which
another important regulatory protein which is present in association formed elements mostly fibres and a few cells are embedded. The
with thin filament cementing the long chain of tropomyosin thread ground substance is a viscous glycoprotein solution. The extra-
into the grooves of actin at a regular interval. Troponin is composed cellular connective fibres are:
of three sub-units: a. collagen
Troponin T - binds to tropomyosin and links it to F-actin b. reticulin
filaments. c. elastin
Troponin C - binds to calcium ions Collagen is the main fibrous protein the muscles and significantly
Troponin I inhibits or prevents the interaction between actin influence the meat toughness. It makes upto 40-60% of the total
and myosin in relaxed state. It allows- their stroma protein and 20-25% of the total protein in the body. A fine
interaction only in the presence of calcium ions. network of collag_en fibres is present in almost all tissues and organs
Actinin is a globular protein having similar amino acid composition including skeletal muscles. It is the most common constituent of
as actin. It has two subunits. The alpha-actinin is a constituent of Z- tendons. White coloured collagen fibres are straight, inelastic and
line and has been shown to accelerate the po~ymerisation of G- non-branching. These fibres shrink or shorten at a temperature of
actin to F-actin. The beta-actinin regulates the length of thin filament. 60°C but higher temperatures or boiling causes transformation to
Myofibrillar proteins are of special interest to the technologists wp.ter soluble gelatin. Acid or alkali treatment results in the marked
because they contribute to approximately 95% of thE? water holding swelling of these fibres. Collagen is the only protein possessing a
capacity,~ of the emulsifying capacity and to a large extent the fair amount of hydroxyproline (approximately 14%) and low
tenderness of meat. ·
concentration of hydroxylysine. The smallest unit of collagen
SarcoP/asmic Proteins These proteins make up about 30-35% of molecular structure is tropocollagen which aggregate to form more
the total proteins in the skeletal muscle. They contain hundred of massive structures-the fibril, primitive fibre and mature fibre. High
enzymes for the normal functioning of m_uscle cell. Sarcoplasmic tensile strength and insoluble nature of mature collagen fibres is
proteins have mostly glycolytic enzymes and associated proteins due to increased inter-molecular linkages.
like cr~~!in~.~.[Dg.~e. la~_t,i.G.d.e,by(jr.Qgenase, myoglobio,_aldolase etc. Reticulin is composed of small fibres which resemble that of
In general, these proteins are very susceptibfe to heat.'--~-~= collagen except for its intimate association with a lipid containing
Myoglobin is a qonjugated protein consisting of a prosthetic heme myristic acid. Reticular fibres form a network around blood vessels,
moiety and a protein mci-iety (globin). It provides red colour to the neural structures, epithelium etc.
muscle and serves as a carrier of oxygen to the muscle fibre. It is Elastin is common in ligaments and its yellow fibres can be easily
the most important pigment of meat colour. Cytochrome enzyme, stretched. Elastin fibres are branched and do not hydrolyse on
flavin etc. contribute very little to meat colour. The amount of boiling. Elastin contains two unique amino acids-desmosine and
myoglobin present generally shows considerable variation. In loin isodesmosine which contribute to its highly insoluble nature. The
muscle of different species, the concentration of myoglobin (%)are: nutritive value of elastin is practically nil due to its resistance to
Rabbit 0.02 .~ digestive enzymes.
Pig 0.06 ,,,,,.,.
Sheep 0.25 --- - LiPids
Cattle 0.50 ....--
Blue whale 0.91 Lipid is a major component of the carcass of a meat animal. It is
highly variable and is inversely proportional to the moisture content.
- Meat and Meat Products Technoloi!v !structure. -eomPosition and Nutritive Value of Meat Tissues -

~~imal lipids are mainly neutral lipids and phospholipids. The neutral chondroitin sulphate, keratosulphate and glycoproteins are
lipid~ are m?stly gl~cerol esters of the straight-chain carboxylic acids biologically important substances.
or tnglycer~des, .~1th small amounts of mono- and diglycerides.
Though animal lipids generally contain fatty acids of even carbon Minerals
atoms (simple triglycerides), mutton and beef have odd number
About 3.5% of the total body weight is inorganic matter. Most of the
and branched chain fatty acids (mixed triglycerides). The saturated
total body inorganic material is located in skeletal tissue primarily
a~d ~onounsaturated fatty acids predominate in meat lipids. The
pnnc1pal saturated fatty acids are palmitic and stearic acids with as salts of calcium and phosphorus and some other minerals
little amount of other !atty acids, whereas most commonly occurring especially magnesium. In living meat animal, essential minerals like
unsaturated fatty acids are oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids. The calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, sulphur, chlorine,
composition and distribution of meat lipids depend on the diet of magnesium, iron ·etc. and trace elements like manganese, copper,
meat animal. . iodine, zinc, cobalt etc. serve a -variety of important functions. These
Ph~spholipids are ~ou.nd in muscle tissue in small percentages functions may be physical, chemical or biological depending on the
(0.5-1 Yo}. They are pnnc1pal structural and functional constituents chemical form and the location in body tissues and fluids.
of cell membranes and have a key role in the flavour and shelf In the conversion of muscle to meat, inorganic elements play an
stabilit~ of meat and meat products. Phospholipids are generally important role. Their main function relates to development of rigor
found in meat as phosphoglycerides , the. less common are mortis and alteration of fluid balance which cause a drop in pH and
pho.sphatidyl ch~line, pho~phatidyl ethanolamine, phosphatidyl water holding capacity. Inorganic constituents also influence the
serine and sphingomyelins. Meat phospholipids are more meat colour and tenderlsation. Several inorganic ions act as catalysts
s~sceptibl~ to oxidation than triglycerides. They may cause during oxidation of meat fat, enhancing the process of rancidity
d1scolourat1on and off flavour in meat products when exposed to air development.
and heat. .
Cholesterol is a minor but important component of animal tissues. Vitamins
Most ~f it is .in une~terified or free form. It has b'een noticed at high
levels in patients with heart disease. A reduction in animal fat intake The vitamin content of meat is variable, depending on the species
is usually advised as precaution, since cholesterol is formed in the and age of the animal, the degree of fatness and type of feed received
body even without any dietary intake. by the animal. Water-soluble vitamins are localised in lean tissues
whereas fat-soluble vitamins in fatty tissues. Variety meats have
substantial amounts of B-complex vitamins. Pork contains 5-1 Otimes
Carbohvdrates
more thiamine content as compared to mutton. The exudate from
Immediately after slaughter, muscle normally contains a very small cut meat surfaces and drip loss during thawing of frozen meat contain
am?unt (ne~rly 1%) of glycogen. It is a niacromolecule of glucose an appreciable amount of B-complex vitamins and amino acids ..
residues which serves as a reserve polysaccharide of animal tissue. Most of the vitamins in meat are relatively stable during processing
However, it gets worked up before the completion of rigor mortis or cooking. However, thiamine or to some extent vitamin B6 are
and plays a key role in attaining the ultimate muscle pH. Both the susceptible to heat treatment.
rate and amount of glycolysis influence the colour, tenderness and
water holding capacity of meat. Insulin deficiency results in NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MEAT TISSUES
decreased tissue glycogen. Glucagon administration causes rapid
degradation of liver glycogen to glucose. Besides, several Meat is a very nutritious food. It is almost fully digestible. It is
muco~ol~saccharides are widely distributed in animal body. Their appealing to the eyes and pleasing to the sense of olfaction. The
quantity 1s less but many of them like heparin, hyaluronic acid, nutritive value of meat is attributed to its abundant high quality
- Meat and Meat Products Technoloev Structure, Composition and Nutritive Value of Meat Tissues
proteins, essential fatty acids, some important minerals and B- fat itself (Table 2.4). The caloric value of fat in meat is attributed to
complex group of vitamins (Table 2.2). fatty acids in triglycerides. The number of calories from lean meat
Meat Proteins Meat is a concentrated source of proteins wh1c11 is .frequently less than those derived from equal weights of many·
are far superior to the plant proteins due to very high biological otf1o-r foods. Jn tact, the caloric va.1ue of a particular meat depends
value. Most lean meat cuts contain 16.5 to 20% protein. This protein ?n the amount of fat in the meat cuts. The most abundant fatty acid
is rich in essential amino acids (Table 2.3). Essential, because there in meat f~t is .oleic acid (an unsaturated FA) followed by palmitic
is no provision in the body for the synthesis of these amino acids and stearic acids (saturated FA). The essential fatty acids in human
and a deficient diet will lead to protein malnutrition. In fact, among diets are linolei.c, linolenic and arachidonic acids. Pork and organ
meat proteins, myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic proteins are of very meats are relatively good sources of linoleic and linolenic acids. It
high quality because they contain enough of essential amino acids. may be noted that excess .dietary linoleic acid is converted to
Connective tissue proteins have lower levels of tryptophan and · - arachidonic acid in human body to meet its demand.
sulphur containing amino acids. Collagen is especially poor in lysine The phospholipids are essential components-of the cell wall as
content. well as mitochondria and play a vital role in cellular metabolism.
Meat fat always contain some quantity of cholesterol and blood
Table 2.2: Proximate composition and caloric value of fresh meats
Percentage Calorie cholesterol level increases after ingestion of cholesterol in food.
Meat (per Howev~r •. it is now well-known that our body is capable of
Moisture Protein Fat Ash 100 g) synthesising more cholesterol than is normally ingested. Organ
meats have remarkably high cholesterol content as compared to
Lamb, composite cuts of trimmed, skeletal meat.
good grade (lean 79%, fat 21%) 62.5 16.8 19.4 1.3 247
Lamb leg - separable lean, good grade 73.8 19.9 4.7 1.6 127 Min~rals In general, meat is a good source of all minerals except
Pork ham, trimmed thin calcium (Table 2.5). The minerals are in close association with lean
(lean 77%, fat 23%) 59.2 16.7 23.2 0.8 281
tissues in meat. Of these, quantitatively potassium is most abundant
Pork ham, thin separable lean 72.0 20:4 6.6 1.1 147
Beef carcass - total edible, good
followed by phosphorus. Meat is a good source of iron which is
grade (lean 66%, fat 34%) 54.7 16.5 28.0 0.8 323 required for the synthesis of haemoglobin, myoglobin and certain
e~zymes and thus plays a vital role. in maintaining good health.
Source : USDA Handbook No.8 ~in.ce h~man body has a very limited capacity to store iron, mainly
Table 2.3: Essential amino acids as Percentaee of crude Protein in fresh meats in., h~er, 1t has to. be a part of regular dietary intake. Meat provides
Amino acid Lamb Pork Beef this important mineral in a form that is easily absorbed in the system.
Lysine 7.6 7.8 8.4 Table 2.4: Occurrence of fatt11 acids as Peircentaee of total meat fat
Methionine 2.3 2.5 2.3 Fatty acid Lamb Pork Beef
Cystine 1.3 1.3 1.4
Palmitic acid (C16) 25 28 29
Tryptophan 1.3 1.4 1.1
Stearic acid {C18) 25 13 20
Leucine 7.4 7.5 8.4
Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) 3 2
lsoleucine 4.8 4.9 5.1
Oleic acid (C18:1) 39 46 42
Phenylalanine 3.9 4.1 4.0
Linoleic acid (C18:2) 4 10 2
Valine 5.0 5.0 5.7
Linolenic acid (C18:3) - 0.5 0.7 0.5
Source: Schweigert and Payne (1956) Arachidonic acid (C20:4) 1.5 2 0.1
Meat fats Meat fats contain ample amount of essential fatty acids
~itaf1!ins Lean meat is an excellent source of B-complex group of
and the nutritional demand of the body is easily met by intramuscular
v1tam1ns. It has only traces of fat soluble vitamins which are restricted
 - Meat and Meat Products Technolo2Y

Table 2.5: Mineral and vitamin <selected) contents of raw meat

· Cm.el I 00 .e meatJ \
Mineral/vitamin Lamb Pork Beef

Sodium 75 70 65
Potassium 295 285 355
Magnesium 15 18 18
Iron 1.2 2.3 2.8
Calcium 10 9 11
Phosphorus 147 175 171
Thiamine 0.15 0.76 0.06
Riboflavin 0.20 0.18 0.13
Niacin 4.7 4.1 3.6

Source: Watt anc:l Merrill (1963)

Slaughter of food animal is followed by a series of physical and

to body fat. Vitamin C is almost absent in lean meat, although certain
chemical changes over a period of several hours or even days
organs contain it in minor quantities, Among the 8-complex group
resulting in the conversion of muscle to meat. There is immediate
of vitamins thiamine, riboflavin and niacin concentrations are quite
loss of oxygen supply to the muscle due to exsanguination
high. It may be noted that pork surpasses several meats as far as
(bleeding). As the stored oxygen in myoglobin gets depleted, there
B-complex vitamins are concerned. In fact, lean pork has 5-1 o times
is inhibition of aerobic pathway through citrate cycle as well as
more thiamine than other meats. It has been noted that in
cytochrome system. The store of creatine phosphate (CP) used for
monogastric animals like pig, intake of vitamins in feed is directly
rephosphorylation of ADP to ATP (creatine phosphate + ADP =
reflected in their tissues. The stability of vitamins to cooking or
ATP+ creatine) gets soon exhausted. Energy metabolism is then
processing is discussed in chapter 22.
shifted to anaerobic pathway resulting in the breakdown of glycogen
Several organ meats have slightly less protein and fat than skeletal
to lactic acid. This process continues till all the glycogen stored in
meats. However, these are quite often more economical sources of
the muscle is exhausted. This resynthesis of ATP by anaerobic
protein and vitamins than retail cuts of skeletal meat. Liver is a very
pathway is not enough to maintain the required ATP level and as it
rich source of iron, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin.A nutritive value of
depletes, there is formation of actOOiyosin resulting in the onset of
skeletal and organ meats should be properly utilised to alleviate the
rigor mortis. The important changes that take place during
malnutrition.
postmortem period are as follows.

Loss of Homeostasis
Homeostatic mechanism, a system for the physiologically 1-ialanced
internal environment which helps the body to cope up with the
stresses of oxygen deficiency, extreme variation in temperature,
energy supply, etc. is lost. The homeostasis is controlled by nervous
system which ceases within 4-6 minutes after bleeding. In the
absence of blood supply, there is loss of body heat and temperature
starts declining.
Ii

- Meat and Meat Products Technology

Postmortem Chan2es
Postmortem GIYcolYsis and PH Decline
Rieor Mortis
In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic glycolysis leads
to the formation It refers to stiffening of muscles after death and is
of lactic acid from the glycogen reserves: another important
. postmortem change in the process of conversion
Anaerobic of muscle to ~eat.
Gly cog en- ---- --= > lactic acid + 2 It is now very well-known that a particular level ?r
ATP concentration ?f
conditions ATP complexed with Mg++ is required for breaking
the act?myosm
The accumulation of lactic acid lowers dowri the musc bond and bringing the"'f'filiScle to a relaxed state
le pH which and as 1t drops,
is an important postmortem change during the conve permanent actomyosin crossbridges begin to
rsion of muscle form and muscle
to meat (Fig. 3.1). The rate and extent of pH declin gradually becomes less and less extensible unde
e are variable, r an externally
being influenced by the species of food animal, variou applied force.
s preslaughter .
factors, environmental temperature etc. In most During the period immediately following exsan . .
species, a gradual guinat1on, the
decline continues from approximately pH 7 in the actomyosin formation proceeds very slowly at first
living muscle during and the muscle
first few hours (5-6 hours) and then there is a little is relatively extensible and elastic. This period
drop in the next is called the delay
15-20 hours, giving an ultimate pH in the range of 5.5 phase of rigor mortis. Then actomyosin formation
- 5.7. The rate picks up and the
of pH decline is enhanced at high environmental muscle begins to loose extensibility. This phase
temperature. A is called the fast or
low ultimate pH is desired to have a check on onset phase o'f rigor mortis. When all the creatine
the proliferating phosphate (CP)
microorganisms during storage. is depleted, ADP can no longer be phosphorylated
to ATP, muscle
A sharp decline in postmortem pH even before the beco mes quite inext ensib le and stiff. This
dissipation of stage 1!1ar~s the
body heat through carcass chilling may cause denat completion of rigor mortis. When postmortem
uration of muscle pH decline 1s very
proteins. So, the muscles depict pale, soft and slow or very fast, the onset and completion of rigor
exudative (PSE) mortis is rapid.
condition. Contrary to this, muscles which maint The onset of rigor mortis is enhanced at ambient
ain a consistently temperature above
high pH during postmortem conversion to meat depic 20°C.
ts a dark, firm
and dry (DFD) condition. Both the conditions are The phenomenon of rigor mortis resembles
undesirable. th.at of mu~cl.e
contraction in a. living animal muscle except that
ngor mort1s 1s
irreversible under normal conditions. The resolu
tion of rigor mortis
7.0 \ takes place due to microbial degradation of musc
-- -- - - ---- ---- ---t f--- le structure in due
DFDm eat course of time.
6.5 - Pre-r igor meat is quite tende r but its tough ness
keeps on
\ increasing until rigor mortis is completed. It contin
ues to be tough
pH 6.0 \ for some more time. However, with the resolution
of rigor due to
I denaturation or degradation or ageing, meat again
5.5 /-- Norma l meat becomes tender.
\ ~--- The onset of rigor mortis is also accompanied
~- ---11 -- -- by a decrease in
water holding capacity. This is true even when
5.0 PSE meat rigor mortis takes
place at a high pH due to disappearance of ATP
and consequent
-formation of actomyosin.

Loss of Protection from lnvadine Microoreanisms

.
Hours postm ortem
Durin g postm ortem perio d, body defen ce mech
anism st~ps
fo!. 3.1: Postmortem PH decline opera ting and mem brane prope rties are altere
d. So, durin g
conv ersio n to meat, musc le is quite susc eptib
le to invading
 Meat and Meat Products Technoloi!v J
-

1 •r. Jw.. _
a.WJ ;'.1·'Z
microorganism
change
s. Except for low pH, most of the other postmortem
s favour bacteri al growth . Hence, utmost handlin g
riJ 1,
~,_-.· ,·'·.:·I. . . . 4
precautions are necessary to prevent contamination of meat.

Oeeradation due to ProteolYtic Enzvmes

Several autolytic lysosomal enzymes called cathepsins which remain
Some
inactive in a living muscle tissue, are activated as the muscle pH
declines. These enzymes initiate the degradation of muscle protein
structure. In fact, catheptic enzymes are capable of breaking down
Meat Qualitv
even collagenous connective tissue of the muscle and cause
tenderisation of meat during aging .. Parameters
Loss of Structural lnteeritv
Postmo rtem alterati on of membr ane propert ies initiates the Frnsh meat can be referred as a product which has
degradation of muscular proteins. There is a progressive disruption unjergo ne immine nt postmo rtem change s followin g
of myofibrillar structure. The resolution of rigor mortis is known to slaughter but has not been subjected to any processing.
occur due to disintegration of Z-line structure. A rapid decline in However, fresh meat which has undergone freezing can
muscle pH also causes denaturation of'collagenous connective be conveniently termed as raw meat. Some characteristics
tissue. of fresh and raw meat need to be properly understood in
order to achieve the best results in processing.

Meat Coiour
This is the total visual perception of meat. The hue (primary
colour), chroma (intensity) and ·the value (brightness) of
meat colour are based on the quantity of principal muscle
pigmen t-myog lobin and its chemical state. It is for this
reason that meat colour varies with species, sex, age and
even among differen t muscle s of the same species .
Myoglobin content of more active species and muscles is
higher than the passive ones. Typical colour of meat from
various species is:
Mutton and chevon Light to dark red
Pork Greyish pink
Poultry Grey white to dull red
Buffalo meat and beef Cherry red
Myoglobin constitutes about 80-90% of the total meat
pigments. The role of haemog lobin in meat colour is
negligib le in a properl y bled muscle . Catalas e and
- Meat and Meat Products Technology Some Meat Quality Parameters lmJlll
cytochrome enzymes are of little consequence as far as meat colour Marbling
is concerned. Myoglobin molecule has a protein portion (globin)
and a heme (iron containing) ring. It is one-fourth in size as compared It refers to the intramuscular fat which can be visibly detected when
to structurally similar haemoglobin molecule. In intact meat, iron in the ~uscle surfac~ is cut. The solidification of this fat during chilling
the heme ring of myoglobin exists in the reduced form. Upon cutting, contributes to t~e firmness of meat. Marbling prominently figures in
grinding or exposure to air, myoglobin is oxygenated to form the USDA. quality ~rades f~r meat because of its merchandising
oxym¥oglobin within 30-45 minutes. Oxymyoglobin has a bright .red value. During handling of chilled meat, some special retail cuts like
colour (bloom) which is very much desired by the consumers. chops and st.eaks ret.ain their uniform thickness and typical shape
However, this pigment is comparatively unstable. In conditions of due to marbling. Besides, marbling also enables meat to bear the
less oxygen, partial vacuum or semipermeable package, myoglobin impact ~f comparatively high cooking temperature. During thermal
as well as oxymyoglobin is oxidised to brown coloured metmyoglobin. processing, moderately marbled meat yields a juicy and flavourful
At the time of meat purchase, brown colour is usually associated, product whereas too little marbling yields a dry and flavourless
by the consumers with meat that has been stored for long although product Ex~ess marbling neither enhances the eating satisfaction
it is not always true. In order to prevent the formation of brown colour, nor desired in a fat conscious society.
fresh meat is often packed in films with very good gas (oxygen)
transmission rate. Quantum of Connective Tissue
The amount of c~n~ective tissue in meat has a direct bearing on its
Water Holding CaPacitv textural characteristics. During animals life time, more active muscles
Water constitutes about 76% of fresh meat. It is a universal solvent tend to· deposit more connective tissue to gain strength. This factor
and takes part in a large number of biological reactions. In muscles, acc~unts for the coarse texture of biceps femoris and tenderness
water molecules carry positive and negative charges. The location of loin .eye muscle postmortem. The quantum of connective tissue
of these molecules allows water to exist in three different forms- per unit muscle does not increase with age and is not responsible
free water, immobilised water and bound water. The water molecules f?r tou~h meat of older animals. In fact, it is the increase in muscle
held by capillary forces on the surface make up free water which f1b~e diameter and consequent increase in muscle fibre bundles
can be removed by application of even minor physical force. The which account for the coarse texture of such meat.
middle layer of water molecules remain in contact with proteins and Most meat cutting practices are based on separation of coarse
make up immobilised water, a large part of which can be removed texture~ meat from the tender meat, so.as to facilitate the right kind
by application of severe physical conditions. However, 4-5% of water of cooking procedure and derive maximum palatability pleasure.
molecules are so tightly bound to the charged hydrophilic groups
on the muscle proteins that they do not allow this bound water to firmness
escape by application of any physical force ..
The capacity of meat to retain its water during the application of The firmness o! meat is a goo? quality parameter which plays an
1~~ortant role 1n carcass setting, fabrication, aging, processing,
physical forces is known as water holding capacity (WHC). This
~ilcmg and product display. During carcass chilling, the firmness
property of meat has a special significance because it contributes
mcr~ases du~ to loss of extensibility associated with the completion
to the juiciness of cooked meat besides influencing the texture and
of rigor mort1s. Fresh meat having a high water holding capacity
colour. Fresh meat with a good water holding capacity is less prone
shows good firmness and tight structure.· It can be objectively
to shrinkage during storage. WHC of meat· is very important in
measured by shear force apparatus or penetrometer. Meat with a
processing where meat is subjected to physical forces such as
good degree of firmness yields a comparatively better quality
cutting, grinding, filling, pressing, heating etc.
processed meat products. ·
- Meat and Meat Products Technology Some Meat Qualitv Parameters -
Meat Storage Conditions causes shrinkage of muscular tissue and comparatively low dressing
Cold shortenine When prerigor meat is fast chilled below 1s c, 0 percentage. So holding of such animals for resting and feeding can
there is shortening of muscles. This shortening or contraction is be helpful in restoring their depleted glycogen level. However basic
more at 0°C and still more at -2°C. However, it is minimum at 14- principle of feed withdrawal and adequate water supply for' 24 hr.
21°C. At 40% st:iortening, which. is quite common, meat becomes before slaughter has to be followed for ease of evisceration and to
very tough and large quantity of meat juices are exuded. However, red~ce microbial contamination of carcass from intestinal contents.
in case cold shortening exceeds more than 40%, Z-lines are Like ?ther livestock products, meat is also quite prone to the
disrupted and meat becomes soft and tender. Otherwise also, cold absorption of off-odours from the surrounding environment. Hence,
shortening is a reversible phenomena and is resolved when glycogen meat should not be stored in the presence of other strong smelling
substances.
content of muscle is exhausted. In the meat plant, cold shortening
can be avoided by keeping the meat above 14°C tor sufficient time
to pass the rigor stage.
Thaw rieor When prerigor meat is frozen, a severe type of rigor
mortis ensues during thawing. The shortening so produced may be
60 to 80% of the original length of the unrestrained muscle. Although
shortening is less in a muscle attached to skeleton, the condition
results in a tough meat and heavy drip losses.
f
.f

Antemortem Factors Affecting Meat Quality

Various stress factors such as extremes of environmental
temperature, overcrowding, preslaughter transportation, struggle
during immobilisation and bleeding etc. have ultimate bearing on
the quality of meat. Exposure to low temperature may cause
shivering which results in reduction in muscle glycogen level. During
any environmental stress, susceptible pigs, show porcine stress
syndrome which is characterised by muscle tremors, anxious
behaviour and reddening of skin. In such animals antemortem
temperature rise, lactic acid build up and ATP depletion are the
general features and postmortem changes are rapid. So conversion
from muscle to meat is also fast due to a sharp fall in pH and muscle
denaturation. Ultimately, meat becomes pale in colour, soft in texture
and exudative or moist during chilling itself. Stress resistant animals
are able to withstand exercise, fasting, fatigue, fight etc. but at the
expense of their glycogen reserves. Slow and limited glycolysis ofteh
result in high ultimate pH and excellent water binding capacity. So
meat appears dark, firm and dry.
Preslaughter handling such as long distance transportation and
overcrowding in trucks is also stressful to the animals. This treatment
 Meat Cuttin!!. and Packa2in!!. -

JIUMll3al s v. Approved meat cutting method should be followed step by step

· as per standar d speci1ications.
vi. Thumb rules for meat cutting techniq ues are:
a. More valued primal cuts are separat ed from the less valued
counter parts.
Meat Cuttina b. The muscula r portion is cut with a sharp knife.
c. The bony structure is severed with a manual or mechanised

and Packaaina saw.

d A limited force is applied while disjointing whenev er joints
are involved.
vii. In line operatio ns, in a meat cutting room should be fully
Meat cutting refers to the skill of separation of carcass into wholesale synchro nised. Differen t cuts, fat, trimmin gs etc. should be
primal cuts in order to facilitate requirem ents of meat trade, cater to transferred to their natural destinations.
the consum er preferen ce and conveni ent handling by the butchers.
It is a speciali sed work which requires expert butcher to have a fair Wholesale Cuts of Lamb Carcass
understanding of animal conformation, a good knowledge of carcass .
compon ents and breakup, consum er preferen ce and on-the-j ob USDA and many other international standar ds specify the division
experie nce. Differen t cutting method s are followed .in vari~us of lamb carcass into fore saddle and hind saddle by cutting between
countries. Hence, terms, like British cutting method, American cutting the last two ribs. The right and left sides are not separat ed (Fig.
method , French cutting method etc. are common . Besides, regional 5.1 ). However, BIS specify the division of carcass into right and left
variations within a country are also not uncomm on. The primal cuts sides.
are divided into subprim als which are further made into retail cuts. Fore saddle (53%)
Any technica l bulletin on speciali sed meat cutting can give further 1. Neck - cut at last cervical vertebra e where it blends with
details. shoulde r
Whatev er system is adopted, the underly ing principle s remain 2. Shoulde r - cut between 5th and 6th ribs
the same. In many developing countrie s a centralized meat cutting 3. Rack - portion from 6th to 12th rib
room is attache d to the slaught erhouse where primal cuts are 4. Breast - cut forward from midway of the last rib to 1/2" above
prepare d as in line operation and packed. Basic requisites in meat elbow joint
cutting are: 5. Foresh ank- cut containing foresha nk bones
i. The carcass has to be essentially chilled for proper meat cutting Hind saddle (47%)
and trimmin g job.
ii. Meat cutting room should be maintain ed at a tempera ture ~f 1. Loin - cut hind quarter by sawing in front of hip bone in
1s-20°c and relative humidit y of 80%. This environ ment 1s between last two lumbar vertebra e
wholeso me for meat and convenient to workers. 2. Leg - remaining portion of hind quarter
iii. All meat cutting equipm ents and machin ery such as meat 3. Flank - thin meat without bone from the natural seam
cutting tables, various types of knives, manual as well as . starting from breast.
electrically operated saws should be made up of stainless steel 4. Suet and kidney
and be sufficien tly sharp. In India, people general ly go for six cuts only-ne ck, shoulder,
iv. Meat cutting operatio n has to be done by adequa tely trained rack, foresha nk and breast, loin and leg (Fig. 5.2).
and experienced butchers. It is importa nt to maintain uniformity
in cuts and econom y of mercha ndising. '.":.

··'t
 - Meat and Meat Products Technoloav I· Meat Cuttina and Packaaina -
5. Loin - upper middle portion
6. Belly - lower middle portion between picnic shoulder
and ham.

Fia. 5.3: Pork carcass-Primal cuts

Fill. 5.1: Goat and Lamb Carcass-Primal cuts fUSDAJ

Wholesale Cuts of Buffalo or Beef Carcass
A. Carcass sides are separated. The right side is called closed
(kidney close) side whereas left side is called open (kidney free)
side (Fig. 5.4).

Fore-shank and Breast

Fill. 5.2: Goat and Lamb Carcass-Primal cuts rlndian MethodJ

Wholesale Cuts of Pork Carcass
Fia. 5.4: Buffalo or beef carcass-Primal cuts
Pork carcass is divided into right and lef~ sides. Then front feet are ·
removed 1" above knee and hind feet at the lower edge of the hock B. Each side is now subjected to quartering or ribbing. The fore
and each side is subjected to six cuts (Fig. 5.3). quarter and hind quarter are separated by making a cut between
Anterior part called rough shoulder is separated from the posterior 12th and 13th ribs.
by cutting between 2nd and 3rd ribs. This is made into three c. Fore quarter is cut between 5th and 6th ribs to have shank, brisket
wholesale cuts-jowl , butt and picnic. and chuck in the anterior part and rib and plate in the posterior
1 Jowl - cut close to the neck line part.
2. Boston butt - upper 1/3 of the skinned shoulder 1. Rib and plate - From the posterior part separate the upper
3. Picnic shoulder - · lower 2/3 of the shoulder rib from the lower plate by a straight and
4. Ham - cut between 2nd and 3rd sacral vertebrae at parallel cut to the backbone
right angle to.the line of leg
 - Meat and Meat Products Technoloall
Meat Cuffing and Packaaina -
2. Shank and Brisket - Place the anterior part on the table with Government of India has already evolved its grades
rib side down. The shank is removed by but the same
are still to be implemented. ·
cutting parallel to the underline and just
dorsa l to the lower extre mity of the PACKAGING
hume rus. The brisk et is remo ved· by
continuing the same cut through fhe breast Packaging refers to the scientific method of containing
a food for
bone and lower ends optimum protection till it reaches the ultimate consu
mer. Modern
3. Chuck - This is the remaining large square cut with concept treats packaging as an important marketing tool
also. Proper
ribs. packaging helps in maintaining the quality of a produ
ct during
4. Flank - Cut below the aitchb one following the storage, transport and provides convenience for easy
handling by
natural seam upto thick muscle Qf the flank the consumers.
and then extending straight upward cut Packaging of fresh meat is required for the following
reasons:
upto 4 cm below the eye muscle. i. To prevent moisture loss during storage
5. Round - Start with a cut 4 cm anterior to the pelvic To
ii. offer meat in a most desirable colour to the consumers·
bone and go parallel to the rib and loin. iii. To prevent further microbial contamination
6 . Loin - Left over cut which can be further--'- iv. To check the pick up of foreign odours by meat
sectio ned into anter ior short loin and v. To prevent lipid oxidation.
posterior sirloin by making a cut between The following packaging materials and techniques are
in vogue
for primal and retail cuts of fresh meats.
lumbar and sacral vertebrae.
D. From the hind quart er first remove kidney knob
i.e. kidneys
a1ongwith the adjoining fat. Overwraps
Primal and subprimal cuts of fresh meat are overw
Gradine rapped with
thermoplastic films having excellent optical properties.
Low density
There is lot of variation in the carcass conformation, polyethylene (100 gauge) is the most widely used
size and meat and cheapest
quality depending on the breed, age group, body confo film for this purpose. However, rubber hydrochloride,
nylon - 6 or 11
rmation and film, highly plasticised PVC film (70 gauge) can also
health status of meat animals. Meat grading refers to serve this
the sorting or purpose. Cellophane coated with nitrocellulose on
group ing of meat carca sses and cuts on the basis one side has
of their been in use for wrapping fresh meat for a considerable
conformation, finish and overall quality. Although this period. The
concept is yet uncoated side is kept in contact with meat. Anoth
to develop in our country, it is beneficial to the anima er grade of
l raiser at the cellophane coated with polyethylene can be used
farm, processor at the packing plant, purchaser at the for irregular
retail outlet shaped meat.
and above all to the qualit y consc ious consu mers.
Carca ss
conformation, trimming, meat to bone ratio, colou
r etc.play an Trav with Overwrap
important role in grading. Carcasses of buffalo, goat,
sheep or calf
may be graded for meat quality as prime, choice, The most common packages for retail fresh meat cuts
good or poor. in western
Pork carcasses are generally graded on the basis of countries are polystyrene foam or clear plastic trays
yield in most overwrapped
of the developed countries. with a transparent thermoplastic film. These trays offer
an aesthe-
Grading of meat carcasses and wholesale cuts is still tically appealing background. Provision of absorbant
confined cotton within
in India at the export points, that too as per the agreement the pack elimin ates the chanc es of exces sive
between meat juice
the exporter and importer. Directorate of Marketing and accumulation. This meat has a shelf life of 1o days at 0°C.
Inspection, However,
it can retain the desirable bright red colour for 5 days
only.
- Meat and Meat Products Technology
Shrink Film Overwrap
These ·films are biaxially oriented to stay stretched at room
temperature but shrink on exposure to hot air or hot water for a few
seconds. Shrink films are good water vapour barriers and have high
difi1il!A 6
structural strength. These films are used for wrapping large and
uneven cuts of fresh meat. These are also frequently recommended
for storage of carcass quarters under frozen condition. Shrink films Rmlfi,l~lt~s of various
offer neat appearance, contour tight package and are easy to handle.
Heat shrinkable polypropyle ne, irradiated polyethylen e or
polyvenyledene chloride (PVDC) can be used for this purpose.
Preservation
Vacuum Packa!!ine Techniques
This technique is recommended for long term storage of primal and
subprimal cuts of buffalo meat and beef. It ensures a shelf life of 8-
1o weeks at 0°c. Vacuum packaging of lamb and pork is avoided Meat is a highly perishable commodity due to nearly neutral pH
for different reasons. Lamb may have a shelf life of 3 weeks only (low acid food), tligh moisture content and rich nutrients.
because of comparatively high pH. Pork starts with a large load of Contamination with spoilage organisms is almost unavoidable which
bacteria and pork cuts are reported to have a shelf life of 2 weeks makes.the preservation of meat more difficult than most other foods.
only at 1°,C. Unless proper preservation methods are adopted, deteriorative
Vacuum shrink packaging in cryovac barrier bags may provide a microbial aCtivity, enzymatic and chemical reactions alongwith
means of storage and transport of frozen carcasses,. sides or physical changes are bound to occur. Efforts should be mad~ to
quarters to overseas destinations. Vacuum packaging is done either attain asepsis by avoiding contamination as much as possible.
However, once meat is contaminated with microorganisms, their
in laminates or co-extruded films. Typical laminates in use are:
removal is difficult. Hence, preservatio n of meat is usually
Aluminium foil/Polyethylene
accomplished by the use of low temperature, high temperature,
Polyster/Polyethylene
moisture control, direct microbial inhibition etc. Various methods
Polyamide/Polyethylene
employed to prolong the shelf-life of meat are :
PVDC/Polyester/Polyethylene
1. Chilling/Refrigeration........-
2. Freezing ,,
Modified Atmosphere Packa!!in!! 3. Curing r
In this technique, atmosphere inside the package is modified to 4. Smoking / · . (
extend the shelf life of meat while retaining its colour, flavour and 5. Thermal processing
6. Canning ' .-
weight. The package air can be suitably replaced by gases usually
7. Dehydration
nitrogen, oxygen or carbon dioxide alone or in combination.Different
8. Irradiation
meats have varying modified atmosphere requirements. Buffalo
meat and beef need a high oxygen content to maintain a bright red
colour. Pork needs less oxygen due to high fat content. Nitrogen Chilline./Refrie.eration
serves as an inert filler to balance a gas mixture. However, its use This is the most widely used method of preservation for short term
increases the cost of packaging. · storage of meat because chilling or refrigeration slows down the
 - Meat and Meat Products Technoloay Principles of Various Preservation Techniques -
microbial growth and enzymatic. as well as chemical reactions. abnormal condition occurs due to progressive surface dehydration
Storage offresh meat is done at a refrigeration temperature of 2 to resulting in the concentration of meat pigments on the surface. This
5°C.-Befrigeration of meat begins with the chilling of animal discolouration in frozen meat due to sublimations of ice crystals, is
carcasses and continues through the entire channel of holding,
irreversible condition. On cooking, freezer burn meat is quite tough
cutting, transit, retail display and even in the consumer household
and lack juiciness. .
before ultimate use. The relative humidity is generally kept 90% in · The quality of frozen meat is also influenced by freezing rate. In
order to check excessTve shrinkage due to· loss of moisture. slow freezing, extracellular water freezes more quickly due to low
Carcasses are first held in chill coolers (15°C) to remove their body solute concentration as compared to intrac:;ellular water. Thus, there
heat and then passed on to holding coolers (5°C). It is important fo is formation of large extracellular ice crystals which may cause
maintain proper spacing between carcasses so as to allow thorough mechanical damage to the _muscutar tissue, giving it a distorted
air circulation. appearance in· th·~ fro~en s~ate'. Contrary to this, in fast freezing,
· The refrigerated storage life of meat is influenced by species of numerous small ice crystals are formed uniformly tfirofrgnout the
origin, initial microbial load, packaging and temperature as well as meat tissue. Thus, problem of muscle fibre shrinkage and distorted
humidity conditions during storage. Pork .and poultry start with a appearance is not there. Besides, drip losses during thawing are
comparatively high microbial load. Irrespective of species of origin, considerably low as intracellular water freezes within the muscle
utmost care should be taken during handling of meat in order to fibre itself. Numerous small ice crystals on'"the~surface of fast frozen
check further microbial contamination. Since convenience of meat meat also impart it a desired lighter colour as compared to slow
plant workers is also important, the temperature in cutting and
frozen meat.
r(. packing halls generally exceeds s°C..As such, operations should Various type of freezers are employed to freeze meat and meat
., be accomplished by specialised hands within the minimum possible products. In plate type freezers, meat is placed in trays which remain
time. Refrigerated temperatures favour the growth of psychrophilic in direct contad with metal freezer plates. A temperature of -10°C
organisms causing spoilage of meat in due course of time. ·· or so is achieved. Blast type freezers are .used in large meat plants.
Generally, fresh meat is maintained in good condition for a period Such freezers render ta.st freezing of meat products due to rapid air
of 5-7 days at a refrigerated temperature of 4±1°C. Processed meat movement. A temperatu re range of -1 O to -30°C is generally
products are also stored under refrigeration till these are finally achieved.
consumed. These meat products are less perishable as compared The quality of meat and meat products can be preserved for
to fresh meat. The refrigerated shelf life of these products depends months together during frozen storage at -10°C. However, a storage
on the processing steps followed in each case. temperature of -18°C is recommended because at this level almost
all water in meat is frozen and minor temperature fluctuations can
Freezine be taken care of. At ...:1 a0 c, storage life of buffalo meat, beef, mutton
and chevon is approximately ~ths, while that of pork and poultry
Freezing is a method of choice for the long term preservation of
is less (4 months) because of associated unsa;urated fat, prone to
meat. It stops the microbial growth and retards the action of
rancidity development. Storage life of cured and salted meat products
enzymes. It has the advantage of retaining most of the nutritive
is still limited (2 months) as salt is a pro-oxidant. However, at
value of meat during storage, although a very little loss of nutrients
-10°c, storage life of these meats is reduced to half or even less.
does occur in the drip during thawing process. Since drip is no1
Thawing of meatshould be done within the package itself preferably
possible in cooked meat products, proper freezing conditions resul1
in a refrigerator so as to minimise the drip losses: However, if thawing
in retention of most of the nutritional and sensory properties.
is to be accomplished at a short notice, warm air or lukewarm water
It is utmost important to wrap fresh meat in suitable packagin£
may be used. Refreezing a thawed meat is not suggested in tropical
film before freezing, otherwise meat undergoes freezer burn. Thi~
countries and repeated freezing should not be practised.
- Meat and Meat Products Technology PrinciPles of Various Preservation Techniques -
At times, freezing and thawing of young chicken may pose the Nitrates and nitrites at permitted levels of 500 ppm and 200 ppm
problem of bone darkening due to leaching of haemoglobin from respectively act as preservatives by inhibiting the growth of a number
the marrow of porous bones to the adjoining muscle tissue. This of bacteria especially Clostridium botulinum. These chemicals also
tissue appears grey or black after cooking, although other sensory retard the development of rancidity. Cured flavour develops due to
attributes are not affected. reaction between fatty acids and sodium nitrite resulting in the
formation of benzonitrile and phenylacetonitrile. However, nitrite has
Carine been found to be involved in the formation of nitrosamine which is
supposed to be carcinogenic. Sugar counteracts the harsh
Preservation of meat by heavy salting is an age old practice. It was hardening effect of salt, adds to the flavour development and also
applied as a thumb rule because refrigeration.facilities were not serv~s as an ~nergy source for nitrate reducing bacteria in the curing
available. Later, curing by common salt and sodium nitrite resulted solution or pickle. Sucrose or dextrose is mainly used for this
in comparatively improved products. These days mild curing of meat purpose.Traditionally curing of meat is limited to pork (esp. ham
products is practised mainly for specific flavour and colour and belly) and beef (esp. brisket and leg muscles).
development and preservative effects of curing ingredients is an There are several methods of curing:
added advantage. Sodium chloride, sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate
i. Dry cure Dry ingredients are n.,ibbed to meat, e.g. curing of
and sugar are the main curing ingredients. bacon .
Sodium chloride (common salt) exerts its preservative action as
follows:. ii. Pickle cure Meat cuts are immersed in ingredient solution
i. It acts by dehydration and alteration 'of osmatic pressure that (pickle), e.g. curing of pork shoulder
inhibits the growth of spoilage bacteria.
iii. Injection cure Concentrated solution of the ingredients is
ii. Chloride ions in the salt directly act on the microorganisms.
pumped into the meat through artery or injected by needles in
iii. It slows down the action of proteolytic enzymes in meat. the muscular pork, e.g. curing of pork ham.
Besides, sodium chloride interacts with fatty acids to enhance
the flavour of the cured products. !t also contributes to the tenderness iv. Direct addition method Curing agents are added directly to
of the product. finely ground meat, e.g. luncheon meat
The temperature of curing room is maintained at 3 ±1°c and
Sodium nitrates and nitrite Serve to stabilise the attractive curec curing process is allowed for 3 to 4 days depending on the strength
meat colour and impart characteristic cured meat flavour. Colour of curing pickle.
reactions of cured meats can be summarised as follows:
Smokine
Nitrate reducing organisms
Nitrate >nitrite Meat smoking was known to man as an aid in preservation for a
long time, although its chemical basis was a mystery. It is now well-
Absence of light and air known that smoke contains a large number of wood degradation
Nitrite - - - - - - - - - - - - - - > N i t r i c oxide (NO) products such as aldehydes, ketones, organic acids, phenols etc.
NO+ Mb - - - - - - - - - - > N i t r i c oxide metmyoglobir which exert bacterioStatlc effecfbesides imparting characteristic
(NOMMb) smoky flavour. Preservation of smoked meat is also due to surface
Favourable conditions , dehydration, lowering of surface pH and antioxidant property of
NOMMb . > Nitric oxide myoglobin (NOMb) smoke constituents. Curing and smoking of meat are closely inter-
(unstable cured pigment) related and these days, curing is usually followed by smoking.
NO Mb+ heat/smoke >Nitroso haemochromoger Besides, smoking and cooking operations are accomplished
simultaneously.
(stable pink pigment)
- Meat and Meat Products Technolo!Zll Principles of Various Preservation Techniques -
Smoke is produced in the specially constructed 'smoke house' processing schedule. For example, moist heat is much more effective
where saw dust or hardwood and sometimes both are subjected to in killing microorganisms and spores as compared to dry heat, so a
combustion at a temperature of about 300°C. High temperature is . meat product with higher moisture content will require comparatively
desirable to minimise the production of carcinogenic compounds. less heat for sterilisation.
Smoke generation is accompanied by formation of numerou$ organic
compounds and their condensatio n products. Aldehydes and
Canninl:!
phenols condense to form resins, which constitute 50% of the smoke
components and contribute most of the colour of smoked meat It is a process of preservation achieved by thermal sterilisation of a
products. Phenols act mainly as bacteriostatic and forl'l)aldehyde product held in hermetically sealed containers. Canning preserves
as the chief bactericidal compound. the sensory attributes such as appearance, flavour and texture of
These days many liquid smoke preparations are commercially the meat products to a large extent. Besides, canned meat products
available in the developed countries. Liquid smoke is generally have a shelf life of atleast 2 years at ambient temperature .
prepared from hardwood wherein polycyclic hydrocarbons are Conventional canning is done in the following steps:
removed by filtration. Application of liquids smoke on the product
surface before cooking imparts it a smoky flavour which is very
i. Preparation ofmeat and eraw Carcass is de boned and 4 cm
meat chunks are prepared. Meat gravy is prepared using
much liked by the consumers. · condiments, tomatoes, dry spices and salt etc.

Thermal Processina ii. Precookine Meat and gravy, both are precooked at 70°C for
15 minutes. It causes the inevitable shrinkage of meat chunks
Unlike refrigeration of meat that slows or stops microbial growth, and reduces the initial microbial load.
thermal processing as a preservative method is employed to kill
the spoilage microorganisms. Two temperature regimes, that of iii. Fi/line Filling in cans may be done manually or mechanically
pasteurisation and sterilisations are generally used. Pasteurisation leaving proper headspace as per BIS specifications. Half of
refers to moderate heating in the temperature range of 58°C to 75°C the gravy is filled first followed by meat chunks and finally the
whereby most of the microorganisms present including trichinae rest of the gravy. Special care is taken to avoid trapping of air
occasionally found in pork are killed. Incidentally, this is also the during this operation.
cooking temperature range of most processed meats. This heat iv. Ex/Jaustine It refers to the removal of air from the container
treatment significantly extends the shelf life of meat, although such before it is closed. it is necessary to minimise the strain on the
products also need to be stored under refrigeration. Sterilisation can seams due to expansion of air during heat processing.
refers to severe heating at temperatures above 100°C whereby all Mechanical exhausting may vacuum seal the cans.
spoilage microorganisms in meat are killed or their microbial cells
are damaged beyond repair. This heat. treatment renders the meat v. Seainine This is usually done by a double seamer machine.
products commercially sterile because some bacterial spores may vi. Retortine or thermal Processine The product is subjected to
still survive. Such meat products have a recommended shelf life of high temperature under pressure for sufficient duration to
two years in cans and one year in retort pouches at ambient achieve commercial sterility.
temperatur e in tropics. However, exposure of m~at to high
temperatures imparts sulphydril flavour in cans and modifies texture vii. Cooline Retorting is followed by very fast cooling upto 30-
also. 400C to give a shock to the thermophilic bacteria.
Various meat products differ in water content, amount of fat and viii.. Storaee Cans should be stored in a cool and dry place
consistency. These factors have a definite bearing on the therma preferably at a temperature of about20°C.
- Meat and Meat Products Technolo1w PrinciPles of Various Preservation Techniques -
Dehydration and beta-rays are charged particles and have limited use in food
irradiation. However, lambda rays are electronic waves of short wave
Removal of water from meat concentrates the water soluble nutrients length and not the ct1arged particles. These are easily obtai~ed
making them unavailable to the microorganisms. The extent of from isotopes like 6°Co and 137Cs and have excellent penetration
availability of water to microbial cell is expressed as water activity power. Gamma radiations produce desired effect only during food
(aw). Dehydration lowers the water activity considerably to prevent irradiation and have no effect after removal of source. These are
the growth of spoilage organisms. Sundrying of meat chunks as a widely used in food preservation. A dose of 50-1 OOK rad
means of preservation was practised even in ancient days but (radurisation) can enhance the shelf-life of fresh meat cuts and
rehydration of such meat chunks used to be· limited. Mechanical
poultry products by 19 days whereas a do~e of 4-5 Mrad (rad
drying process involves the passage of hot air with controlled
appertisation) can sterilise pork, poultry and fish. Among the non-
humidity but here also there is difficulty in rehydration. 0
ionising radiations, ultraviolet radiations of 2650A are most
Freeze drying of meat is a satisfactory process of dehydration
bactericidal in nature, but due to poor penetration power, these are
preservation due to better reconstitution properties, nutritive quality u·sed only for surface sterilisation of meats. It may be mentioned
and acceptability. Freeze drying involves the removal of water from
that certain chemicals like ascorbates have been found to increase
a food by sublimation from the frozen state to vapour state by keeping
the sensitivity of the microorganisms to radiation.
it under vacuum and giving a low heat treatment. Freeze drying of In addition to the above mentioned preservation techniques, there
meat is carried out in three stages:
are many chemicals which prevent microbial growth in foods and
i. Prefreezing
act as preservatives. Several organic acids ha~e been gen~rally
ii. Primary drying
recognised as safe (GRAS) for use as chemical preserv~t1ves.
iii. Secondary drying Citric acid, propionic acid, benzoic acid, sorbic acid and their salts
Meat is first frozen at -40°C. Then it is dried under vacuum for 9- are effective mold inhibitors. Acetic acid and lactic acid prevent
12 hours at low temperature in plate heat exchangers at 1 to 1.5mm bacterial growth, whereas sorbate and acetate are capable of
pressure of mercury. Ice crystals get sublimated to water vapour . arresting the growth of yeast in foods. It may be noted that modern
and there is no rise of temperature. In the first phase of drying, free meat food processors do not rely on an~ single preserv~tive factor
and immobilised water of meat, which is freezable and constitutes or technique. They employ a combination of pres~rvat1ve facto~s
about 90-95% of total moisture, is removed. Secondary drying is (hurdles) in a balanced manner to derive ~ax1mum benefit.
done at high temperature to remove remaining 4-8°/o bound water. Technologists have exploited the hurdle ~oncept 1~ the de~elopment
Freeze dried products are packaged under vacuum and have very and keeping quality enhancement of 1ntermed1ate moisture and
good storage stability. The process has been largely used for the shelf stable food products.
preparation of dehydrated meat soup mixes.

Irradiation
Radiation is the emission and propagation of energy in the material
medium. Electromagnetic radiations are in the form of continuous
waves. These are capable of ionising molecules in their path. }hese
radiations can destroy the microorganisms by fragmenting their ~N.A
molecules and causing ionisation of inherent water within
microorganisms. Since microbial destruction of foods. tak~s ~lac.e
without significantly raising the temperature of food. 1r~ad1at1on is
many times referred as cold sterilisation. Among rad1at1ons, alpha
 Processine of Meat and Meat Products -
them. The emulsion remains unstable if interfacial tension is
very high. The emulsion can be stabilised by reducing the
interfacial tension with the help of emulsifying agents or
emulsifiers. Homogenised milk is a good example of true
emulsion in which fat droplets are dispersed in an aqueous
continuqus phase. The size or diameter of dispersed fat droplets
in a true emulsion ranges from 1 to 5 micrometer (µm).
Meat emulsion comprises of a dispersed phase of solid or liquid
fat droplets and a continuous phase of water containing salt and
proteins (Fig. 7 .1 ). Here, continuous phase can also be referred as
a matrix in which fat droplets are dispersed. Due to the presence of

Basic meat plant operations such as cutting, trimming, .deboning Fat droplet Muscle fibre Connective tissue
and grinding do not constitute meat processing. In fact, processing I

refers to any treatment including salting which brings about a

substantial chemical and physical change in the natural state of
meat. Processing invariably imparts considerable shelf stability to
meat. As a matter of fact, many processing techniques evolved in
the pursuit of preservation.

Basic Processina Procedures

i. Comminution All processed meats can be classified as either
non-comminuted or comminuted products. Non-comminuted
products are generally processed trom intact cuts. These
products are usually cured, smoked and cooked, e.g. ham and
bacon. Comminution refers to subdivision or reduction of raw .
meat into meat pieces or particles. The degree of comminution
or particle size varies with the processing characteristics of
products. Such meat particle size reduction helps in the uniform
distribution of seasonings and eliminates the toughness
associated with meat of old animals and lowers the fuel cost
for cooking (Padda et al, 1987). Comminution is done with the Water Protein coating
help of meat mincer tor coarse ground products whereas bowl
chopper is also employed for making fine meat emulsion. Fie.7.1: Meat emulsion rultra viewJ
ii. Emulsification A mixture of two immiscible liquids where one matrix, many people call meat emulsion as a multiphase system.
liquid is dispersed as droplets in another liquid is called For practical purposes, meat emulsion is an oil-in-water emulsion
emulsion. An emulsion has two phases-a continuous phase where solubilised meat proteins act as emulsifiers. The fat droplets
and a dispersed or discontinuous phase. These phases remain are usually larger than 50 µm in size and remain coated with a
immiscible due to the existence of an intertacial tension between soluble protein-eith er myofibrillar or sacroplasmic.The amount of
 ·' . .
,,,,,~j

- Meat and Meat Products Technoloay

Processina of Meat and Meat Products -
fat that can be incorporated in a stable emulsion depends ,on fat
v. Hot processine It refers tO the processing of carcass as soon ·
particle size, meat pH, temperature during emulsification and the
as possible after slaughter (certainly within 1-2 hours) without
amount and type of soluble proteins. It is very important to maintain .
undergoing any chilling. The term pre-rigor processing is used
low temperature during emulsion formation in order to avoid melting
when muscular meat is processed in a pre-rigor condition.
of fat particles, denaturation of soluble proteins and lowering of
Though hot processing of meat has been a common practice
viscosity. This is done by adding ice flakes instead of chilled water
during chopping. in India, it is rather a new development in western countries.
This technique has many advantages. It accelerates the
For the preparation of a good meat emulsion, lean meat is first
processing steps and entire processing time is reduced to a
chopped with salt to extract salt soluble proteins and then fat and
great extent. There is improvement i~ the cooking yi~ld a~d
other ingredients are added. Salt soluble proteins have a relatively
sensory quality of the product. In addition, there are financ1el
high emulsifying capacity. Once a good meat e·mulsion is formed, it
benefits due to reduced chiller space and labour requirement.
has to be protected during cooking or heat treatment. The emulsion
Thus, lot of energy is saved if hot processing is adopted at a
breakdown can occur due to sudden exposure to high temperature
pilot scale.
because of coalescence of finely dispersed fat particles into larger
ones (fat pockets). The encased or moulded emulsion is first vi. Cookine Meat and meat products are cooked by any one or a
exposed to heat at 55°C so as to coagulate the coating proteins combination of three methods-dry heat, moist heat and
and stabilise the emulsion. microwave cooking. Dry heat cooking is an accepted method
for relatively tender cuts of meat such as pork chops, leg and
\ ' iii. Meat extension A lot of non-meat food items can be incor-. chops of lamb, ground and comminuted meats etc. The product
I porated in meat products. These are generally termed as
yield is relatively high due to comparatively less shrinkage.
extenders, although these may be specifically referred as fillers,
Dry heat cooking involves either broiling, roasting or frying. In
binders, emulsifiers or stabilisers depending on the purpose
broiling, meat held on a wire grill, is exposed to heat from above
of their incorporation in the basic meat formulation. In
as in electric and gas oven or below as in charcoal broiler.
developing countries, soy products, potato starch and flours of
Meat is required to be turned for uniform and sufficient cooking
wheat, rice, pea, corn etc. are used as fillers to reduce the
of all sides. Roasting is also practised on tender cuts df meats
cost of formulations. Several milk products such as skim milk
such as pork shoulder and loin; shoulder, rack and loin of lamb
powder, dried whey, sodium caseinate etc. are frequently used
and cured ham etc. The roast piece, at least 8 cm thick, is
as binders. Some gums like sodium alginate, carrageenan,
adjusted in open roasting pan with fat side up and. placed_ in
gum arabic etc. may be used to stabilise fragile meat
hot-air oven at 115-150°C. Cooking temperature and time vanes
emulsions. Due to high cost, extension of meat should be taken
according to the cut. Roasting generally gives good browning
up on a large scale in order to ensure the availability of meat
products to the masses. and improves the flavour of the product. Frying-de~p fat ~r
shallow pan is also classified under dry heat cooking. This
iv. Preblendine It refers to the mixing of a part or all the curing method is especially suitable for thin cuts of meat such as
ingredients (salt, nitrite, nitrate etc) with ground meat in a sliced steaks, mutton chops, chicken meat pieces etc.
specified proportion. This process allows.better extraction of Moist heat cooking is recommended for relatively tough cuts of
proteins which in turn helps in the formation of stable emulsion. meat. In this method, hot water or steam is continuously kept in
It permits control of product composition by adjusting the contact with meat for cooking, so that moisture loss does not take
desired fat content. Besides, processors get enough time for place beyond a particular stage. Press~re cooking, ste'":'ing,
the analysis of meat samples. simmering etc. are popular moisture cooking procedures. H1g~er
cooking temperatures can be achieved in pressure_ cooking
facilitating the tenderisation oftough cuts of mec;1.t. In stewing, tough
- Meat and Meat Products Technology Processing o1 Meat and Meat Products -

meat pieces are first browned in small amount of fat and then covered ~nd bacon have been subjected to curing and smoking for a long
with water alongwith curry stuff and allowed to cook at simmering time. These days, it is a general practice to accomplish cooking
temperature in covered container. The final product becomes tender also during smoking except for Country ham, which is smoked
alongwith a curry. Simmering involves cooking in hot water at a without cooking.
temperature of 70°C for considerable time. Braising utilises both
dry heat as well as moist heat for proper processing of meat Hams
products. Several meat cuts like pork chops and steaks, mutton
fhese are classified in several ways:
breast and shanks etc. are first fried in a frying pan and then put in
a. According to weight : light, medium and heavy
a covered container alongwith water and seasoning for cooking at
80-90°C, b. According to trimming : rough, regular, skinned and skinless
Microwave cooking is relatively a recent developme nt. c. According to presence : bone-in, semiboneless and boneless
of bone
Microwaves are high frequency, non-ionising electromagnetic waves
which are generated by magnetron vacuum tube within the oven.
These waves are channelised into the oven cavity through a wave Commercial Processing of Ham
guide. A stirrer fan distributes the microwaves evenly. The Irrespective of classification, most hams are processed in three
microwaves penetrate the food from all directions simultaneously steps-curin g, smoking and cooking. Most commercial hams are
upto a depth of 2-4 cm causing water, fat and sugar molecules to pickle cured. A typical curing solution consists of:
vibrate at a very high speed. The vibrations cause tremendous
Ingredients
friction which produces heat for cooking the food. The spread of Quantity
heat throughout the three dimensional space in the food i~self is Table salt 850 g
called volume heating. Contrary to conventional heating, food is Phosphate 225 g
first to be heated in the microwave cooking which then transmits Sucrose 175 g
Sodium erythrobate 15 g
heat to container and oven environment. It saves a lot of time, taking Sodium nitrite Bg
only 25% time as compared to conventiona l thermal oven. Water 40 litres
Microwaves can pass through glass, pottery, wood and paper but
reflected by metal. So, metallic utensils cannot be used in the
microwave oven. There are some other disadvantages also. Food :uring is usually. done by artery pumping or stitch pumping to
has to be frequently turned to ensure proper heating and browning 10 Yo of the green weight. However, .best results with respect to colour
of food does not take place in this cooking. and flavour are obtained by keeping the hams in a cover pickle at
Processing of meat products is divided into the following groups ~ °C f?r 5. days. The hams are now shifted to smoke chamber which
for further discussion: is maintained at 75-85°C temperature and 30-40% relative humidity
1. Cured and smoked meats for 5-6 hours. Smoke generated from hardwood is preferred for good
results.
2.Sausages
3. Intermediate moi~ture and shelf stable meat products ·The processing of some variety hams is given here under:
4.'Restructured meat products Cook~d ~amThese hams are deboned and cured in the pickle but
5. Other popular meat products smoking 1s not done. Instead, these hams are stuffed tightly into
metal moulds and cooked in a water tank at 75-85°C for 2-3 hours
Cured and Smoked Meats depending on the weight of the ham. During cooking, the core
temperature-must reach 65-70°C. After cooking, the mould-in hams
All meat products belonging to this class are cured, whereas only
some of them are smoked. The primal cuts of pork especially ham
 - Meat and Meat Products Technoloi:!Y Processina of Meat and Meat Products - ·
are chilled in a tank maintalned at 0°C for 12 hrs. These hams are and facilitate slicing. These bacon slabs are processed in a forming
then sliced and packed. , machine to give uniform width and thickness. Bacon blocks are now
Country ham These uncooked hams are manufactured in USA by sliced to 5-7 mm thickness with the help of slicer. The slices may
dry curing method. The curing mixture usually contains 8 kg salt, 1 be packed in a modified atmosphere if long term storage is desired.
kg sugar and 1OOg sodium nitrite. It is rubbed thoroughly at the rate Some variations in the processing of bacon in different countries
of 30g per kg of ham on 1st, 5th and 10th day. The entire production are inevitable. Canadian bacon is not manuf<:!ctured ·from bellies
but from larger muscles of pork loin and sirloin. In Europe and U.K.,
schedule is divided into three phases: (a) Curing is allowed to take
Wiltshire bacon is produced from pork sides where shoulder, loin,
place under refrigeration at a relative humidity of 70-90% for 30-40
ham and belly are processed as a single large piece.
days during which hams are overhauled atleast three times, (~}
Smoking is done at low temperature for 2-3 days till the .hams
become amber coloured and (c) Aging is done for 6-9 months at a Sausages
temperature of 20-30°C and relative humidity of 50-60%: During Sausage term was derived in_the ancient timt:i:; rrom the latin.word
this period, Country hams become progressively harder and develop 'salsus' meaning salt. It was literally coined.to refer to ground meat
a unique flavour. These hams have a final salt level of 4-5% and a which was salted and stuffed in animal casings. Presently, sausage
moisture content of 50-60%. The shrinkage loss during processing may be defined as a meat product which is prepared from minced
amounts to 18-20%. · and seasoned meat and .formed into cylindrical shape by natural or
· synthetic casings; Though sausages originated in the western world,
Proscicutto These hams are manufactured in Italy from certified these products acquired universal popularity due to variety and
trichinae free hams and traditionally consume d without being
cooked. These are dry cured like Country hams. Curing continues convenience to the consumers. Sausages are economical also
for 45 days at 4°C, followed by smoking for 2 days at 55°C and because these are generally prepared from cheaper cuts of meat
finally ageing for 30 days at 20°c at a relative humidity of 65-75%. and by-products of industry.
There is a shrinkage of 35% in weight during the entire processing
schedule. Classification
Sausages are such. a large number of varying kinds of products
Bacon that it is not possible to cover them in any classification system.
Some overlapping is always there. Some of the popular classification
Pork bellies are generally processed as cured and smoked bacon.
There is no fixed criteria for the classification of bacon. However, systems are:
many processors grade them on the basis of weights of green bellies. i. Based on degree of chopping a. Coarse ground sausage
b. Emulsion type sausage
ii. Based on moisture content a. Fresh sausage
Commercial Processing of Bacon b. Smoked uncooked
Green bellies are first cleared of rind and stitch pumped with a curing sausage
pickle. These are now transferred to smoke chamber maintained at c. Cooked sausage
a temperature of 60-65°C and a relative humidity of 30-40% for d. Dry and semi-dry
smoking as well as cooking. The cooking time depends on the size sausage
of bellies although an internal temperature of 55°C must be achieved. iii. Based on fermentation a. Fermented sausage
Cooking also helps to stabilise the cured colour. After smoking and b. Non-fermented sausage
cooking, bacon is chilled to 0°C to allow it to retain proper shape
- Meat and Meat Products TechnoloeY
Processin2 Steps Processine of Meat and Meat Products -

i. Grinding 9r mincing Lean meat

' fcmnu\a\\cms ot Some. Sausa~e.s ~\t\\ SPe.t\a\ f eatut'e.s
and fat are minced separately . ·
in a mea t mincer. The choice of mincer Fresh pork sausages (coarse ground
plate or sieve depends type)
on the type of meat. Ingredients
Quantity
ii. Mixine Meat and fat to be used \..ean ?O~¥.. \~\mm\nr,\"S
for the preparation of coarse '2.';':..Cl¥..r,\
ground sausage are mixed uniform 'i:.ac¥..\a\
ly in a mixer. Extender, \S.Cl¥..r,\
condiments and spices should also be \ a'o\e "Sa\\
run in the mixer for even \.Cl ¥..r,\
distribution. · 'N\ii\ e ~e??et
\2.S.Cl r,\
iii. ChoPPine and emulsifYine · For Suga f
emulsion preparation, lean 7S.O g
meat is first chopped for few minutes Ging ef powdef
in a· bowl chopper with 15.0 g
salt to extract myofibrillar proteins. This
is followed by addition ii. Frankfurters (Cured, emulsion type
of fat and running for a few minu meat sausages)
tes again to get desired
emulsion consistency. Now, all other Ingredients
ingredients are added and Quantity
chopper is run for sometime for unifo Beef trimmings·
rm distribution. The entire 30.0 kg
operation is conducted at low tempera Pork trimmings (50/50)
ture by addition of ice 20.0 kg
flakes in place of chilled water. Ice flakes
15.0 kg
Table salt
iv. Stuffine Sausage emulsion or 1.2 kg
batter is taken to stuffer for White pepper
extrusion into casings. The casings 110.0 g
are first collected on the Nutmeg
stuffing hom or nozzle and release 25.0 g
d to coincide with the Cardamom
extrusion. 25.0 g
Ginger powder
25.0 g
v. linkine and fYine In small saus Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
ages, the encased mass is 25.0 g
twisted to produce links eith er man Sodium erythrobate
uall y or mec han icall y 20.0 g
whereas in large sausages, the enca Sodium nitrite
7.5 g
sed mass is tied with
thread at regular intervals. iii. Salami (Fresh, emulsion type sausage
s)
vi. Smokine and cookine Sau sag
e links are hun g. on the Ingredients Quantity
smo keh ous e trolley and transferred
to smokehouse. The Pork trimmings (50/50)
temperature of smokehouse is usually 20.0 kg
maintained at 68-70°C Pork cheek meat
which is enough for coagulation of saus 10.0 kg
age emulsion, cooking Pork hearts
and requisite drying of sausages. 10.0 kg
Pork stomachs 5.0 kg
vii. Chi/line The cooked product is show Ice flakes 5.0 kg
ered with chilled water to
an internal temperature of about 4°C. Table salt 1.2 kg
Black pepper 115.0 g
viiL Peefine and packaeine While Sodium erythrobate
artificial or synthetic casings 25.0 g
are peeled off before the product is pack Garlic powder
ed, small sized natural 25.0 g
casings need not be removed. The Sodium nitrite
product is generally unit 5.0 g
packed for retail outlets.
Bat ter is stuf fed in· broa der cas ings
, usu ally drie d catt le
oe_sophagus and hanged for 2 days at
4°G. It is smoked and cooked
simultaneously in India.
- Meat and Meat Products Technolol!Y Processinll of Meat and Meat Products -
iv. Chiqkeo sausages (Emulsion type) Sausage mix is stuffed into 40-44 mm animal casings and held
Ingredients Quantity for 9-11 days at 4°C. It is transferred to green room for 2 days to be
. maintained ~t 20°G and 70% relative humidity and then smoked for
Chicken meat 30.0 kg
Vegetable oil 7.5 kg
3 days at 35°C and 80% relative humidity. The product is not cooked
Ice flakes 5.0 kg but held for 21 days in the drying room at 35°C and 70% relative
Condiments 3.0 kg humidity during which it will have a i;;hrinkage. The final product has
Bread powder 3.0 kg only 30-35°/o moisture content. ·
Table salt 1.2 kg
vii. Bologna: It is an emulsion type sausage prepared from the
Whole egg liquid 1.0 kg
800.0 g
meat of old animals.
Spices mix
Sodium nitrite 5.0 g viii. Hot dog: It is a fairly spicy sausage in broader casings, usually
weasand in India.
v. Thuringer summer sausages (coarse ground, fermented, semi- ix. Mortade/la: It is a dry sausage prepared in cattle bladder or
dry type) artificial broader casings.
Ingredients Quantity

Pork trimmings (75/25) 25.0 kg Intermediate Moisture and Shelf Stable Meat Products
Beef trimmings 20.0 kg
Sundrying of meat was one of the earliest preservative techniques
Table salt 1.2 kg
Dextrose 400.0 g used by man. Such meat had meagre rehydration capacity resulting
Black pepper 115.0 g in poor juiciness and texture. Later studies revealed that meat
Starter culture 60.0 g : products with 20-50% moisture had moderate juiciness and texture
Coriander 30.0 g on rehydration. Such products were resistant to bacteriological
Sodium nitrite 5.0 g
spoilage and could be held without refrigeration. These products
The pH of sausage mix comes down to about 5.0 due to bacterial were referred as Intermediate Moisture Meats (IMM). The basic
fermentation. Dextrose serves a:s a substrate for fermentation. reason for the stability of these products lay in the reduced availability
Sausage mix prepared at 0°c is stuffed into casings and held in of water to the microorganisms, since water activity generally
green or ripening room maintained at 25°C and 85-90% relative remains in the range of 0.6 to 0.85. These semi-moist meats are of
humidity until fermentation is complete (2-3 days). These are smoked special significance to the developing countries where refrigeration
and cooked at 60-65°C. The moisture content of finished product is facilities are not always available. Such products can be easily carried
nearly 50%. in defence expeditions and stress situations like floods, famines
vi. Ory sausages (coarse ground, fermented sausages, e.g. etc. for air drop.
pepperoni)
Ingredients Quantity Humectants
Pork trimmings (50/50) 20.0 kg Various additives employed for lowering the water activity of foods
Beef trimmings 15.0 kg are known as humectants. Some of the most commonly used
Pork hearts 5.0 kg
humectants are:
Pork cheeks 5.0 kg.
Table salt 1.5 kg Glycerol
Dextrose 500.0 g Propylene glycol
Black pepper 175.0 g Sodium chloride
Fennel seeds 10.0 g Polyhydric alcohols (e.g. sorbitol)
Sodium nitrite 7.0 g.
Sugars (e.g. sucrose, dextrose, corn syrup etc).
 - Meat and Meat Products Technology
Processina of Meat and Meat Products -
The humectants are generally low molecular weight compounds
which are easily soluble in water. These are chemically inert and do
Ingredients Percentage
not modify the normal sensory qualities of the product. Besides,
these compounds are edible in large quantities without any adverse Glycerol 25.00
effect. Catsup 23.55
In addition to humect ants, use of antimyc otic agents like Water 15.00
Viriegar 13.50
potassium sorbate, sodium benzoate, propylene glycol etc. is a must Sucrose 11.84
in the semi-moist meats because 0.6 to 0.85 water activity range Starch hydrolysate 14.50
specifically permits the growth of moulds. Salt 2.59
Corn starch 2.30
Monosodium glutamate 1.15
Basic Processind Techniques Potassium sorbate 0.30
Mustard powder 0.24
A. Moist infusion or desorption It involves soaking and/or cooking Onion powder 0.02
of meat chunks or cubes to yield a final product having desired G.arlic powder 0.01
water activity level, e.g. sweet and sour pork, Hungarian goulash
etc. · b. Degradation of haemoprotein (myoglobin and haemog lobin)
B: Dry infusion or adsorption It involves initial dehydration of meat
causing loss of colour.
chunks or cubes followed by soaking in an infusion solution
c. Development of rancidity.
containing desired osmotic agents, e.g. ready-to-eat cubes of
d. Non-enzymatic browning resulting in loss of colour, consum er
roast pork, chicken a la king etc.
appeal, nutritive value and possibly off-flavour.
C. Component blending In this process dry and wet ingredients or .
e. Formation of lipid-protein crosslinks causing decreased water
components are blended, cooked and extruded or otherwise
binding capacity and net protein utilisation of meat products.
mixed to give a final product of desired water activity.
Whatever process is adopted, the thumb rules for the preparation
of IMM are: (a) reduction of water activity by addition of humectants, Hurdle Concept
(b) retardation of microbial growth by addition of antimicrobial Intermediate moisture meat products mostly depend on lower mois-
especially antimycotic agents and (c) improvement of sensory· ture content and consequent decrease in water activity for their
. properties such as flavour and texture through physical and chemical shelf stability. Use of high concentration of humectants including
treatments.· salt and sugar for desorption usually produces a disagreeable· taste.
Composition of infusion solution developed by Brockmann (1970) This is true for Indian palate also. Leistner and Rode! (1976) coined
for the preparation of sweet and sour pork (aw= 0.85) is given below the term hurdles for the parame ters like chilling, heating, pH
. to give an idea apout the balancing of various additives: reduction, low water activity, enhanced Eh, use of preservatives
a.nd competitive microflora. Use of these hurdles or combination
Stability of Intermediate Moisture Meats preservation technique in a balanced and judicious manner was
named as hurdle concept and later the hurdle technology. It does
IMF products are fairly stable at ambient temperature for several not allow a single parameter to affect the product characteristics
weeks or even months. However, prolonged storage may result in drastically. Thus, hurdle technology is the use of two or more factors,
some quality deterioration due to the following reasons: none of which is independently capable of sufficiently inhibiting the
a. Limited breakdown of both myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic proteins. spoilage or pathogenic microorganisms to extend the shelf life of
Collagen being more susceptible to degeneration results in more food products. Hurdle technology based meat products provide a
hydroxyproline formation. desirable taste, juiciness, texture and safety.
- - Meat and Meat Products Technology Processing of Meat and Meat Products mlm
Restructured Meat Products not less than 80% pork including pork fat which should not
exceed 30% in the final product. Bes.ides, added water is limited
It has now become possible to utilise less desired or secondary
to 3% and the cereal ingredients should not exceed 7% ofthe
carcass cuts into the production of highly preferred meat products
total formulation. Lean pork and pork fat are ground through
such as steaks, roasts, chops, cutlets etc. The less desired carcass
5 m~ ~-nd 3 mm plate of the meat mincer, respectively. These
cuts are carefully trimmed to remove sinews, excess fat and. other are 1rnt1ally chopped alongwith chilled water or ice flakes
connective tissue. Any one of the following three basic procedures
co~mon salt and nitrite followed by other ingredients such a~
can be adopted depending on the appearance and texture targeted refined ~heat flour, condiments and dry spices. A simple
in the finished product: formulation of luncheon meat is given below:
i. Chunking and forming
ii. Flaking and forming Ingredients Percentage
iii. Tearing and forming Lean pork 67
Pork backfat 15
i. Chunkine and tormine The trimmed meat is put through a Ice flakes 3
dicing machine and reduced to small chunks. One per cent Table salt 2.5
common salt and 0.25% phosphate are added at this stage Dextrose· 1 .5
and meat is put in a tumbler run at medium speed. Quring Refined wheat flour 5
Condiments 4. 75
tumbling process, impact energy is utilised for the extraction of 1.5
. Dry spices
salt soluble proteins. The extracted proteins serve as cementing 150 ppm
Sodium nitrite
material when this meat is restructured by stuffing and pressing
into suitable moulds. Restructured meat is frozen and then The b~tter or meat mix, maintained at 4°C, is filled compactly in
sliced to obtain uniform slices of desired thickness. cans which are sealed under vacuum. Commercial sterilization is
done in retorts at 121°C for75 minutes. Cans are now cooled with
ii. Ffakine and tormine The trimmed meat is passed through a cold water shower until the contents reach 38°C. Canned luncheon
flaking machine to get flakes which are then mixed with 1%
meat is stable at ambienttemperature for a period of two years.
common salt and 0.25% phosphate. The material is run in a
massager. During massaging process, frictional energy is ii. Meat Patties Meat patty is one of the most popular products
utilised for the better extradion of salt soluble proteins. The among the ground meat items and is generally used as filling
meat mass is stuffed and pressed or formed into desired for burger roll or sandwich. Some people prefer to consume it
Shapes-steaks, cutlets or chops. The restructured product is separately with tomato sauce or chutney. This product has a
frozen and thawed just before cooking. The products have· very good demand in big towns and cities in India. Patties are
relatively good tenderness and uniform texture. partially or completely emulsion based product, contain less
than 30% fat and are moulded manually or mechanically. An
iii. Tearine and tormine In this procedure meat fibres are torn optimum formulation is presented below:
apart. So, there is less damage to the membrane resulting in
less chances of autoxidation. Further, the structural integrity Ingredients Percentage

of meat tissue is maintained, though it becomes tender. Efforts Lean meat 65

are on to mechanise the process. Fat . 15
Table salt 2
Texturised soy protein 10
Other Popular Meat Products Condiments 6.5
Dry spices 1.5
i. luncheon meat It is a canned product usually prepared from
pork alongwith some cereal component. The product contains

~~. n
 - Meat and Meat Products Technolo2Y
Processin2 of Meat and Meat Products -
Lean meat is minced twice through 6 mm plate and fat through 4 are either stored raw or deep fat fried in refined vegetable oil at
mm plate of a meat grinder. lhese are mixed thoroughly with all 135°C for three minutes to get brown colour and fried flavour.
other ingredients in an electrically operated mixer or prepared into Alternatively, these are cooked in hot water maintained at 80°C
an emulsio n. The batter weighin g 80-100 g is moulde d into for 1o minutes to get an internal temperature of 65-70°C. Water
70~80 mm diamete r and 15-20 mm thick patties. Raw patties
may cooked balls may be subjected to light frying to get golden
be frozen for future use or broiled in a preheated oven at 190°C for brown colour.These are packed in polyethylene pouches and
20 minutes. The internal temperature must reach 72°C. These are can be kept at 4°C for a week. Whe.never required, the cooked
deep fat fried in many commercial establishments. The patties are balls can be simmered in gravy for a few minutes and enjoyed
cooled and consum er packed. - with rice or bread.
iii. Meat loaves This important ready-to-eat comminuted meat v. Meat nueeets It is a ready-to-eat convenient product which is
product is prepared from coarse ground meat or meat emulsion obtained by cutting cooked and cooled rectangular or cubical
or a combination of both. The formulation of a family loaf is shape meat loaves into approximately 4 cm x 1.5 cm x 1.5 cm
given below: pieces.The product is packed in unit pouches. and can be sto~ed
Ingredients Percentage
at 4°c for a week. It is usually shallow fat-fried before serving
for breakfast or refreshment.
Lean park 65
Pork backfat 15
Ice flakes 5
Table salt 2
Refined wheat flour 7.5
Skim milk powder 4
Dry spices 1.5
Sodium nitrite 150 ppm

The meat mix or batter is tightly filled in aluminium or steel loaf

pans which may be rectangular, cubical or cylindrical in shape
depending on the requirement of slices for making tl:le sandwiches.
The pan-in mix is cooked in hot water maintained at 80°C or steam
without pressure or broiled in hot air oven at. 165°C for 2.5 to 3
hours. The internal temperature of 70°C must be achieved. It is
then given a cold shower and chilled at 4°C. The chilled loaves are
either packed as such or cut into slices of desired thickness and
packed.
iv. Meat balls Indian consumers are familiar with this food item
by the narne of meat kofta. The product, stored raw or cooked
offers a great conven ience to restaur ants, hotels and
ho·usewives who can just put few balls in the gravy and serve
the food within 10 minutes. The product is prepared from ground
meat which is mixed with fat, bread powder, salt, condiments
and spices in an electrically operated mixer. The dough portions
of 15-20 g are rolled into balls manually or mechanically. These
 Plate 1

liiMil!ti s
Microblal and Other
Deteriorafi,ve
Changes in ·Meat and
their ldentificati.on
Meat is a highly perishable food item. Hence, utmost precau
tions
must be taken to safeguard it right from bleeding of slat.jghter
animals
till final consumption. Though muscle tissue of living anima Fis. 7.2: Mutton Products
l is free
of microorganisms, it gets contaminated by the body surfac
e and
visceral contaminants during slaughter and dressing operat
ions.
These organisms are bound to proliferate and cause deterio
rative
changes in meat unless proper measures are emplciyed
to retard
their growth. Besides, deteriorative changes can also be
brought
about by endogenous enzymes, lipid oxidation and imwop er
storage
conditions.
Microbial activity plays a major role in deterioration and spoila
ge
of meat. We should, therefore, concentrate our effort~ to check
the
initial invasion of microbes during slaughter and subse.~uent
handling
as well as processing.

Sources of Microbial Contamination of Meat

There are a number of potential sources of contamination
of meat
within the abattoir itself. These include:
i. Hides/skin and feet
ii. Gastrointestinal contents
iii. Instruments such as knives, cleavers saws, hooks etc.
iv. Water used for washing carcasses and instruments
v. Airborne contamination
vi. Hands and clothing of the personnel Fil!. 7.3: Meat sausal!es rCourtesYR SomvanshiJ
 Plate 2
P\ate '3

REAJJY. SAN DW ICH ES

Fi2. 7.4: Readv sandwiches

. .

BUFFALO MEAT 16Af:i,L

Fis:!. 7.5: Buffalo meat loaf
fi2. 7.7: Chicken loaf and slices
 Plate 4
Microbial and Other Deteriorative Chanaes in
Meat -
Contamination of meat may also take place
during chilling, ageing,
processing, packaging and distribution.

Growth of Microor2a.nisms in Meat

The microorganisms that occur in mea
t may be bacteria or fungi.
Fungi may be multi-cellular filaments
(mold) or large single cells
with buds (yeast). Molds are capable
of producing minute spores
under unfavourable conditions. Fungi gain
upper hand over bacteria
in meat when it is semi-dry. Bacteria are
unicellular microorganisms
which are spherical or ovoid or rod shap
ed and may occur in chains
or clusters. Bacterial growth or multiplica
tion takes place in phases:
Lag phase Bacterial cells increase in size under
favourable conditions
Log phase . . Bacterial cells multiply and increase
in
number
Stationary phase Growth rate becomes relatively cons-
tant due to environmental limitations
Decline or death phase There is destruction of bacterial cells
either due to nutritional depletion or
Fi.I!. 7.8: Chicken nu2.eets app lica tion of som e pres erva tion
technique.
An understanding of growth curve enables
the meat tectinologists
to apply suitable preservation techniqu
e to.prolong the lag phase
8

7 Stati onar y phas e

6 \

'
Ill
·c:
\
~
Ill
.c
5
ti,\
~,,
0 4 ":S \

g3 "?t'QI\ \\
Cl ~\ \
I \
.32 . \ I

1 Lag phas e

0"--'-2~/~4-----6~8-----'10~1~
2~1-4----16..__1·8~~20~-22~-24

Tillie {hr)
Fi.I!. 8.1: A fllPical bacterial .erowth curve in
meat
 - Meat and Meat Products Technology
Microbial and Other Deteriorative Changes in Meat - .
so that bacterial multiplication is retarded or if conditions have activity of 0.91 but most spoilage mold and yeast can grow upto a
already favoured so_me growth, then to hasten the death phase. water activity of 0.86. This factor is commercially exploited in the
Microbial growth activity in meat depends on various extrinsic production of intermediate moisture meat products. Meat pH is yet
and intrinsic factors. The extrinsic factors are temperature. oxygen another intrinsic factor which influences the growth of
and phys_ical stage of meat. Different groups of bacteria have their microorganisms. Bacterial growth is.best at neutral pH (i.e. pH 7.0).
own growth ~pti~c:L Psychrophiles have their optimum growth It keeps on diminishing as meat pH goes down. If ultimate pH is 6.0
temperature bel01.y 20°C, thermophiles above 45°C and mesophiles or so, a large number of bacteria can still grow in meat. However,
an optima ranging between these two. A refrigerated temperature when normal ultimate pH of nearly 5.5 is achieved iri meat, bacterial
of ne~rly 5°C greatly retards the growth of most psychrophilic growth is reduced to a large extent and the growt~ of mo~d. ~nd
organrsms responsible for _the spoilage of meat. These bacteria yeast is favoured. Redox potential refers to the reducing or oxrdrsing
generally belong. to genera Pseudorndnas · Achromobactor. conditions prevailing in meat and this factor also influences the
F/abacteirum (G· rods), Micrococcus, Stfeptoc~ccus(G+cocci) i~ growth of microorganisms.
fresh meat and La,~tobacillus (G+ rods), in cured or vacuum packed
meat products'.The growth of bac:teria on meat is usually
characterised by slime formation. It should be noted that total
Deteriorative Chanees in Meat
bacterial population is above 107 when most signs of spoilage appear When meat depicts signs of decomposition and putrefaction, is !t
on meat.'Etrective freezing damages or kills most of the bacteria referred as spoiled and becomes unfit for tiuman consumption.
present on _meat· It may be remembered thatmE:)at spoilage molds Besides microorganisms, intrinsic enzymes and insects ~lso
are also psychrophiles. On the contrary, food pathogens generally contribute to the spoilage of meat. Microbial spoilage of fresh chilled
belong to the thermophilic group of bacteria. meat is generally on the surfacewhereas it is within meat at higher
Oxygen environment around the meat will determine the type of temperature. The causative agents and deteriorative changes are
micro flora that will find favourable conditions for growth. Bacteria quite different in aerobic and anaerobic spoilage. _.
found in meat may be either aerobic or anaerobic or sometimes Under aerobic conditions, most significant symptom of meat
facultative. Bacteria ttiat grow ori the surface of fresh meat are spoilage by bacteria and yeast is the slime formation on t~e s.u~ace
a
generally aerobes, whereas it is different flora in the interior of which results due to coalescence of a large number of rnd1v1dual
colonies. There may be discolouration of meat due to oxidising
meat. All molds and yeast that grow in meat are aerobic in nature.
Use of different barrier packaging films restricts the activity of aerobic agents produced by bacteria or growth of c'olonies of coloured
microorganisms. Physical state of meat such as whole carcass or organisms. The production of off-odours is also us~ally en~ounte.red.
primal cuts or retail cuts or comminuted form also influence the rate Bacterial action causes proteolysis of meat proteins and hpolys1s of
of microbial growth. Microbial load increases with the increase in meat lipids. The end products of proteolysis are simple pepti?es
exposed surface area of meat. and amino acids unde.r aerobic conditions whereas sulphur d1ox1de,
ammonia and other obnoxious compounds like amines and ketones
Important intrinsic factors which affect the growth of
under anaerobic conditions~ Residual carbohydrates ~ield skatol
microorganisms in meat are water activity, pH and redox potential.
and indole, Molds may grow on semi-dried meats causing surface
The amount of water available in a food system for the growth of
stickiness and whiskers.
microorganisms is generally expressed in terms of water activity.·1n
Under anaerobic conditions, meat decomposition is more
fact, water activity (aw) is defined as vapour pressure of the solution
offensive. There may be putrefaction in the deep tissue~ such as
(p) in a food system divided by vapour pressure of pure solvent or
lymphnodes and bone joints, which is always accompanred by foul
water (p 0 ). Fresh meat generally has a water activity of 0.99 or
odours or taints. Souring may also develop due to accumulation of
more. Most meat spoilage bacteria can grow only upto a water
organic acids.
- Meat and Meat Products Technoloell
Canned meats may suffer chemical or biological spoila
ge or both.
In the event of spoilage unopened cans may show
distortion (swell)
due to souring and putrefaction.

Identification of Meat SPoilaee

The identification of meat spoilage is based on
changes brought about by microorganisms; intrins
insects. During spoilage process, several utilisa
the deteriorative
ic enzymes and
Standards and
consumed by microflora and new products are
be measured or determined in meat. Thus, meat
ble substrates are
formed which can
spoilage can be
Quality Control
detected by any of the fo 11owing physical and chem
i. Some physical observations such as disco
formation, stickiness, whiskers etc. give a clear
ical methods:
louration,. slime Measures for Meat
spoiled meats.
ii. At low temperature, meat spoilage is acco
indication of

mp~nied by the
arid Meat -Produ·cts
formation of many off-flavour compounds. Many
of them owe
their origin to free amino acids and related subst
ances. The
produ ction of H2 S and merc aptan s can be Meat being a highly perishable commodity requi
meas yred to res strict quality
ascertain meat spoilage. Chemical determina control right from slaughter ope1ations till ultima
tions for the te consumption.
presence of ammonia, indole, skatol, di- and trime The basic objectives of quality cO'ntrol are :
thylamine
etc. can be carried out to detect microbial spoila i. Protection of public health ·
ge in meats. ·
iii. The extract release volume (ERV) determinat
ion is particularly ii. Extension of product shelf life
helpful in detecting the incipient spoilage in meats iii. Provision of consumer satisfaction
. ERV refers
to the volum e of aque ous extra ct relea sed
by a meat iv. Compliance of regulatory legislation
homogenate when it is passed through a filter for a
given period v. Competitive edge in the trade
of time. As meats undergo microbial spoilage, The general principles of meat product quality contr
there is a ol involve:
complete hydrolysis of proteins which significantl
y decrease i. Raw material control
the ERV.
ii. Control of processing operations
iv. Dye (usually resazurin) reduction test is many
times used to iii. Finished product inspection and control
detec t spoil age in meat s. Spoil ed raw or cook
ed meat It is very difficult to examine meat and meat produ
homogenate prepared from stom ache r could cts for every
bring about pathogenic, toxigenic and spoilage microorgan
resazurin reduction within 2 hours. This method isms. However, a
shows a very produ ctcan not be improved unless some objective
good correlation with bacterial numbers. assess.f11ent of
its quality is available. But the methods adopted
v. Incipient spoilage iri meat shows a simultaneo should be sirriple
us rise in pH, with quick results. Hence, the following indicator organ
bacterial counts and water holding capacity of meat isms are relied
proteins. upon to determine the sanitary and safety status
At the time of incipient spoilage, pH value is more of these items:
than 6.5 in
ground meat but it may even increase to 8.5 in putrid
meats. Total Viable Counts
vi. High thiobarbituric acid and peroxide values
indicate chemical
spoilage of meat and meat products. These are estimates of mesophiles and psychrophi
les and serve
· as useful indicators of handling history and state
of freshness or
spoilage of. meat. These counts provide meaningful
guidance to
 - - Meat and Meat Products Technology
... ''" . '
streamline the processing operatiohsiHowever,
\ .Standatds anM).ua\\w tontto\ t"\easutes -
if these counts are
less, most probable number (MPN) are anumerate Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), established in
d. 1947 as Indian
Standard Institution (ISi) as a joint venture of Gove
rnment of India
Cofiforms and Industry took up the responsibility of preparing
and promoting
the general adoption of standards in the country.
These cq~si~t ()f E. colia nd Aerobactoraerogenes The erstwhile ISi
. Their presence constituted the Meat and Meat Products Sectional
indicatesJaegaf contamination due to unhygienic Committee, AFDC
handling during 18 under the Agricultural and Food Products Divisi
or after processing of meat products, Coliforms can on Council in
be distinguished 1958 to prepare Indian Standards for the meat
because pft~eirproperty to produce gas from industry. This
lactose at 44°c. committee represents the scientists, technologis
However, oufb f two organisms in this category, ts, manufacturers,
E.co li is a better government agencies and consumers.The stand
indicator of faecal contamination. ards are prepared
keeping in mind the needs of industry protecting
the interests of
both producers and consumers and are reviewed
Enterococci of relevant standards is given below:
periodically. A list

These are mem bers of faecal streptococc((group IS:4393-1979 Basic requirements for an abatt oir (first
of: D) which consist
· · revision)
S. faecalis (and its varieties) IS:1982-1971 Code of practice for antemortem and post-
S. faecium (var durans) mortem inspection of .neat animals (first
S, bovis revision)
S. equinus IS:1723-1973 Specifications for pork (first revision)
These organisms indicate poor hygienic quality IS:2474-1979 Spec ificat ions for smok ed baco n (first
of frozen meats
and inadequate heat treatment of canned meats revision)
. IS:2476-1963 Specifications for ham
IS:2536-1963 Specifications for mutton· and goat flesh -
Other Indicators
fresh, chilled and frozen
Besides above indicators, specific organisms like IS:2537-1963 Specifications for beef and buffalo flesh -
Staph. aureus,
Salmonella, yeast and mold counts are also impor fresh, chilled and frozen
tant. Heat treated IS:3060-1965
meats should also be screened for the presence Specifications for pork sausages, canned
or absence of a.
cereus and Clostridia. · (under revision)
Canned meat products are generally subjected IS:3061-1965 Spec ificat ions tor pork saus ages , fresh
to sterility test. (under revision)
For this purpose, cans a re· incubated at 30°C and
55°c for 15 days. IS:4352-1967 Spec ificat ions for pork lunch eon meat,
Swollen or disfigured cans show the product spoila
ge. canned
IS:3044-1973 Specifications for mutton and goat meat.
STANDARDS IN MEAT INDUSTRY curried and canned (first revision)
Quality control departments frequently utilise the . IS:4674-1975 Spec ificat ions for dress ed chicken (first
reliable methods
and techniques for establishing the standards. A revision)
standard can be IS:4951-1975
referred as carefully drawn specification with Specifications for ham, canned (first revision)
respect to a food IS:5558-1970
· product. The specifications give comprehensive Specifications for chicken essence
instructions to IS:6659-1972 Code of practice for antemortem and post-
ensure correct and reliable process control. The
compliance of mortem inspection of poultry.
specifications increases the confidence of top
executives in the IS:8182-1976 Code of hygienic conditions for pmcessed
production and marketing of perishable food items
. meat products
IS:5960(Parts)-1970 Methods of test for meat and
meat products
 .': ~·5 7,1'~:.:",.i
.· ....'<",..~:::..:
Standards and QualitY Control Mea sure s'·-·
- Meat and Meat Products Technology

These BIS specifications are voluntary but an adherence to these

ts.
guidelines definitely improves the quality of processed produc
ts Order which exclusi vely deals with
However, Meat Food Produc
.!:?'
quality comrol of processed meat products is mandatory. Clo
-- 0
Microbiological standards help to improve plant sanitation, ensure
ll'lO
C\l ~

e.
safety of the products and prevent losses due to microbial spoilag
.5 1ij
iologica l specific ations is a very expens ive ....<.> -.c:
c: -
Establishment of microb ~ ~
~
al 0
and cumbersome task. Lot of data base is required in practic a: :::!:
Q)

ns, with a very good degree of

conditi ons at differe nt locatio
reproducibility. Microbiological specifications for rneat processing
in
plants as suggested by Marks and Spencer, UK, are presented
Cl
Table 9.1. 0

The concept of quality control at few points in the entire production .!2l g
o~
s.
chain is now giving way to integrated quality management system 0
~cu
c:

HACCP and IS0-90 00 series are of particu lar interes t to meat c: £

cu(/)
£ (/)
. processors (Table 9.2). Q)
~ -
Q)

o-
:2: .5
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point f HACCP J 5Ystem
HACCP is a comprehensive food safety system right from the point
es
of production to the point of consumption. This system analys
the points of potent ial Cl
the hazard s of raw materia l, identifi es Cl C5

-..
0
ons arid checks the ll)
contamination, monitors the processing operati C\l
c:
~
c: c:
to cu
risks arising from consum er abuse. It is a systematic approach a\ ·-cu
"E £ £
..It consist s of the ~
the production of microbiologically safe foods
Q) (/) (/)
.Cll (/) (/) (/)

(!. .a Q)
.3
following steps: <( ·...J

i. Asses sment of hazard s and risks associ ated with raw

materials, ingredients, processing, packaging, distribution and
consumption of meat product on the basis of flow chart.
ii. Identification of critical control points (potential contaminants
and their sources) to control and minimise a hazard.
iii. Establishment of critical limits or tolerance levels (standards) (/)

at each control point. E

~
iv. Outlining the procedures to monitor the critical control points. 0
v. Defining the corrective action if a deviation is noticed during
(.)

monitOring. co
vi. Maintenance of proper records or documents of HACCP plan. "O
c:
the
vii. Verification of methods, procedures and tests to oversee
cu
<( (.)

compliance of the plan.

mrml: Meat.and Meat Products Technoloav
.
Standards and Q.ua\\tv Contra\ Meas~
' ..

HAC? P system has proved very eifective. in identi

fying and
preventing contamination. It is designed to check each
step critically
along the processing line to ensure the safety of a
food instead of
testing at the end.
6 6
"9 "9
lS0-9000 Standards
International Organization of Standardization (ISO},
EQ) E Geneva has
Q) issued IS0-9 000 series of quality standards to facilita
(/)
.0 .0
(/)
te world trade.
<( <( In this series;
IS0-9 000 provides guida nce on the choic e of speci fic
"'0
Cl c:
model to be adopted for quality assurance in an
0 Cll
11)
:5 organization.
!!:? IS0-9 001 is mean t for manufacturers having their own
E 0
Q)
(/)
E product research and development (Ran d D).
.0 0 is for contract manufacturers without any product
<( z IS0-9 002
research and development.
IS0-9 003 js meant for commodity suppliers, having only
.5 final product inspection and testing .
E Thus, IS0-9 000 is a very detailed qualit y mana geme
Q) nt system.
It has twent y elements for compliance by the manufactur
~ of the important ones are management responsibility
ers. Some
, design control,
Cl purchasing, product identification, process control,
0 Cl Cl
Cl
inspection and
0
~ testing, corrective action, packaging, prope r docum
~
~

0 0 0 0 entation and
.E
....c: .5 .5 .E internal audit. IS0-9 003 requirements are comparativ
E !!:? ely less strict.
Q) Q)
EQ) EQ) 0
Many food processing and packaging companies in
E the developed
1l (/) (/) (/)
world have sought IS0-9 003 certification. This certific ...
<( ~ .0
<(
.0
<( z
0 ation can open ~·,

up global market for food product suppliers. It has the

potential for
obtaining competitive advantage in the world food trade
c: c: c:
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:S ~ ·c: :5
Cll
:5
~ Q)
0
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Cll
:5 ~ !!:?
0
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z ~
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0
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(/)
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iti
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::i Cll "tl
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E (/) "tl
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 e1m;u1 10
Meat Food Products Order fMFPOJ
under its preview. Restaurants and hotels that prepare meatfood
products for consumption within their premises are exempted. Any
food item which is made from flesh or any other edible part of carcass
through the process of curing, smoking, cooking, drying or any other
processing technique is referred as meat food product. The Order
Meat Food does not apply on the raw (chilled or frozen) meat. It may be noted
that no dealer, agent, broker or vendor can sell or expose for sale

P,roducts Order or despatch or deliver any meat food products unless the same are
manufactured by a MFPO licencee.

fMFPOJ Powers of MFPO Officers

The veterinarian inspecting officers of the Directorate are issu.ed
necessary authority cards to seek compliance of MFPO. These
officers are authorized:
Meat is one of the oldest food items of human being. Initially, it was · i. to enter and· inspect the premises of meat food products
being taken raw but later it began to be processed to satisfy the manufaC:turers with a view to satisfy themselves that the
palate and to i:irovide preser-vative action. But meat is a highly requirements of this Order are being complied with.
perishable commodity and sanitary conditions and utmost hygienic ii. to seize or detain on giving proper receipt raw materials,
measures are necessary to safeguard the quality of processed meat documents, account books or evidence connected with the
food products. With the advent of centralis·ed meat processing units, manufacture of meat food products in respect of which they
the responsibility to maintain the quality of meat food products have reason to believe that contravention of the Order has taken
became a central concern. place.
In 1973, Government of India promulgated an Order to enforce: iii. to dispose of all meat food products and raw materials so 'seized
strict quality control on the production and processing of meat food· or detained as they deem fit.
products under Essential Commodities Act 1955. The responsibility
to enforce this order was entrusted to Directorate of Marketing and
Cateaories
Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Reconstruction. The
Agricultural Marketing Advisor to the Government of India was made Meat Food Products Order, 1973 initially categorises the meat food
the ex-officio Chairman of Meat Food Products Advisory Committee manufacturers into the following three broad heads on the basis of
with 1O members who aid and advise Ministry in any matter source of raw meat:
pertaining to this Order. Category A Includes those manufacturers or licencees of
The Order aims at maintenance of sanitary conditions in the meat food products who possess their own
slaughterhouses, ensuring proper antemortem examination, slaughterhouse.
postmortem inspection of carcasses, in-process inspection and final Category B Includes. those manufacturers of meat food
product checking. No person could carry on business as a products who purchase meat from approved
manufacturer except under and in accordance with the terms and slaughterhouse.
conditions of licence granted to him under this Order. Every Category C Includes those manufacturers .of meat food
application for grant of licence shall be made as per proforma set products, who purchase raw meat from any
out_ in the First Sch.edule of this Order: All meat processing units other source. ·
which produce meat food products for sale within the country come
 - Meat and Meat Products Technoloav
The licence fee for each categor Meat Food Products Order fMFPOJ -
y differs and is collected every
yea r at the time of renewal of lice
nce. MFPO Licence No ................ .
Cate gory.............. .

Schedules
Mea t Food Products Order, 197
3 contains four schedules:
The first schedule: dea lsw ith app
lication for licence or.renewal
of licence under MFPO. The informa
tion related to applicant, address
of factory, source of raw materia
l, description of mea t food pro duc CHICKEN SAUSAGE.=S
which the applicants proposes to ts Ingredients: Chicken meat. veget
manufacture, installed capacity, able oil, wheat flour,
plan of fact ory and a list of a condiments, salt and spices
equ ipm ent s has to be pro vide
Application for renewal of lice d.
nce should invariably contain
statements pertaining to the quantity the NetWelght. ................... .
and value of meat food products Piice........................... .
· manufactured in the previous yea
r.
The sec ond sch edu le: dea ls Mfd. by: KUMAR FOODS PVT.
with the min imu m san itar y LTD.
requireJTl ·.nts to be com plie dwi th Dadar (West), Mumbai
by alic enc ee. It contains detailed
inst ruc tion s reg ard ing fact ory
pre mis es, con stru ctio n, doo rs, A Label conforming to MFPO spec
windows and ceiling, plum bing ifications
and drainage system, equipment
a.nd manufactu~ing area, co~d stor and sent to regional and central
age facilities/ precautions against Agmark laboratories for specifie
fires, rats and mice, water supply, testing. At present there are mor d
personnel hygiene and vaccination e than 220 licensed mea t food
of factory workers, provision of products units under MFPO, 197
proper apron's and head gears 3 throughout India. These units
The third schedule: dea ls with etc. manufacture as many as 185 diffe
hygienic req uire men ts to be rent types of mea t food products
complied with by a licensee who Thus, MF PO is playing a major .
also slaughters animals in' his role in safeguarding the interest
factory. It con tain s det aile d inst mea t food products consumers. of
ruc tion s reg ard ing sep ara tion
bet wee n clea n and dirt y sec
tion s with in the slau ght erh ous
pro visi on of laira ge, slau ght er e,
hall and refr iger atio n facilities,
antemortem examination, humane
slaughter, postmortem inspection
and disposal of condemned carc
asses or organs etc. · ·
The fourth schedule: deals with the
requirements to be complied
with as regards to packaging, mar
king and labelling the containers
of mea t food products. It contain
s detailed instructions· with resp
to proper packing arid sealing of ect
flexible containers, use of internal
lacquers and hermetic sealing
in tin plate cans, use of bottles
jars. As per MF PO standards, can and
ned meat food products should
not contain poisonous elements
viz. lead, copper, arsenic, tin, zinc
in excess of 2.5, 20, 2, 250 and
50 ppm respectively by weight.
In process inspection of meat food
product factories and premises
is conducted by MFPO officers
regularly. They conduct frequen
surprise visits to licensed units so t
as to enforce the implementation
of MF PO regulations. Samples
of meat food products are collecte
d
 Eatin!! Quality and Sensory Evaluation of Meat Products -
Fresh cooked beef is metallic and astringent. Veal flavour is sweet
and flat. Pork flavour is regarded sweet and bland. Sex odour is
more pronounced in male. Pork from boar has a definite piggy odour
or boar taint. During long term storage, most meats develop rancid
odour due to fat oxidation. It may be muttony for mutton, tallowy for

Eating Qualify and beef and stale, cheesy or fishy for pork. In case, meat is spoiled
during storage, it emanates putrid odour due to protein decomposi-
tion. Wh,en cooked meat is stored for a long time, myoglobin
Sensory Evaluation catalysed fat oxidation takes place yielding a distinct warmed-over
flavour. Canning imparts canned-meai flavour to meat products due
·
of Meat Food to severe heat treatment.

Texture and Tenderness

Products Texture is one of the most important eating quality attributes in the
acceptance of meat. The overall impression of texture is perceived
by the senses of touch, sight and hearing. The texture of animal
foods havf? different components. The mechanical component
Consl:in:ers ~re t~e ultimate users of a food item. So, their perception relates to the effect of stress, e.g. hard, brittle, gummy, chewy, elastic,
and sat1sfact1on 1s of paramount importance for the success of any cohesive etc. The geographical componen_t relates to size, shape .
food product. If a product is very palatable, it makes an excellent and arrangement of fibres in meat, e.g. coarse, grainy, gritty, fibrous
eating. Some of the important eating quality attributes are flavour, etc. Some other components relate to the moisture and fat
texture and tenderness, appearance or colour,. juiciness etc. A perception of meat, e.g. greasy, oily, watery, dry, moist etc. In general,
, knowledge of these attributes is of prime importance for their three factors are considered to get an overall impression of meat
subjective and objective assessment. tenderness. These are the ease with which teeth sink into meat,
the ease with which the meat. breaks into fragments and the left
over residue after chewing.
Flavour
The texture of meat is affected by many preslaughter factors like
Flavour is a complex sensation comprising mainly of taste and odour. sex, age, heredity, diet, carcass grade etc. Several postslaughter
It is sen~ed jointly. by the oral and olfactory senses. There are only factors like postmortem glycolysis, fat deposition, connective tissue,
four basic tastes-sweet, salty, sour and bitter. The receptor taste conditioning, freezing, cooking etc. have a profound influence on
buds or papillae for each of these tastes are located on the tongue the texture of meat.
and the upper palate. Odour is sensed at the regio olfactoria inside Several tenderising agents .like salt, weaK acids (vinegar and
the nose: Meat sample should be smelled first followed by tasting citric acid) and some enzyme preparations are used to make the
for a rational and sound flavour perception of several volatile meat tender. Plant enzymes like papain, bromelin and ficin have a
proven tenderising effect on meat. During cooking, connective tissue
components present in meat. These components are significantly
(including collagen) becomes mo.re tender.
marked when meat is cooked. Flavour has been shown to have a·
profound effect on the overall acceptability of meat product.
Flavour of meat depends on species, sex, age and method of
APPearance and Colour
cookin~. In general, flavour of fresh raw meat is weak, salty and Appearance is a wider term than colour because it is influenced by
serum-like. Fresh meat fat also has almost indistinct taste and odour. other factors also. Appearance and colour have a definite appeal
It is during cooking that flavour get pronounced and becomes meaty.
- Meat and Meat Products Technology I Eatinl! Qualifll and Sensory Evaluation of Meat Products -
when consumer goes out to buy meat or meat product. The colour tenderness as the most important eating quality attributes whereas
of fresh meat is species specific. It is determined by the Bartholonew and Osulao (1986) reported that compared to texture
concentration of principal meat pigment-myoglobin and its and appearance, flavour had more effect on the overall acceptability
derivatives (oxymyoglobin and metmyoglobin). Consumers relate of processed mutton products.
the appearance and colour of meat with safety and healthfulness.
The colour of cooked meat is related by consumers to doneness. Sensory Evaluation-
The final colour of cooked meat is dependent upon the pigment
changes bro~ght about by temperature, time and method of cooking. ·Sensory evaluation of foods including meat refers to their scientific
When meat is cooked, there is gradual change of colour from dark assessment through the use of human senses. This evaluation is
red or pink to a lighter shade and finally at higher temperatures to necessary for:
gray or brown colour. Pressure cooked or boiled meat will discern a a. New product development
gray colour whereas roasted, broiled or canned meat turns brown. b. Analysis of competitive products
The brown colour of thoroughly cooked meat is due to denaturation c. Product shelf life studies
of heme pigments and polymerisation of some proteins and fats. d. Market level consumer tests
The colour of fresh pork, mutton and buffalo fat is white and e. Aroma research etc.
undergoes very little change during cooking. The colour of cured · Modern instruments available these days can analyse usually
meats is due to nitric oxide myoglobin which is heat stable. one and at times two eating quality parameters at a time but almost
all attributes and the total impression of a food product can be
Juiciness properly assessed only by human sensory perception.

The juiciness of cooked meat comprises of two components-the Specialised Panel

first impression of juiciness comes from rapid release of meat fluids
during initial chews whereas sustained juiciness is due to slow The sensory evaluation of meat and meat products may be product
rele~se of s~rum an? ~timulatory effect of fat on salivation. A good oriented or consumer oriented. Product oriented evaluation is done
quality me~t 1s more JUICY than that of poor quality because of higher by specialised panel. When new products or formulations are being
content of intramuscular fat. Fresh frozen meat with high ultimate developed or earlier ones are being altered, specialised panel testing
pH is quite juicy. usually precedes consumer panel testing. In specialised panel
Cooking temperature has a profound effect on the juiciness of testing, small number of trained panelists use their senses as
meat. The degree of shrinkage on cooking is inversely proportional biological detectors. Such panelists can easily identify even minor
to the juicin~ss of meat. Juiciness and tenderness are closely related differences in the eating quality attributes of similar meat products.
to meat ~ttributes. In a tender meat, the juices are quickly released Sensory panel members are selected on the basis of general
on chewing and left over residue is less. health, appetite, sensitivity, willingness, availability etc. They are
Besides these, certain other eating quality attributes also invited to attend an orientation session where testing facilities are
influence the overall palatability of a meat product. Some meat shown and importance of this work is explained to them. Their
prod.ucts have a residue coating the mouth after swallowing. Mouth sensitivity is tested by conducting recognition test and threshold
coating ~as been observed in chicken frankfurters, buffalo sausages test for four basic tastes. Selected individuals are then trained by
and patties etc. Overal.1 acceptability of a meat product is not the making them familiar with the important meat traits and conducting
sum average of all the eating quality attributes. This is so because serial dilution tests till they attain good performance on hedonic
some attributes influence the overall acceptability of the product scale (Table 11.1 ).
more as compared to others. Lawrie (1979) rated texture and The sensory panel members are presented test meat samples
alongwith a control in a random order after assigning suitable codes.
 Meat and Meat Products Technoloev Eatinll Qualitv and Sensorv Evaluation of Meat Products -
-
The ideal time for conducting sensory evaluation of meat and
to
meat products is late morning or late afternoon. It is necessary
rinse the mouth between successive sample s. Differe nce tests are
is
~ usually applied for product testing. In paired difference test, there
.2'-S and an analytic al sample for
Q) a.
E ., direct comparison of a control sample
d-
&8 a single attribute. In a triangle test, three meat samples are offere
w§"'
;(
two similar and one different. The odd sample has to be identifi ed.
In hedonic scoring or rating test, the degree of acceptance is inferred
on the basis of numerical rating of meat samples. In a ranking test,
panel members are assigned to rank the samples according to their
preference.

Consumer Panel
Consumer panel generally consists of 100 or more persons drawn
lar
from the geographical area proposed to be the market of a particu
meat product. The panel membe rs need not have any formal
education or training. They may be factory workers, laboratory
attendants or any body from the consumer population. This panel
is of practical utility in predicting the future market performance.
The consumer panel members may be selected from the target
population on random basis. Their likes and dislikes, eating habits,
income group, psychological state or environment etc. are allowed
al
to play its natural or justifiable role, since they are the potenti
product users. Consumer panel can be conducted at any central
locatio n-supe r market, retail outlet or even consumers homes. With
in
little insti'uctions and guidance, panelists can easily be involved
ranking test or hedonic score test.
"O
0
0
The data obtained from specialised as well as consumer panel
(.'.)
>- is statisti cally analys ed to enable proper interpr etation and
~ application of results.
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Adulteration of,meat involves substitution of costly or superi
or quality 8 Cl.
It is a fraudu lent
with cheaper, undesirable or inferior quality meat. lii
health , religio n and {.)

practic e that is objectionable on the grounds of .(I)

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economics. It is punishable under Prevention of Food Adulte .... .z- Q)
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meat
The substitutions generally practised are mutton for goat
rabbit meat for chicke n etc. The
(Chevon), beef for buffalo meat, Q)
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with horse
come to light. In United Kingdom, substitution of beef ~
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flesh is the most likely Cl! 2:' ii:
the possib ility of substit ution of beef with Kanga roo meat canno t be ~
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Recoenition of Fraudulent Substitution or Adulteration

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a:
the public,
It is neces sary to assure the whole somen ess of meat to 8 3 a:
s other measu res, may neces sitate the authen tic
which beside
metho ds can be 1ii
identification of species of meats. The following 1ii .r::
Ill
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1ii
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used for meat differe
1. Physical Metho ds
ntiatio n:

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tency,
ii. General characteristics of the body fat: Colour, consis ci
.n r--: 00 ai 0
. <ri ~

~ C\i c..) -<i

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quality etc. ~

cri
 - Meat and Meat Products Technoloay
Fraudulent Substitution of Meat and Its Recoanition
2. Anatomical Methods
iv. Characteristics of Jong bone s
i. Dentition
ii. Bone percentage of carcasses Bone Species Characteristics
iii. Rib numbers and their degree of curvature
Scapula Sheep Short and broad, superior spine thickness and
iv. Characteristics of long bones bent back
Goat Possesses distinct neck spine, straight and narrow
Radius Sheep 1.25 times length of metacarpus
Anatomical Methods Goat Twice the length of metacarpus
Ulna Horse Extends only 1/2th the length of radius
i. Dentition Extends and articulates with carpus
Ox
S.No. Species Femur Horse There is no third trocanter. Fibula is only a small point
Permanent dentition projection.
Ox Possesses third trocanter. Fibula extends 2/3rd
the length
1. (0033) of tibia
Cattle and bufialo
2 --=32
(4033)
3. Histological Methods
2. (0033) i. Muscle fibre length
Sheep and Goat
2 - - =32
(4033) ii. Muscle fibre diameter
(3143) 4. Chemical Methods
3. Pig 2 - - =44 i. Composition of meat
(3143) ii. Myoglobin content
4. (3133) iii. Glyco_gen content
Horse 2 = 40
iv. Composition of body fat
(3133)
5. Immunological/Serological Methods
ii. Bone perce ntage of carca ss i. Precipitation test
ii. Double immuno-diffusion test
Proportion of bones in dressed carcasses can iii. Single radial immuno diffusion test
give indication of
animal species
- 6. Electrophoretic Methods
S.No. Species i. Polyacrylamide disc electrophoresis
Percentage of bone
1. Mutton
ii. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
25 iii. Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel .
2. Bobby calves electrophoresis
50
3. Veal calves (SOS-PAGE)
25
4. Pork 12-20 7. !so-electric Focusing
5. Bull 15 a. Enzyme-Linked lmmuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA)
iii. Ribs on the thora x
Histoloeical Methods
Paired ribs vary in number in different species of The diam eter and number- of muscle fibers,
animals deter mine d by a
S. No. Species Ribs in pairs fibreoptic microscope, can also lead to spec
Sternal ribs ies identification.
1. Ox Diameter of muscle fibres of buffalo is more than ox,
13 8 whereas muscle
2. pig 14-15 fibres of buffalo are smaller in size and polygonal
3.
7 in cross section
Sheep and goat 13 8 as compared to large and irregular muscle fibres
4. Horse of ox. As far as
18 8 other species are concerned, the size of muscle
5. Dog fibres decreases
13 9 in the following orde r: pig, .buffalo, sheep, goat,
poultry. -
mnru .

enition
Fraudulent Substitution of Meat and Its Reco
- Meat and Meat Products Technolosv
. The buffalo anti cattle
performed in wells punched in agarose
Chemical Methods monospecific (BACM) serum and rabb
it anti cattle monospecific
be mos t suitable'frem the
content varies according (RACM) serum have been found to
i. ComPOsition of'!'eat. M.uscular fat . Anti serum should be
r fat in mutton Is higher point of view of simplicity and reliability
to the meat species. The intramuscula It shou ld have a sensitivity
f (2.6 per cent), buffalo checked for sensitivity before use.
(13.3 per cent) as compared to bee of 10 per cent.
cent) and pork (4.4 per the interaction of homo-
meat (0:9 p~r ce.nt), chevon (3.6 per The precipitation lines produced by
f and mutton but absent in test remain distinct for
cent). Vitamin A 1s present in bee logous antigen and antiserum .in this
buffalo meat, chevon or pork . erve d for future use. It is e~y
quite sometime and can be pres
ains maximum myoglobin of raw or heated meat at 8Q°C
ii. MYoelobin content Horse flesh cont and cheap test for identification
an the musculature of , it can detect adulteration
content (0.71 per cent), much high erth · for less than 1O minutes. Besides
cons umin g and ineffective
other animals. upto 5 per cent. However, it is time
cook ed mea ts.
r in glycogen as com- for the detection of thoroughly
iii. GIYcoeen content Horse flesh is riche iii. Single radial immunodiffusion (SR
ID) test: In this test serum
pared to most food animals. estimated on the ground
albumen content in meat extract is
precipitate in antiserum.
ComPOsition of Body Fats that only this protein formed an immune
higher refractive index (53.5) albumen is regarded as
a. Refracti'{e index : Horse fat has Immunological species specificity of
than 50) fat. ·
than ox (less than 40) and pig (less far superior than the globulin fraction.
horse fat (70-85) is higher than
b. Iodine num ber: Iodine number of
ber of ox and sheep fat is
even lard (50-70), whereas iodine num flectroPhoretic Methods
35-46.
d to achieve the separation
c. Carotene con tent Buffalo fat is whit
e due to absence of carotene Electrophoretic methods have been foun
ation through a sup port ing ·
whereas cow fat is cream to yellow
in colour due to carotene of proteins by their differential migr
tric field. The protein bands
content. medium under the influence of an elec
ains 1-2 per cent linoleic acid racteristic pattern by direct
d. Fatty acid analysis: Horse fat cont thus resolved are visualised for cha
0.1 per cent linoleic acid. .
whereas other fats contain less than observation or_densitometeric scanning
lami de disc elec trop hore sis In this method, mito-
i. Polyacry
cattle and buffalo meat
chondrial preparation of goat, sheep,
lmmunoloaical/Seroloaical Methods has been used for the identification of the particular species of
ciple that a reaction between tified acco rding to the band
These tests are based on the prin fresh meat. The species are iden
specific antibody in appro-
s~luble antige.n an~ its corresponding pattern.
te at the point of their Initially introduced as starch
priate ~roport1on yields a visible prec
ipita ii. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
with Polyacrylamide gel.
interaction. gel electrophoresis, it was improved
and 0.034M EDTA is used
Here buffer consisting of 0.5M NaCl
test antigen is overlayered staining, band pattern is
i. Precipitat!on test or rin!! test: In this at pH 5.4. After electrophoresis and
tube. This test has now icable to meat cooked at
on to antiserum contair:ied in a test observed for identification. It is appl
n diffuses in a short r, every time we have to
be~ome o?solete because precipitate ofte less than 80°C for 10 minutes. Ho"'{eve ·
period of time. run the standard alongwith the sample. sis
This test initially developed iii Sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacry
lamide gel elec trop hore
ii. Double immuno-diffusion (DID) test: sam ples
furt her imp rove d and of different mea t
by Ou~hterlony _(194 8) has bee n (SDS-PAGE):When electrophoresis
meat species. The test is
extensively used for the detection of
- Meat and Meat Products Technolo!lv

is performed in a polyacrylamide gel alongwith sodium dodecyl

sulphate, proteins run according to their molecular weights.
The resultant band patterns can be observed for species
specificity. SOS-PAGE electrophoresis yields not only excellent
results for globular proteins in native state but also for the highly
helical rod shaped molecules like. myosin. This method is useful
for cooked meat and meat products. However, complexity of
bands in high molecular weight region hinder the identification
especially in closely related species. Compos
lsoelectric Focusina
This method utilises differences in the isoelectric point of fresh meat
Nutritive
proteins for meat differentiation. Tissue sections are placed directly
on the surface of agarose gels and the proteins are eluted
electrophoretically. This is a speedy method with high resolving
Poultry Meat
power.
Poultry meat is a good source of protein. It has a balanced lipid
Enzvme-L.inked lmmuno Sorbent Assay ffLISAJ content and low calorific value. It is .palatable, tender and easily
ELISA is an important qualitative immunological tool which is not digestible. It is easy to prepare and can be served in a variety of
monitored by precipitation. In this test, antigen-antibody interaction ways.
occurs in a monomolecular layer immobilised on an inert surface
and is followed by means of an enzyme chemically bonded to one CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
of the immuno-reagents. This is a rapid test and the results are
A quantitative proximate composition of poultry meat is presented
obtained in 2-3 hours. The test is very sensitive also because even
in Table 13.1. The detailed composition of raw chicken meat is
2 per cent. adulteration can be recognised by this test.
presented in Table 13.2, although it varies according to the age of
It should be noted that no single test is good enough to
differentiate all types of meats. Physical, chemical and anatomical the bird.
methods are more suitable for raw meat whereas comminuted meat
products require sophisticated techniques such as Ouchterlony
Moisture
method, SOS-PAGE, lsoelectric focusing, ELISA etc. However, This is the largest component of muscle tissue. It dissolves nutrients
Ouchterlony method can not distinguish between closely related and serves as a medium for their transport. Raw chicken meat
species such as sheep and goat, cattle and buffalo etc. The contains 70-74% moisture. In general, younger birds have a higher
effectiveness of ELISA and SOS-PAGE is hampered by the moisture to skeletal muscle ratio as compared to older ones. The
cumbersome process of isolating species-specific serum. A new fat content of meat is inversely proportional to the moisture content.
method called "Random Amplified Polymorphism DNA (RAPD) So, as the fat increases, the moisture content decreases.
Fingerprint Technique'.' generates specific DNA fingerprint pattern
tor differentiation of red meats in a short time. Besides, some Protein
developed countries have patented field identification test kits. Such Poultry meat has a higher protein content than most of the red me~ts.
a kit is very much required in our field conditions also. This protein is of very superior quality with respect to b1olog1cal
 - Meat and Meat Products Technology
Chemical Composition and Nutritive Valu
e of Poultni Meat
value and essential amino acid con
tents. Mal e birds generally have
a high er protein con tent as compar
e~ to thei r female cou nter part
Minerals
Protein con tent of the bod y is less s. . . .
er cen t des ired minerals. Som e
prone to change in com pari son Poultry mea t con tain s nearl~.one
to moisture and fat contents. of the imp orta nt ones are so iun:, Ppotassium calcium, mag nes ium ,
,
iron, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine
etc. , .
Fat Table 13.2: Detailed comPOsition of raw ch1c
~en meat
Mos t fat in pou ltry remains confine 1. Amino acid content(% of prote
d und erne ath the skin in contrast in) 7.5
to red meats where it is generally Lysine
distributed throughout the tissues. Methionine
1.8
The con tent varies wide ly dep end 6.7
ing on- the species, age, sex and Arginine
diet of poultry. The carc ass fat inva 1.8
riably incr~ases with a raise in Cysteine
diet ary fat or high ene rgy diet. The o.8
proportion of desired unsaturated Tryptophan
fatty ac.i ds-o leic and Hnoleic acid 2.5
is more than 60 per-cent of the Tyrosine
6.6
total mea t fat. Poultry meat contain Leucine
s less.cholesterol, a fatty alcohol lsoleucine
4.1
ass ocia ted with atherosclerosis, 2.0
as compared to mos t othe r animal Histidine
bas ed foods. 6.7
Valine
Table 13.1: General comPositlon of raw Poul 2. Mineral content (mg/100 g)
tl'Y meat Calcium 5.8
Spec ies Moisture Protein Fat Ash . Food energy Phosphorus 407
(%) (%) (%) (%) 0.7
(Cal/100g) Iron
Chicken Sodium 46
i. Broiler (8 weeks) 74.0 Potassium 248
18.5 6.0 0.80 125
ii. Spent hen 72.0 Magnesium 29
f9.0 6.5 1.25 120
Quail (8 weeks) 70.5 Sulphurs 268
20.5 5.5 1.20 125
Duck (8 weeks) 58.0 3. Vitamin content (per 100 g)
20.0 19.8 0.50 300
Turkey (medium fat) 60.0 Vitamin A 730 iU
19.5 18.0 1.00 270 Thiamine (81) 0.07 mg
Riboflavin (82) 0.38 mg
Niacin 5.6 mg
Carbohydrate 4 Lipid content (% of total lipids)
· Phospholipids 48
Poultry mea t has very little carb
ohydrate content, hard ly 1-2 per Neutral lipids 52
c-ent of total edible tissue. Inositol, 5. Cholesterol content (mg per 100 60
gJucose and fructose are the g)
maj or and man nos e and ribo se
are the min or con stitu ents of
carbohydrate. Source : J. American Dietetic Assoc., 34(~)
1. Scott, M.L. (1958). .
(1960) World's Poult. Sci. J., 36.25
2. McCance and WMidde~I s(~~63) US.D
Vitamins 3 and 5. watt and em
A Handbook No. 8
: .
4. Katz et al. (1966). J. Food Sci.
Poultry mea t is a good source of 31 :717.
man y vitamins. Niacin is pres ent
in goo d qua ntity whereas thiamin
e (vitamin 8 1), riboflavin (vitamin NUTRITIVE VALUE
8 2) and asc orbi c acid (vitamin C)
are also pres ent in fair quantity. . .
. . .
Poultry liver is a rich source of vita utrit
min A, vitamin B com plex and Poultry meat is a food of high n ts ional value. It is high er in prot~in
vitamin C. (Table 13.3). Poultry meat proteins
content as compared ~o redl mea
tego ry bec aus e it con tain s all the
are classified und er first c ass ca
 - Meat and Meat Products Technotoav
essential amino acids in balance
d proportion. Such high protein
diet ensures overall developmen
t of the body and plays an importa
role in tissue repairs. nt
Chicken meat with low fat content
offers good quality food to the
consumers. It provides the much
desired essentiqJ fatty acids which
form necessary constituents of the
cell wall, mitochondria and other
cell constituents. Thus, it helps
in maintaining the health of the
consumers. Due to its low energy
value. chicken meat is a good
foo d tor wei ght con trol diet s.
Chi cke n me at con tain s mor e
pho sph olip ids and low cho lest
ero l than oth er mea ts, whi ch
minimises nsks due to diabetes
and heart diseases.
Chicken meat is a good source of
vitamins and minerals in human
diet. It is rich in niacin and mod
erately rich in thiamine, riboflav
and ascorbic acid. Chicken mea in
t is also a good source of iron and
phosphorus. Due to high biologic
al value and easy digestibility, it
a choice food for aged persons is
as well as children. Chicken mea
carries a high class image bec t
ause of its product variety and
healthful nature.
Table 13.3: Nutritive value ot roasted Several poultry dressing plants
chicken meat r I OO!!J have come up in the. country and
Protein many more are in the offing whe
24.5 g re large number of birds are to be
~~ handled and processed every day.
6.2g These birds should b~ handled
Ash
1.04 g properly before slaughter. It redu
Food energy ces the changes of bruises.' cuts
154 Calories and tears on the dressed birds. In
Source: Scott. M.L. ( 1956). J. Ame fact, pre-slaughter care contributes
rican Dietetic Assoc., 32(10) a good deal to the wholesomen
ess of dressed chickens.
In general, poultry meat contain
s all the essential amino acids, Pre-slaushter Care and Handlins
fatty acids and minerals in an app
ropriate quantity. It has the abili.ty
to alleviate the nutritional stress In the intensive housing system,
conditions 1n the human beings. a great care has to be exercised
has a good aesthetic appeal. Pou It catching and crating the birds. in
ltry meat has no religious inhibitio All feeders, waterers and othe
and its many products satisfy the n accessory equipment should be r
variety quest of the consumers. moved to one cor ner of t~e house
before catching and assembling
is undertaken. The broilers are
generally caught at night under
very dim light. Culled and .spent
hens are caught in the cooler hou
rs of the day, preferably in the
afternoon. The birds are caught man
ually by the shank in a humane
way.

Trans Port
Crates, coops or cages are used
to transport ?ird~ in v~ns from the
farm to poultry dressing plant. Spe
cial ~ttent10.n 1s .paid to preve~t
overcrowding and suffocation. The
loading of birds 1s earned out 1n
- Meat and Meat Products Technololi!Y Pre-slauehter Handline. Transport and Oressine of Poultry
dim light either early morning or late evening to avoid excitement Oefeatherina
and transported in the cool period without much exposure to sun to
The process is carried out in a feather plucker consisting of two
prevent excessive shrinkage. Bulk weighing of birds in crates is the
drums with rubber fingers which revolve in opposite directions pulling
general practice at the large sized dressing plants. A shrinkage of
of feathers from the carcass. Any remaining feathers are picked up
3~4 per cent takes place during pre-slaughter handling and transport.
81r~s should be kept off feed for 12 hrs before slaughter but enough manually.
shnnk~ge water. shoul~ be ma?e available. This practice not only
~elps.1ri early ev1scerat1on but risk of contamination of meat by the Sinaeina
intestinal contents is also minimised. The carcasses are now singed over a blue flame for 5 to 1O seconds
to remove hair like appendages called filoplumes.
Dressine of Poultrv
Slauehterine washina
The singed carcasses are washed with spray water to remove dirt
Slaughtering involves stunning and bleeding: .
i. Stunning: Stunning prevents struggling and relaxes the muscles and reduce the microbial load.
holding th~ feathers. However, it is generally not practiced in
.case of. chicken. A low voltage electric stunning of 50 volts AC Removal of Feet and Oil Gland
for 1 mm has been found to be satisfactory. . The next step involves cutting of feet from tarsometatarsal joint with
ii. Ble~ding:This process is carried out in an inverted cone shaped a sharp knife and removal of oil gland.
equipment to rest the body of the bird and keep the head out
~nd down. There are several techniques of slaughtering poultry
1n order to seek proper bleeding. The technique most commonly Evisceration
us~~ these da~s is "modified Kosher Method" in which jugular The carcasses are hung by hocks to the shackles for evisceration.
vein 1s severed iust below the jowl taking care not to cut trachea By a slit opening from the tip of breast bone, abdomina1 cavity is
~nd oesophagus. Another technique for slaughtering the birds opened by means of a transverse cut. A circular cut is m~de around
is decapitation which is not so common. Still another method the vent. The viscera is drawn outside but allowed to remain attached
which involves piercing knife through the brain has become to the carcass for postmortem inspection. Meanwhile, a slit is made
obsolete. In. general, a bleeding time of 1.5 to 2.0 minutes is in the skin of the neck for easy removal of crop and neck. After
allowed. Incomplete bleeding retards the keeping quality of · postmortem inspection, inedible offals, including trachea, lungs,
dressed chicken. oesophagus, crop, intestines, gall bladder and kidneys are removed
whereas giblet consisting of heart, liver and gizzard should be
collected, cleaned and packed in a wrapper.
Scaldina
Scalding refers to immersion of birds in hot water for loosening the Chilline and Drainina
feathers. It should be done when all reflexes have ceased. The birds
After washing, the dressed birds are chilled in a chilling tank
are transferred .into the scalding tank. Broiler and young birds are
containing slush ice or crushed ice for 30-45 minutes in order to
scalded at 55°C for 1.5 minutes whereas culled birds and spent
cool the carcasses to an internal temperature of about 4°C. The
hens are scalded at 60°C for 2 minutes.
chilled birds are kept on the draining rack for 1O minutes to remove
the excess water.
 Table 14.1: Indian standards for dressed chicken:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ __
Grade 1
Grade 2

Conformation Free of deformities that detract from its appearance or that affect
Slight abnormalities such as dented, curved
the normal distribution of flesh. Slight deformities such as slightly 3

Fleshing
curved or dented breast bones and slightly curved backs may be
present.
The breast is moderately long and deep, and has sufficient flesh
or crooked back, or mis-shapen legs or wings
which do not materially affect the distribution of
flesh or the appearance of the carcass or part.
-
ni
OI

OI
::::i
Q.
The breast has a substantial covering of flesh 3

Fat covering
to give it a rounded appearance with the flesh carrying well
upto the crest of the breast bone alorig with its entire length.
The fat is well distributed so that there is a noticeable amount
of fat in the skin in the areas between the heavy feather tracts.
with the flesh carrying upto the crest of the breast
bone sufficiently to prevent a thin appearance.
The fat under the skin is sufficient to prevent a
-ni
OI

~
a
-
Q.
distinct appearance of the flesh through the skin, c
n
especially on the breast and legs. ( I)
Defeathering Free of pin feathers, diminutive feathers and hair which are
Not more than an occasional protruding pin "Ci}
visible to the inspector or grader. n
feather or diminutive feathers shall be in evidence ::r
::::i
Cuts and tears under a careful examination. 0
Free of cuts and tears on the breast and legs. 0
The carcass may have very few cuts and tears.
Discolouration Free from discolouration due to bruising, free of clots; flesh fQ
'C
Discolouration due to bruising; free of clots;
bruises and discolouration of the skin such as "blue back"
moderate areas of discolouration due to bruises
are not permitted on the breast or le.gs.
in the skin or flesh.
Freezer burn May have an occasional pock marks due to drying of the inner
May have a few pock marks due to drying of the
layer of skin (derma), provided that none exceeded the area of
a inner layer of skin (derma), provided that no
circle 0.5 cm in diameter on chickens.
single area exceeds that of a drcle 1.5 cm in
diameter.

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 Antemortem and Postmortem Examination of Poultry
postmortem findings are considered while taking a final

v:r~~~~o;~ultry diseases and their antemortem significance is

presented in Table 15.1. .
Table 15.1: Antemortem siimificance of poultrY:..~d:.::1s-=.ea_s_e_s_ _ __
----~~~~~~~~~~;;----;P;;;a~ssed for slaughter as
Ante mo Disease
Unfit for slaughter

All affected birds

suspect

Pos
1 . Ornithosis
Birds in acute stage All others
2. Ranikhet disease
Birds with slight respiratory
·dO·

Exam .,~'.·.·
3. Chronic respiratory distress
disease
Recovered birds.
Birds in advanced stage
1r•:i!IL:~ 4 . Infectious bronchitis
tnfectious laryngotracheitis Birds in advanced stage
Birds with initial signs of disease
or evidence of recovery

Poultrv 5.

6. Infectious coryza
with cyanos1s
Acute stage of disease
with debilitation
Highly affected birds

7. Neural lymphomatosis All affected birds

Highly affected birds
Anaemic birds
a. Coccidiosis
It is essential to conduct proper antemortem inspection of live poultry Birds shewing symptoms
Slight involvement and
in order to ensure that they are not affected with any disease or 9. Infectious enterohepatitis recovered birds
(Black head disease
condition which may render their meat unwholesome. Postmortem of turkey)
inspection becomes essential to detect dressed poultry which might 10. Fowl t•1pho1d
All affected birds
All others
have been diseased, thereby rendering them unfit for human 11. Fowl pox
Birds in de.bilitated and
febrile condition
consumption.
Birds w·1th septicaemic form All others
12. Fowl cholera
Antemortem Inspection of Poultry 13 . Botulism (limber neck)
All affected birds

Live poultry should be subjected to antemortem inspection in the

holding pens by a qualified veterinarian on tt1e day of slaughter. Postmortem lnsPection
Enough space and water should be provided in the holding pens. . d bird is openea tnrough the
The body cav.ity of ever~ dresls~r ans are drawn out. Now. the
Adequate light is an essential requirement during inspection. The
transverse inc1s1on and viscera II gfor signs of disease, bone
birds are carefully examined and those in good health and alert
carcass is inspected exter~a ~trophy tumours etc. followed by
condition are declared fit for slaughter. In general, birds with abnormal
conditions are categorised as follows: abnormalities~ wo~nds. mus~uf~; consist~ncy; texture, lesions and
body cavity. Liver. is exam1.ne o al ated tor texture and ab~or­
i. Unfit for slauehter Birds with morbid condition due to clinical colour change_s. ~pleen is a~soc~to~ee synovial fluid tor si~us1t1s.
evidence of a contagious disease, heat stroke or traumatic injury malities. A cut is given on th~ d during postmortem exam1nat1on
which cannot be treated are declared unfit for slaughter. Common diseases encoun ere nted in Table 15.2. Pathological
along w·1th their importanc~ areD~rese s of Poultry by \-\otstad et al
ii. Suspects Birds affected with disease conditions not advanced lesions may be reterred in isease
enough to declare unfit are passed for slaughter as suspect.
(1972).
Such b'1rds are slaughtered separately and both ante and
 - Meat and Meat Products Technoloav
Table I 5.2: Postmortem si2nificance of POU!frv diseases
Disease Unfit tor ioodlconaemned Partially conaemnedlpassed for
food
1. Avian leukosis complex All affected carcasses
2. Erysipelas -do-
3. Tuberculosis -do-
4 Ranikhet disease

5. Infectious
Carcasses with systemic
involvement
If lesions are localised, only
affected parts are condemneo.
Rest are passed for iood ·
Pres er
Poul .
-do- -do-
laryngotrachertis
6. Infectious coryza -do- -do-
7. Chronic respiratory -do- -do- ~.·
w
,~,-

disease
8. Fowl typhoid -do- -do-
9. Pullorum disease -do- -do-
10. Listeriosis Carcasses with acute -do- The basic p'l.Jrpo~e of poultry meat preservation is to retard or prevent
septicaemia
11. Salmonellosis Carcasses with active In chronic cases affected parts
microbial spoilage and other physico-chemical changes which cause
septicaemic lesions are condemned. Rest are deterioration in quality. Thus, proper preservation safeguards the
12. Fow1 pox
passed for food sensory quality and nutritive value of poultry meat. Various methods
Carcasses with progressive Recovered birds may be passed
lesions and systemic for food after removal of scabs
employed for preservation of poultry meat are as follows.
changes
13. Fungal diseases
Only affected parts are Chillin2
condemned
14. Fowl cholera All carcasses are Chilling extends the shelf-life of dressed birds by retarding the
condemned microbial growth. The efficiency of chilling depends on temperature.
air circulation and moisture control. It is advisable to prechill the
All the condem~ed carcasses and parts thereof shouid be carcasses at 15°C to remove body heat. Dressed birds are usually
destro~ed .bY chemical denaturing with crude carbolic acid or any chilled by immersion in ice water or chill packed in crushed ice for
phenolic disinfectant or completely destroyed by incineration. delivery to stores. Pou/try meat can be safely stored at a temperature
of 1 to 4°C and relative humidity of 80-85 per cent for a period of 5
to 7 days. The effectiveness of refrigerated storage can be enhanced
to several weeks bv applying vacuum packaging.

Freezine
Chilled poultry carcasses can be packaged and stored frozen for
quite sometime. Freezing of poultry meat can be accomplished either
using refrigerated plates or in air. Slow still air freezing generally
accomplished in home freezer, takes 4 to 10 hours to freeze
depending on the size of the pro~uct. Quick air blast freezing is
widely used for long term storage in commercial enterprises. Here
the prepackaged carcasses are frozen at an air velocity of 1400
rpm to -30 to -40°C in 1-2 hrs. Quick free~ing has distinct adva.ntag_e
over slow freezing because intracellular ice crystals formed m this
 - Meat and Meat Products Technoloav Preservation of Poultrv Meat .-
case do not affect the appearc-.nce and other sensory attributes. In alcohols, aldehydes, organic acids, carbonyl compounds, phenols
s~ow freezing there is formation of extracellular ice crystals which etc. preserve meat by its bacteriostatic, bactericidal and antioxidant
d1~tort th~ musculature and increase drip loss upon thawing. The properties besides providing a protective film on the surface. Smoke
drip contains some water soluble proteins and vitamins. Quick frozen also imparts characteristic flavour and stabilises the cured colour.
broilers c~uld be conveniently stored for an year at-20°C, whereas The temperature of smoke chamber is maintained at 50°C to
cut up chicken and cooked chicken products could be stored for produce ready-to-cook chicken whereas 'it is kept at 80°C for 4 hours
about four months at the same temperature. at 30-35 per cent relative humidity tl'.l produce ready-to-eat chicken.
In order to eliminate the carcinogenic components obtained due to
combustion of lignin especially enzpyrene, liquid smoke is produced
Curine
these days through condensation. Liquid smoke can be directly
Curing refers to the application of salt, sodium nitrite and cane- sprayed over the cured chicken or added to meat emulsion to impart
sugar to meat with or without ascorbates, phosphates, glutamates distinct flavour. Cured and smoked chicken has a shelf life of 1 month
etc. Since chicken meat has a mild flavour, the amount of salt and under refrigeration (4°C) and 2 to 4 months in a freeze (-18°C).
other flavouring ingredients is kept comparatively low. Salt acts as
a preservati~e besides influencing flavour and texture of meat. Curing
salt has a high osmotic pressure which inhibits the availability of
Dehydration
water to the microorganisms. Initially, there is outward flow of water Cooked chicken meat is sometimes dehydrated for specific supplies.
and soluble proteins during curing. However, when salt diffuses Chicken chunks may be dried in a rotary air drier at controlled
inward.s, it forms a complex with protein and achieves a higher temperature. to a moisture content of 4 per cent. Fi~ely ground
osmotic pressure than the curing solution itself, causing some cooked meat may be spray dried to yield chicken soup mix. However,
reverse flow of water. The final salt concentration attained is nearly the best results are obtained in freeze dehydration. In this process,
5 per cent. Sodium nitrite provides the much desired cured pink chicken meat chunks are quick-frozen and vacuum dried at
colour. Cane-sugar contributes to the flavour and counteracts the 1.55 mm Hg at low temperature for 12-24 hours. The final product
toughening caused by salt alone. containing hardly 2% moisture is packed in tins under nitrogen and
Chicken can be subjected to dry or wet curing. In dry curing, the has a shelf life of one year. The product retains its natural flavour
carcass is thoroughly rubbed with curing mixture and then aged. In and nutrients and can be reconstituted within minutes.
wet or pickle curing either the curing brine is injected in small
quantities at several places in the carcass (stitch pumping) or the Cannine
carcasses are immersed in a curing brine containing 15 per cent
This process refers to ext,r~ll!~!h~JDJ_C!LPLOk6.SSing of chicken meat
c?mmon salt, 7.5 per cent cane sugar, 150 ppm sodium nitrite plus
in hermetically sealed cans. lt·involves precooking of chunks and
nitrate and 0.05 per cent monosodium glutamate for 48 to 72 hours
gravy, filling in lacquered cans, exhausting, sealing under vacuum
at 4°C. The chickens are overhauled every 24 hours to ensure
and cooking in retorts at 15 psi pressure for 35 minutes followed by
uniform curing. The temperature of curing room is maintained at
rapid cooling. The canned chicken product has a shelf life of two
4°C and lighting should be minimum to retard the chances of
rancidity development. After curing excess salt on the surface is years at ambient temperature.
removed by proper washino. Cured chicken has a shelf life of 14
days at 4°C. Radiation Preservation
Poultry meat can also be preserved by using radiant en~rgy.
Smokine Radiation brings about lethal changes in the nuclear material of
Smoking is generally practised along with curing. Smoke obtained microorganisms and inactivate the enzyme system without raising
by the slow combustion of hardwood saw dust contains lower
 1
- Meat and Meat Products Techno
lol!ll

radiation is generally utilise

d
l
I
l
~he temper~ture. Cobalt-60 gammag power. This method, usually I
etr atin j
ecause of its adeq.u.ate yen to oth er '
col d ste rilts at1 on, is used as a sup ple me nt
cal led as. . For poultry
refrigeration and freezing
preservat10~ ~ethods such as ad alo ne and
n dos e of 4.5 Mr
me at, r~d1~t1on ste rilis atio

pres~rvat10.n i:nethods hav

e bee
Mra d in com bin atio
pasteuri~at1on dos e of 0.5 n successfully used.
n wit h oth

changes in
er
Processing
High rad1at1on .doses
me at ~uch a~ ?1scolouratio
ma

c~pa~1ty. ranc1d1ty development

y initiate several undesirable
n, off flavour, los
and loss of nut
s of
rien ts
wa
like
ter holding
thia mine Convenienc
pm ent ma y occ ur du~
Off flavour develo
vitamin 81 2 a~d vitamin C. rca pta ns from free am ino
, H S and me
to the production of ammonia 2 king
can be prevented by underta
~c1d~. '.he se undesirable effects en condition and packaged under
1rrad1at1on ~hen the meat is
in froz
has the . sumed far
osp here. Radiation preservation s of poultry in India. It is con
vacL,Jum or inert gas atm
h cost restricts its use Chicken is the major specie ts. Con-
a~vantage of s.pepraedy ~peration. However, hig and wide in many forms of trad
itional and processed produc
consump-
a::; a commi;rc1al ctice. uire any preparation prior to
venience products do not req chicken, chicken
produc~s are tandoori
tion. The common traditional n kot"ta,
kabab, chicken curry, chicke
s_heek kabab, chicken shami ts such as
osa etc. Other poultry produc
chicken tikka, chicken sam hav e a good
chicken sausages etc. also
barbecue, chicken patties, atio n of som e
me tho ds of pre par
ma rke t in urb an areas. The in this cha pter.
ts have been described
convenience poultry produc

Tandoori Chicken
because
preferred for tandoori chicken
Broilers at 6 weeks of age are sse d chic kens
lity to sustain roasting. Dre
of their tender meat and abi ng with spi ces
with 4 per cent salt alo
with intact skin are rubbed g, the car cas ses
and seasoning and kept for
15 minutes. After drainin
fac e and in the
with sauce on the sur
are thoroughly marinated . The form ula tion
1-2 hours is allowed
interior. A marination time of other
con sum ers preference for.taste and
of sauce depends on the und spi ces alo ng with
l, dry and gro
sen sor y attributes .. In genera %) anc Lcu rd (10 %).
vinegar (10
condiments are blended with under
chi cke ns are roasted in a tandoori oven
The marinated depending
form heat for 20-30 minutes
smokeless, moderate and uni re mu st be
and size of the broilers. Ca
on the temperature of oven id burning
y from the direct fire and avo
taken to keep the chickens awa ckens are
remities. During roasting, chi
or blistering of the skin or ext
 lol:!Y Processina of Some Convenienc
e Poultry Products ll ll lm
- Meat and Mear Products Techno \
(5 ~~r
the oven and pasted with sau
ce or fat bination wi~h.whole. eg~ liquid
occasionally removed from Wheat flour (3 per cent) in com stre ng .
is tested vide sufficient binding
doneness of tan doo ri chicken t) are incorporated to pro con sum er
with the help of a brush. The it dissoc iates eas ily from . . ices can be mixed as per
han ds. The balls
ticks when cen g bal ls with
by twisting one of the drums our . Seasonings, salt and.1 sp II d into 15
the joint. By this time, it also
acquires slightly smoked flav
preference . T~e dough 5
~ ute
min
ro e C ked balls ' packed
s., oo
in polyethylene
t 4oc
are deep fat fned for .
lity of 8 to 10 days a
Chicken Barbecue pouches have a·keeping qua
red for
dre sse d we igh t are pre fer
Bro iler s with abo ut 750 g for this Poultr).I Pickle
ckens are longitudinally halved and deboned. Now meat
barbecuing. The dressed chi are d ff excess fat
purpose after removing the
neck portion. The chicken hal ves . . .
Dressed chicken is tnmme
~· d 'th 2 per cen t salt and pre ssu re
ieok:~ meat is taken out and anted
ing s at
is cut into 2.5 cm cu~es, ap~
sea son frie d
taining spices, salt and
marinated with sauce con arid allo we d to dec
taste and preference o et brown colour. Oil is
according to the consumers n for cooked for 8 t~ 1 o minutes._ stuff is fried in the same oil to
es are then placed on the ove to g
stay for an hour. The sid medium heat in mustard oil
e~ cf~~~wed by addition of dry spices,
ted
from the fried cubes and r:.
turn ed and bas
se are periodically
barbecuing during which the g
bpr~~;e~~~oa~;~n~~r::d
dry ing . The coo kin the r
a brush to avoid meat continuing frying for aro
with sauce with the help of atu re so tha t ten der , get g?l?en2 O per
derate temper y mix ed with 1
should proceed slowly at mo ained. I' it is tho rou ghl
s at am bie nt
oked flavoured barbecue is obt remaining
3-4 minutes. After some coo
mg, h If life of day
golden brown and slightly sm 100

Chicken Seekh and Shami Kababs

~:~~~ir~~~::·~~o~~~~~c!;;r~~asbl: loss of quality attributes.

ing s~1eek .
at can be utilised for prepar
Culled or spent chicken me grinder. Chicken Samosa .
through B mlJl plate of a meat of a meat grinder.
kababs. Lean meat is minced sho uld be . ced throug h 5 .mm plate olden brown colour
whole egg liquid (5 per cent) . min
Wheat flour (3 per cent) and ken is
etable oil to ;~~!a~ds the end
to the min ce. Lean chic . Minced
vide sufficient strength Condiments are fried in. veg
incorporated as binders to pro
~~~=sa~~eemixed with the friefrie
sum ers
and dry spices along ~1t~ sa~
sonings are added as per con d spices
Fat, salt, dry spices and sea iron bars d stuff
ted around specially made
lean and cooked m~s e po
to 6 minutes. The
preference. The mince is pas
(seekh) and cooked over mo
derate and uniform hea t,
till
turn
don
ing the
eness and heating ~s.continued fo~
~~ °~~~ ~bout 3og are roll
0
ed out
pou
and
ch
tim e lar
vegetable oil from time to h If ·s moulded into a triangu sed and
bars and basting withach ieved. is read~ for filling. Dough ph .a .1 ·n The ouc h is clo
with brown colour is divided into two halves. Eac
In the preparation of shami
kababs, meat chunks and
water
the frie
5
(~0d-~in vege a
d stuffp frie g) is / 1
~~: ~ii ~t me~ium heat to obtain a
for nea rly 15 min utes and osa are dee
mered in water sam s
soaked black gram dal are sim ces and con dim ent
with salt, dry spi crispy product.
before grinding. It is seasoned de into
liquid egg to the mince. It is ma
paste. Some people also add edible oil on a gird le till .
round cakes whichbro are shallow fried with Chicken Sausaae
both the sides are wn. d for the preepar
n be utilisemin ation
The tough r:neat from spe nt hen s .c~ en meat is ced onc through
d ct'~ of a meat grinder. Fat
is minced
Chicken Kofta . of chicken sausages. Debone
Pa meat. ice flakes (1 Oper cent),
9 mm and then through 4 mm
te. L~an ith 'tat in a bowl cho
ing kofta pper to
ken can be utilised for prepar
Meat from spent or culled chic te of a separately throug~ ~ mm pla
~~~tp~~~ =~i~i~~;~~~~~:.r~t~: ~~~egd~nts
rse ground through 8 mm pla
(meat balls). Lean meat is coa oil is add ed to it. like spices, condiments
pe! cent vegetable
meat grinder. Ten to fifteen
 ,.~\.' ?.'!~·
. ·~, !..-
,,.,... "'
..·"
- Meat and Meat Products Technolosy
etc. are add ed to the emulsio
n in the final run for a minute.
en:.ulsion. is filled into casings Me at \
with the help of a sau sag e fille
swrable links are made. The r and
sausages may be cooked in wat
80°C. tor 15 !~ 20 minutes or er at
steam cooked. Smoking alon
coo king stab1l1ses the colo ur and g with
imp arts a characteristic flavour
the sausages. to

Chicken Patties
·
Utilisation o
Raw de? one d chicken me at
mea t. gnn?er: Oth er ingredients
and fat are min ced twice thro
ugh a
Industry BY-
like whe at flour or texturised
protein (binding agent), salt, soy
condiments, spices etc. are mix
the gm und meat in an electrica ed to
lly operated meat mixer. The blen
ma ss is divided into 1OOg por ded
tions and mo ulde d into patties. Indian pou ltry indu stry has ma
are broiled in a hot air oven set The se de rapid advances in the last
at 200 °C for 15 to 20 minutes decades. A large num ber of pou two
a core tem per atu re of about to get ltry farms have come up as clus
72°C. Hot patties ma y be use resulting in the so-called pou ters
pre par e burgers or chilled in d to ltry pockets in various parts
a refrigerator for latt er use. country. The re is a growing of the
realisation to collect and ben
utilise the by-products of pou eficially
Chicken Tikka ltry indu stry whi ch have so far
dum ped as waste, except for bee n
pou ltry manure. Est abli shm ent
pou ltry by-product processing of ?
D~bon~d chicken is min plant, within each clus ter of
ced in a meat grinder. For ty per having hatchery dressing units farms
min ce 1s pre ssu re coo ked for cent of the etc. will generate substantial reve
2 minutes. Besides, pee led minimise environmental pollutio nue,
shredd~d pot ato es are par and n and help reduce the livestoc
tially cooked in boiling wat er sep cost. However, places where coll k feed
Now, min ce me at (60 raw : 40 arately. ection of poultry by-products is
cooked), shr edd ed potatoes, eno ugh to war ran t a separate not
p~wde:, bre ad cru.mbs, salt rice plant, ser vice s of carcass utili
, spices and condiments are tho plant or renderer operating in sation
mixed in an electrically operate rou ghly the area can be requisitioned
d meat mixer. The blended ma twice a week. By-products of onc e or
divided into 70 g portions and ss is poultry indu stry are:
moulded into tikkas. The se are A. Poultry dressing plant was
fat fried in a girdle to achieve shallow te (on live weight)
an internal tem per atu re of 70° .i. Feathers
pro duc t has a uniq ue texture c. The 6%
and is con sum ed as a hot sna ii. Blood
The list of convenience chicken ck. 3.5%
products is on the increase. The iii. Offal
ready-to-eat products have a se
bright scope in India. The se a. Hea ds
alre ady bec om e qui te com hav e 3%
mo n at the fast foo d cor ner b. Feet
restaurants !n the ur?an areas. Wit h the vas
s and
t availability of spe nt c. Inedible viscera
4%
hens, comminuted chicken pro 9%
ducts are likely to sur pas s oth er (intestines, lung, pancreas, sple
pro duc ts in nea r future. meat B. Hat che ry was te en etc.)
· : Infe rtile eggs, dea d in ger
ms,
dea d em bry os, egg she lls,
unh atc hed chi cks , unu sab
le
chicks etc.
C. Egg processing unit waste Unsound eggs and egg shells.
D. Poultry manure Use d-u p dee p litte r and wet
droppings from cag e houses.
E. Dead birds
- Meat and Meat Products Technolo!:?Y Utilisin!:? of Poultn1 Industry BY-Products
Feathers reproductive organs. Irrespective of end use. offals, should be
sufficiently cooked to destroy microorganisms. Generally, offals are
i. /ls livestock feed Poultry feathers are hydrolysed to yield processed for the following purposes:
feather meal in by-product processing plant or renderer at a
steam pressure of 30 psi for 2 hours with continuous stirring. i. as livestock teed Offals are cooked in the by-product proces-
Feathers are sometimes crushed to bre.ais, thick shanks and sing plant at 15 psi pressure for half an hour and allowed to
speed up the process. Since feather meal has a poor amino dry. After cooling, fat is extracted and material is ground to
acid profile, feathers are generally processed with blood. yield offal .meal. Some renderers first hydrolyse feathers and
then add offals to yield offal and feather meal without any fat
ii. as beddine Soft and fluffy down feathers are used to make
extract.
comfort pillows and mattresses. These bedding articles have
good resilience and warmth besides being easy to handle and ii. IJs Pet food Poultry offal is utilised as a good quality pet food
store. especially for dogs. For this purpose, offal is washed, cooked,
iii. as fertilizer Feathers are crushed and cooked under pressure ground and then mixed with other products to form pellets.
to yield a good quality fertilizer. In places where cooking is not Some processors prepare canned pet food from poultry offals.
cost effective but irrigation is not a problem, feathers can be iii. IJs a feed for fur bearine animals In cold countries, poultry
ploughed in the soil to slowly decompose and release nitrogen.
offals have been conveniently used as a feed for fur bearing
iv. Ornamental and SPort use Feathers are used for making animals as a replacement for costly meals. Mince has been
artificial flowers, toys and various decorative articles. Stiff specially found to relish poultry offal and record fast growth.
feathers are used for making shuttle cocks.
iv. as fish food In fish hatcheries, poultry offal is cooked, ground
Blood and utilised as delicious fish food.
Table t 8.1: Per cent 11ield and composition of Poultry bll-Products meal
i. as livestock feed Blood collected in the poultry dressing plant Feather Blood Offal Mixed by-product
can be processed in a simpler cooker to yield dry blood meal Constituents Meal Meal Meal Meal
with only 9% moisture. Since quantity of blood is generally
Yield 33 18 55 33
inadequate and blood meal alone is not so palatable to the 7 9 10 8
Moisture
livestock, blood and feathers are usually cooked together in a Crude protein 85 86 52 66
by-product processing plant or renderer. Caking of blood on Crude fat 3 1 24 18
the renderer wall is prevented by putting an iron can in the Ash 4 3 14 1.8
renderer. Blood and feather meal has a rich amino acid profile
and very good digestibility. Mixed Poultl'Y BY-Products Meal
ii. As fertilizer Unwholesom e or decomposed blood can be Poultry offal, blood and feathers are mixed in their natural. P.roportion
simply cooked for sometime to reduce moisture and used as a and dry rendered at a pressure of 15 psi for 3 hours to ultimately
fertilizer in the fields. yield a meal with only 8% moisture. Dead birds can also be included
iii. as fish bait Blood can also be used as a bait during fishing in the charge. MPBM serves as a fairly balanced livestock and
operations. poultry feed (Table 18.1 ). It can be used upto 5-7% in poultry ration.

Offal Hatchery Waste

Poultry offal comprises of heads, feet and inedible viscera. Inedible Entire hatchery waste, other than egg shells is utilised in the
viscera includes intestines, lungs, pancreas, spleen and the preparation of hatchery by-product meal which is comparable to
- Meat and Meat Products Technolo1w
fish meal with respect to protein content. The meal can be used in
poultry ration at 3% level.
The egg contents from infertile eggs, dead in germs etc. are
collected and cooked at a pressure of 10 psi for 15 minutes. After
19
cooking, the material is allowed to dry and then ground. The yield of
hatchery by-product meal is. about 25%. It contains nearly 35%
crude protein, 40% crude fat and 4.5% total ash. Calcium and
phosphorus contents are 0.05% and 1% respectively. Structure~
Egg shells are sterilised and powdered to pass through very fine
sieve. Egg shell powder is used in mineral mixture as a calcium
supplement. Unsterilised egg shells are sun-dried and ground for
omPosition and
use as a fertilizer.
Nutritive
PoultrY Manure
i. IJs fertilizer Poultry manure has been traditionally used as a Ualue of E22s
fertilizer. Its nutrient value depends on litter to manure ratio. In
general, dried poultry manure contains 15-18% moisture, 25-
30% total protein, 6-8% uric acid (nonprotein nitrogen), 15- An acquaintanc e with the tormation and structure of eggs is
25%ash, 3-6% calcium and 1.5-2% phosphorus besides many necessary to effectively preserve its quality during stora~e and
other essential trace elements. It has a good fertilizing value marketing. Egg is basically nature's device to pr~duce a ch1c.k: So,
for crops, lawns and gardens. It also improves the soil structure it has the necessary infrastructure for the production and nut.nt1onal
because of high organic content. requirements of developing embryos and newly hatched chick.
ii. IJs livestock feed Caged poultry manure can be used as feed There are four main components of hen's egg:
for pigs and poultry whereas deep litter manure has been used a. Shell
a feed for ruminants. For this purpose, the manure is spread in b. Shell membranes
the sun for drying to moisture content of 10% or less. If facilities c. Albumen or white
are available, it can be autoclaved at 15 psi pressure for 30 d.Yolk
The yolk develops in the functional left ovary of the hen as .an
minutes and taken to hot.air drier for drying. Dehydrated poultry
ovum largely during the final 1Odays before release. ~fter ovul~t1on
manure has been successfully incorporated upto a level of 15% or release,· fully developed ovum or yolk is engulfed in the oviduct
in layer poultry ration. where a gel of albumin or egg white is secreted to surround the yolk
Thus, poultry industry products in the form of poultry dressing for a few hours. Finally, the shell membranes and the calcareous
plant waste, hatchery waste, egg processing unit waste, poultry shell are deposited in the oviduct for nearly 16 hours before the egg
droppings and dead birds should invariably be processed and utilised
for a number of reasons. It will solve the waste disposal problem is laid.
and reduce pollution in and around the farms and processing units.
It will also economise the poultry production as such by yielding Structure f Fie. 19.1 l
various by-product meals for feeding poultry. Shell The outer protective coverin~ of a~ egg .is shell which
i. comprises around 11 % of its total weight. It 1s mainly comp?sed
of calcium carbonate. The shell contains numerous minute
 -
- Meat and Meat Products Technoloay · Structure, Composition and Nutritive Ualue of E!!l!s .- -
pores on the entire surface, which are partially sealed by keratin. IJ/bumenThe white or albumen portion of egg constitutes about
iii.
These pores allow loss of carbon dioxide and moisture from 58% of the total weight of an egg. It occurs in fciur layers as
the eggs. However, a few of them (hardly 12-20) may permit follows:
bacterial penetration within the egg under specific circum- a. Outer thin layer
stances. Thus shell structure consists of three basic units: b. Outer thick layer
a. Outer cuticle made up of keratin · c. Inner thin layer
b. Middle spongy or calcareous layer d. Inner thick white or chalaziferous layer.
c. Inner mammary layer. The proportion of thin and thick white varies according to the
breed and age of the hen. Thick content is comparatively more. The
inner thick white layer surrounds the vitelline membrane of the yolk
ALBUMEN and its firm mucin like fibres continue as chalazae which has the
Outer thin layer ---'"~ YOLK
Germinal disc
specific function of keeping the yolk in the centre.
Outer thick layer--~
Latebra iv. Yolk The yolk constitutes nearly 31 % of the total egg weight.
Inner thin layer--~
Chalaziferous layer Light yolk layer
It consists of the following four structures from outside:
Chalazae Dark yolk layer
Vitelline membrane a. Vitelline membrane

~
b. Concentric rings of light and dark yolk material
c. Latebra (cone like portion extending to the centre of yolk)
d. Germinal disc (located in the cone of latebra).

Chemical Composition
As mentioned earlier, an egg consists of 11% shell, 58% albumen
and 31 % yolk. The cuticle of egg shell is composeao f a foaming
layer of proteinaceous matter especially keratin. It covers the
calcified portion of the shell which is made up of calcium carbonate
I

IL
SHELL (94%) with minor quantities of calcium phosphate (1 %), magnesium
Cuticle SHELL MEMBRANES carbonate (1 %) and proteinaceous material especially keratin. The
Calcareous layer LAircell true cell membrane consist of protein fibres. The inner membrane
Mammillary layer Outer shell membrane
Inner shell membrane
is comparatively thick. ·
Table 19.1: Chemical comPOsition of eee
Component Total(%) Water(%) Protein(%) Fat(%) Ash(%)
Fie. 19.1: Structure of an eee
Whole egg 100 65.5 11.8 11.0 11.7
ii. Shellmembranes The shell is attached to the shell membranes. Albumen 58 88.0 11.0 0.2 0.8
!he outer thick and inner thin membranes are usually Yolk 31 48.0 17.5 32.5 2.0
Calcium Calcium Magnesium Organic
inseparable except at the broad end of the egg forming an air
carbonate phosphate phosphate matter
cell. The shell membranes are a part of in-built defence (%) (%) (%) (%)
mechanism in the ·egg. because of their role as an effective Shell 11 94.0 1.0 1.0 4.0
barrier against bacterial invasion. The air cell continues to
Source: USDA
increase in size during storage due to loss of moisture and
shrinkage of egg contents.
- Meat a_nd Meat Products Technolol!Y Structure. Composition and Nutritive Value of El!l!s - -

Egg albumen or white contains approximately 88% water. Most

fable 19.3: Nutritive value of edible Portion of a chicken e!!I!
of the solid content is protein. Lipid content is virtually absent. Fresh raw egg
However, very minute quantity of carbohydrate (0.5%) may be Component Whole Albumen Yolk
present. Albumen may be regarded as a protein system consisting 33 17
Weight (g) 50
of microscopic fibres in a solution of numerous globular proteins. Water(%) 73.7 87.6 51.1
Some important albumen proteins and their characteristics are Food energy (Cal) 81.5 16.83 59.16
presented in Table 19.2. Protein (g) 6.45 3.60 2.72
Fat (Total lipids, g) 5.75 trace 1.65
Table 19.2: Important p;·oteins in el!!! albumen Total saturated FA (g) 1.65 1.65
Protein Relative amount in albumen (%) Characteristics Total unsaturated FA (g) 3.30 3.30
Oleic (g) 2.2 2.2
Ovalbumin 54 Phosphoglycoprotein 0.5 0.5
Linoleic (g)
13 Binds metals espe~ially iron Cholestrol (mg) 230 230
Conalbumin
Carbohydrate (g) 0.36 0.264 0.1
Ovomucoid 11 ·1nhibits 'trypsin ,,, 0 0
Fibre (g) 0
10 Lyses some bacteria Ash (g) 0.5 0.231 0.2890
Lysozyme (Globulin G 1 , G 2 , G3 )
Calcium (mg) 27.0 2.97 23.97
Ovomucin 1.5 Sialoprotein 1.15 0.033 1.117
Iron (mg)
flavoprotein 0.8 Binds.---riboflavin Magnesium (mg) 5.5 2.97
4.95
2.72
96.73
Phosphorus (mg) 102.5
Ovoinhibitor 0.1 Inhibits several proteases 64.5 45~87 16.66
Potassium (mg)
Sodium (mg) 61.0 48.18 8.84
Avidin 0.05 ., biotin
Binds
590 0 590
Vitamin A (IU)
Choline (mg) 253.0 0.4 253.0
Source: Baker (1968)
16.,5
Egg yolk contains more than 50% solids, which are· mainly lipids Inositol (mg)
0.033 0.017
Niacin (mg) 0.05
(32%) and proteins (16%). Yolk lipid is composed of mostly Riboflavin (mg) 0.15 0.089 0.076
triglyceride (65%), good amount of phospholipi d (28%) and Thiamine (mg) 0.055 0.037
controversial cholesterol (5%). The ash content of yolk is about 1%. Ascorbic acid (mg) 0 0 o·
A little of carbohydrate, usually less than 0.5%, may also be present. Source: American. Egg Board (1974)
With very little carbohydrates, egg has a remarkably low caloric
Nutritive Value value which justifies its inclusion in the food for people on restricted
Table 19.3 shows the nutritive value of a chicken egg. An egg diet. Egg is very good source of important minerals such as iron,
contains about six grams of protein. Egg protein is of such a high phosphorus, potassium and trace elements which are necessary
quality that its biological value has been taken as 100 and it acts as for the formation of blood, bone and soft-tissues. Though cholesterol
a standard for evaluating the biological value of other food proteins. content of egg yolk is comparatively high, it is not likely to significantly
All the essential amino acids required in human diet are present in influence the blood cholesterol level unless taken indiscriminately
egg proteins. An egg also provides five to six grams of easily because cholesterol is found in blood, nerve tissues and other parts
digestible fat, wherein the proportion of much desired unsaturated of the human body as a normal constituent of the cell.
fatty acids (especially oleic acid) is more as compared to most other
livestock products. Egg is an important source of fat soluble vitamins
(A, 0, E and K) and water soluble vitamins of B-complex group.
However, it does hot contain vitamin C.
 Microbial SPoilaae of Eaas -
allow the microorganisms to pass through. The microorganisms
either succeed in when the egg contents contract on cooling or
gain entry due to capillary action through pore canals when the
shell surface is moist. The role of microorganisms remain passive
. in both situations. It is due to capillary action that incidence of rotting

Microbial are comparatively high in washed eggs which have been subjected
to dry abrasion. The cuticular plugs on the pore canals are opened
during the process of abrasion of eggs.
oila!le of fggs After gaining entry through the shell pores, microorganisms come
across shell membranes. These membranes act as bacterial filters
and offer maximum resistance to the offending organisms which
have succeeded in penetrating the shell. Some researchers believe
It was widely believed in nineteenth century that contents...of fresh that membrane lysozyme also has a limited role.
eggs were always sterile. Studies conducted afterwards revealed Mold may also cause rot in eggs under humid storage conditions.
that microorgan isms can gain entry into the egg congenitally. In such case shell is generally covered with mycelium (whisker)
However, most of the contaminants of eggs are of extragenital origin and hyphae penetrate the pores to reach shell membranes.
and come in contact with egg shell at oviposition from the dust, soil
and faecal matter adhered to the nesting material. Since the cuticle Colonisation of Microoreanisms on the Shell Membrane
~nd ~ores of the egg shell are moist at this stage, the possibility of
invasion of the shell by some contaminants through a few pores Once the microorganisms have an access to shell membrane, they
cannot be ruled out. The microorganisms on the shell surface usually are able to multiply and form colonies. However, the colonisation is
belong to a mixed group, but those causing spoilage of egg (generally not instant. In the early stages, there is preferential selection of
called rot) are gram-negative in nature which have very simple gram-negative organisms having low iron requirement from the initial
nutritional requirements. · population dominated by gram positive organisms which have high
The microorganisms have to pass through a series of in-built iron requirement. Thus initially there is a decline in the microbial
physico-ch emical barriers in the egg-the shell, the shell numbers. In the later stages, multiplication of organisms takes place
membranes, the albumen before reaching the yolk where they could at a faster rate becaus.e by this time albumen becomes heavily
easily multiply causing rot. The mechanism of microbial spoilage infected. The pH of egg contents move towards neutrality and yolk
can, thus, be divided into three serial steps: comes in contact with inner shell membrane.
1. Penetration of microorganisms through the egg shell and shell
membranes. OverPOwerine the Antibacterial Factors Present in the Albumen
2. Colonisation of microorganisms on the shell membrane.
Egg white or albumen provides an unfavourable medium for microbial
3. Overpowering of the antibacterial factors present in the albumen.
growth because of the defensive role played by many of its
component proteins which have been listed under composition of
Penetration of Microoreanisms throueh the albumen. The role played by lysozyme and conalbumen is parti-
Eee Shell and Shell Membranes cularly important. Lysozyme of albumen cause lysis of mucopeptide
Egg shell acquires a diverse microflora at the time of oviposition. rich cell wall of gram positive organisms. This enzyme does not
Under normal conditions of handling and storage, shell gets dried affect the complex cell wall of gram nE?gative bacteria having coating
soon and most of these microorganisms fail to survive. An egg shell of lipoprotein and lipopolysaccharide over mucopeptide.
contains more than 17000 pores. However, only ten to twelve pores
- Meat and Meat Products Technoloav .
Conalbumen which is uniformly distributed and constitutes more
than 10% of albumen chelates iron and make it unavailable to the
bacteria. Conalbumen is the. principal antimicrobial factor present
in the egg and its inhibitory action is more on gram positive as
compared to gram negative organisms. This inhibition definitely
delays the spoilage o( eggs to some extent. However, as yolk
contents migrate into albumen or get mixed, multiplication of
organism is very fast which results in the rotting of eggs. Some
vation and
general type of rots may be summarised as follows:
Type of rot Changes in egg Organisms
enance of fggs
Green rot Albumen becomes green Pseudomonas
fluorescens A freshly laid egg can be assumed to have a highest quality. Since
Black rot (Type 1) Blackening of yolk with "faecal odour" Pr~us sp.
Black rot (Type 2) Green coloured albumen but yolk Pseudomonas sp.
egg is full of essential nutrients, deteriorative changes soon start
is black with "cabbage odour" taking place which may pose a danger to the excellent sensory
Red rot Albumen stained red throughout, Serratia sp. attributes of this nourishing and satisfying food item. Cleanliness
yolk surrounded by custard like
and soundness of shell is the first step to assure the quality of egg
material
Fungal rot Pink spots on egg contents Sporotrichium to the consumers. The shell quality deficiencies mostly relate to the
Black spots on contents Cladosporlum production practices adopted at the farm. Proper handling of eggs
Yellow or green spots on contents Penicillium can delay the decline in the quality. Following precautions should
be taken during handling of eggs:
Besides rots, eggs may develop various types of off odour due i. Eggs should be collected 3 to 4 times per day. This will result in
to bacteria without any apparent signs of spoilage. These off odours less dirty eggs and fewer breakages.
may be musty or earthy (Achromobactersp.), hay like (Enterobacter ii. After collection. eggs should be shifted to holding room
sp.), fishy (E co/1) or that of cabbage water (Pseudomonas sp.). maintained at a temperature of about 15°C and 70 to 80% RH
atleast for 12 hours.
iii. Eggs should be properly packed in filler flats with broad end
up. Bulk packing should be done in fibre board cartons.
iv. Eggs should be rapidly moved through the marketing channel
so as to reduce the period between production and consump-
tion.
All preservation methods for shell eggs have been designed to
retard one or more of the following physico-chemical alterations
which lower the quality of egg as it ages:
i. As the surface of egg dries. the keratin cuticie shrinks and size
of shell pores increases rend,ering it easier for gases and
microorganisms to pass in and out of the shell.
ii. As the warm egg cools down, the egg contents also contract,
resulting in the formation of air cell.
iii. The breakdown of carbonic acid causing loss of carbon dioxide
from the albumen is rapid during the first few hours after an
- Meat and Meat Products Technolo!ZY Preservation and Maintenance of E!Z!Zs - -
egg is laid. The alkaline pH acts on the mucin fibres to disturb Cold Storaee
the thick gel of albumen making it thin or watery.
This method of preservation is suitable for long term storage of
iv. As the egg ages, water migrates from the albumen to the yolk
clean eggs in th.e main laying season and abundant availability. The
which may overstretch, weaken or even rupture the vitelline
temperature of cold store is maintained at 0°9 (32°F) and relative
membrane.
humidity between 80 to 85 per cent. An anteroom with intermediate
Following preservation methods are employed to maintain the
temperature is generally provided to check condensation of water
quality of shell eggs: ·
vapour on the eggs during removal. Use of new egg packing trays
are advised for cold storage. Like all other animal products, eggs
Eee Cleanine also pick up strong odour, so the same cold store cannot be used
Earlie'., it was ~ general practice to dry-clean dirty egg shells by for storing onion, garlic or any other commodity with strong odour.
abrasive mounting on a mechanical wheel. This practice has now The quality of shell eggs can be maintained for about 6 months in a
?ecome obsolete be~a~se it weakens the shell. These days washing cold storage. Oil co~ting of eggs prior to cold storage can further
in warm.water conta1rn~g a.detergent sanitizer is an effective way enhance their keeping quality. Such eggs could keep well at 14°C
of cleaning the eggs with dirty shells. A temperature difference of and 90% RH for a period of-8--months.
<
10-15°C between eggs and wash water is ideal, otherwise there
~ay be p~oblem of crack shells. Besides, eggs should not be Thermo~tabilisation
immersed in warm water for more than 3-4 minutes. After washing,
This preservation method involves stabilisation of albumen quality
the eggs sh.ould be drie.d promptly. Wash water should be changed
by holding the eggs in an oil bath maintained at 55°C for 15 minutes
after washing every five to six baskets of eggs. It should be
or 58°C for 10 minutes. This process brings about coagulation of
emphasised that only dirty eggs are subjected to washing. It not
thin albumen just below the shell membranes, thereby blocking the
only reduces the microbial load on the egg shell surface but also
passage of air and moisture. In addition, oil coating of shell pores
improves the appearance and consumer appeal.
also takes place. Thus keeping quality of eggs is maintained for
sometimes and thinning of egg white is retarded. Alternatively, eggs
Oil Treatment are immersed in hot water at 71°C for 2 to 3 seconds. In this flash
Oil coating spray of eggs has become very popular for short term heat treatment, bacteria present on the surface of the shell are
storage of this commodity. Coating oil forms a thin film on the surface destroyed and a thin film of albumen just below the shell membrane
of the shell s~a!in~ the pores. It should be done as early as possible, is coagulated sealing the egg shell from inside.
prefe.rably within first few hours after laying of eggs because loss of
C0 2 1s more during this period and evaporation of moisture is also Immersion in Liquids
more during the first few days. Egg coating oil should be colourless,
Under rural conditions, lime-water or water-glass immersion are
odourless. and conform to food grade. Coating is done by dipping
most useful. In lime-water tr-eatment, a litre of boiling water is added
the eggs in the groundnut oil whereas for oil spray, the eggs are
to 1 kg of quick lime and allowed to cool. Now 5 litres of water and
arran~ed i~ the f!ller flats with their broad end up. If the eggs need
250 g of table salt are added to it. The solution is strained through a
wa~hing. 011 coating should be done after washing. It is important to
fine cloth when the mixture settles down. Eggs are dipped in the
drain out excess oil before packaging. The temperature of oil should
clear fluid overnight and then dried at room temperature. In this
be in ra~ge of 15 to 30°C for ideal results. Oil treatment safeguards
process, an additional thin film of calcium carbonate is deposited
the quality of albumen for atleast 7 days because it effectively seals
on the egg shell and seals the pores. Such eggs can be stored for
the shell pores.
a month at ambient temperature. In water-glass treatment, one part
- Meat and Meat Products Technoloev
of so~ium silic~te is mixed in 1Oparts of water and eggs are dipped
overnight. In this process, a thin precipitate of silica is deposited on
the egg shell and partially seals the pores. ·
It is clear from the above discussion that eggs should be collected
frequently, held initially at low temperature and ·then a suitable
preser.v~tion method be employed to maintain its keeping quality
for ant1c1pated consumer acceptance.
Role of
Poultry Pr
Human
We have already discussed the nutritive value of fresh meat and
chicken in chapter 2 and 13 respectively. Meat is a very well
recognised nutritious food due to abundant high quality protein, B-
complex vitamins and important minerals especially iron. However,
all the nutrients contained in fresh meat do not reach the consumer.•·
Several of them could be partially lost in the processing. The extent
of nutrient loss will depend on the processing steps undertaken
during the manufacture of a particular product. Hence, there is a
need to have a fresh look at the nutritive value of meat and poultry
products. Although variety range of processed meat products is
very high, relevant information is available only generally prepared
products· (Tables 22.1 and 22.2).
Most processing procedures involve cooking which brings about
a number of changes in meat. Cooking coagulates and denatures
the meat proteins altering their solubility. It inactivates or destroys
the indigenous proteolytic enzymes. Cooking invariably decreases
the water content of meat lowering the water activity level. It
intensifies the flavour and modifies the texture. In addition,
considerable number of microorganisms are killed enhancing the
storage life of meat. .
Smoking and cooking take place simultaneously in m~st cured
meat products. During smoking, carbonyl groups present in smoke
react with amino groups of protein whereas phenols and polyphenols
in smoke could react with sulphydril group of protein. Both the
reactions cause some loss of available amino acids thereby
. decreasing the nutritive value of protein. Water soluble vitamins may
- Meat and Meat Products Technolol!v .I Role of Meat and Poultrv Products in Human Nutrition mllm
;
also be affected to some extent. In fact, some destruction of thiaminfjl
(Vitamin 8 1) is inevitabie, although effect on riboflavin (Vitamin B~ 0
0
0 o_
and niacin may be very little. Smoking process can be nutritional!~ <l; ......_
..,,; :::i 0 0 0 0i
0
C') 0 Ol "<t
::,; :::::. N N
advantageous because it helps to stabilise the fat soluble vitamins ......
c
due to antioxidant properties. Canning process is particularly1 0 .s0
't O; <O I'- N <O ~ '<!:
-~ E
C')
"<t ~ ~
detrimental to the water soluble vitamins present in meat. In canning, 0
c. <: '- -<i 0 C"i r....: C\i in C"i C') C')

~
about 20-40% of thiamine, 10% each of riboflavin and niacin, 20% ::c;
of biotin and 20-30% pantothenic acid are destroyed. :s cq"' O; ,....
N lJ")
,.... C') I'- 0 0 "<t c:o I'-
,.... "<t

Processing changes the nutritional characteristics of fresh meat

~

""
s §. ci ci
N
ci ci
0
C\i
~
N
C')
ci ci ci
C\j
0
0
0
to some extent. The percentage of protein. is slightly decreased
whereas that of tat and minerals is increased. The percentage of
... sCl:l-0;§.
~
"<t
~
Ol
0
ci
0
,....
ci
N
0
ci
lJ")
0
ci
Ol
,.... ;;;
ci
t--
"<t
ci
Ol
"<t
ci
C\J
0
ci
minerals is generally increased due to added salt and seasonings.
.....c. 0 0

Besides, processed meats have more caloric values.as compared "'

t;
::I Ol c:o. ,.... o; C\J
0
c:o
I'-
c:o
C')
"C ~ §. C')
t--
C\J
c:o C\J N
to fresh meat due to the addition of fillers, binders and other ....c.
0

=...
extenders in the form of cereal flours or skimmed milk powder and ::..
O; (;:i
frequently some fat.
0 lJ") C')
,.... ·-:;; C') C')
N 0
~ §. lJ") <O lJ")
::I N C\J (') N N N
0
Table 22.1: Proximate composition and caloric value of some Processed meat c.
"C
c
Product details
and Poultrv Products f Per. I oo l! edible PortionJ ·
Calories Water Protein Fat Carboht;drate Ash -"'
"'E
~
~
Cl
§. LI'! ~
0
c:o
C\i
,....
C\i
~
lJ")
~ (')
C"i
<O
C\i
"<t
C\i
C')
.t

Chicken, boneless, canned 198 65.2 21.7 11.7 1.4 "C

~
O; t-- lJ") "<t N 0 "<t N (")
CXl
<O
0
CXl (') N t--
Chicken with vegetables, canned E
a...'- "<t lJ") CXl N

"'"'u
100 79.6 7.4 4.6 7.2 1.2 C\J CXl N
Turkey with vegetables, canned ~
86 81.3 6.7 3.2 7.6 1.2
Egg yolks with ham or bacon, ec. O;
canned
Lamb, strained, canned
208
107
70.3
79.3
10.0
14.6
18.1
4.9
1.3
1.2
~
E
a -S (;:i N
C\J ;::: Ol <O c:o
"<t
Ol
(') 0
N

--"'
0
Lamb, iunior, carmed 121 76.0 17.5 5.1 '.4
Liver, strained, canned 97 79.7 14.1 3.4 1.5 '1.3 0
Pork, strained, canned
Bacon, cured, cooked and drained
Ham, cured, medium f&t. cooked
Pork with gravy (90% pork,
118
611
289
77.7
8.1
53.6
15.4
30.4
20.9
5.8
52.0
22.1
3.2
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6.3
3.4
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canned
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are rich sources of vital nutrients. Meat products depict a lot of E <ll :c 0 Q)
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variation in the amount of the protein but most of the products are c\i en ro c c
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rich in protein content which is of very high quality due to the Q)

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availability of essentiai amino acids. fn fact, meat products could
.9! .m<ll :S '§ c Q)
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meet a major portion of recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of <:; c:: c ""' Ci) Ci)
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- Meat and Meat Products Technoloi!ll
body tissues in adults and large amount of protein can be stored in
the body, consumption of meat products can ensure its availability
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
to a large extent. Besides, protein supports the growth in children 1. Baker CMA: The proteins of egg white. In Carter TCA (Ed.): Egg Quality, A
and pregnant ladies, consumption of enough protein products with Study of Hen's Egg. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver and Boyd, 1968.
high biological value becomes an absolute necessity. Since meat 2. Bartholonew OT, Osualo Cl: Acceptability of flavour, texture and appearance
products contain ample amount of fatty acids that are essential in in processed meat products. Journal of Food Science 51(6):1560-62, 1986.
3. Cole OJA, Lawrie RA: London: Meat. The Butterwort h and Company
the diet of human, the recommended dietary allowance of fat is
(Publishers) Ltd., 1975. .
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that people with genetic disposition for obesity should restrict the Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1978.
consumptior. of animal fat. 5. Golomski WA: ISO 9000 - The global perspective. Food Technology 48(12):
Meat products contain enough of vital minerals such as iron, 57-59, 1994.
6. Holstad MS, Calnek BW, Helmboldt CF, et al. Diseases of Poultry. New Del~i:
sodium, potassium and phosphorus. However, these are particularly Oxford and IBH Publishing, 1975.
deficient in calcium. Much of the requirement of iron which is an 7. Japson A: Danish Standards in Meat Hygiene. WHO/FAQ, Geneva, 1957.
absolute necessity for health upkeep, can be made available by the 8. Jay JM: Modern Food Microbiology (3rd ed). Delhi: CBS Publishers and
meat products. Anaemic patients are usually recommended a liver Distributors, 1986.
9. Komark LS, Tressler DK, Long L: Food Products Formulatory, Vol. 1. Westport,
diet because of its high iron content. A regular intake of iron is must.
Connecticut: The AVI Publishing Company Inc., 1974.
for the proper synthesis of haemoglobin, myoglobin and certain 1o. Kondaiah N: Export potential of meat and meat products. National Symposium
enzymes due to very limited capacity to store iron in the body. All on Meat and milk Industry: Trends and Developmental Strategies 25-27, CCS
the water soluble vitamins are present in meat products but thiamine, HAU, Hisar, 1994.
11 . Kumar S, Sharma BO: Prospects of processing meat from spent animals in
riboflavin and niacin are present in significant quantities. Liver
21st century. In Rishendra Verma et al (eds) Prospects of Livestock and
containing meat products are extremely rich in vitamin A content. Poultry Development in 21st Century, IAAVR Publication, Bareilly, 1996.
Though processed products vary in the relative proportion of 12. Lawrie RA: Meat (eds OJA Cole and RA Lawrie). Butterworth and Company
nutrients~ 1OOg serving of most meat products can supply 50% of (Publishers) Ltd., London, 249, 1975.
recommended dietary allowance for protein, 25-50% of B-complex 13. Lawrie RA: Meat Science (3rd ed). Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1979.
14. Leistner L, Rode I W: The stability of intermediate moisture food with respect
vitamins , 35% of recomm ended iron and 10% of the calorie of microorganisms. In: (Davies, R Birch, SG and Parker KJ), Intermediate
requirement of an adult person. The nutritional attributes of meat Moisture Foods, Applied Science Publishers, London, 1976.
products are highly acclaimed by the dieticians for a healthy living. 15. Levie A: The Meat Handbook. The AVI Publishing Company, Inc., Westport,
Connecticut, .1970. .
16. Mendiratta SK, Kumar S, Keshri RC, Sharma BO: Comparative efficiency of
fv1icrowave Oven for Cooking of Chicken Meat. Fleischwirtschaft, 78(7): 827-
828, 1998.
17. Mountney GT: Poultry Products Technology (2nd ed). The AVI Publishing
Company, Westport, Connecticut, 1976. . . .
18. Nag S, Sharma BO, Kumar S: Quality attributes and shel_f life of chicken
nuggets extended with rice flour. Indian Journal of Poultry Science 32(2):182-
186, 1998. . .
19. Padda GS, Sharma BO, Sharma N: Oxidative Discolouration and Ranc1d1ty ·
in meat-a review. Indian Food Packer, 41(6): 31-45, 1987.
20. Padda GS, Sharma BD: Massagin g and tumbling (M&T)-R ecent
Development in Meat Technology. Livestock Adviso.r, ~?(8):13-15, 1?85. '.
21. Padda GS, Sharma BO, Keshri RC: Research Pnont1es for Meat m India.
Indian Food Industry, 7(2): 1-8, 1986.
-
22.

23.

24.
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Padda, GS, Sha:-ma N, Sharma, BO: Profiles of some processed meat
products developed at IVRI. Beverage and Food World 15(1):31-34, 1988.
Panda B, Mahapatra SC: Poultry Production, ICAR Publication, New Delhi,
1989.
Panda PC: Text Book on Egg and Poultry Technology. Vikas Publishing House
..
slaughtering
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1976.
A
bleeding 100
25. Pearson AM andTauber FW: Processed Meats. The AVI Publishing Company, Antemortem inspection stunning 100
Inc., Westport, Connecticut, 1973. suspects 104 storage 103
26. Price JF, Schweigert B$: The Science of Meat and Meat Products (2nd ed) unfit 104 washing 101
W.H. Feeman and Company, USA, 1971.
27. Sen AR, Sharma BO andYadav PL: Effect of milk-coprecipitate incorporation
on physico-chemical and sensory quality of chicken loaf. Indian Journal of B E
Poultry Science 29(2):201-203, 1994. Bacon Eggs 119, 124. 127
28. Sharma BO, Bachhil VN, BishtGS: Effect of hot and chilled boning and commercial processing of 54 chemical composition 121
subsequent processing on the quality characteristics of pork. Indian J. M~at sausages 55 cleaning 128
Sci. 3(1):1-9, 1990. Beef or buffalo carcass 35 cold storage 129
29. SharmaBD, PaddaGS, Joshi HB: Use of milk proteins in meat products-A grading 36 maintenance of 127
review. Indian Dairyman 37(11 ):48-491, 1985. wholesale cuts of 35 nutritive value
30. Sl)arma BO, Padda GS, Yadav PL: Development of gravy bases for meat B-complex 122
curry. Beverage and Food World21(4):7-8, 12, 1994. egg protein 122
31. Sharma BO, Padda GS, Sharma N: Off flavours in meat. Livestock Advisor c oil treatment 128
11 (9):5-8, 1986. Cardiac muscles 12 preservation 127
32. Sharma BO, Rao VK, Sanyal MK, Yadav PL: Effect of colostrum incorporation Chemical composition 95 spoilage of 124
on the physico-chemical and palatability properties of mutton loaf. Beverage antibacterial factors 125
carbohydrate 96
and Food World19(1):37-38, 1992. microorganisms 124
fat 96
33. Sharma BO, SharmaN, Chatterjee AK, Padda GS: Packaging of meat and structure 119
minerals 97
meat products. Indian Food Packer, 39(6):40-44, 1985. albumen 121
moisture 95
34. Sharma SD, Singh SP, Singh P: Processed meat products-emergi ng shell 119
protein 95 shell membranes 120
scenario and potential in India. Livestock Advisor 20(3):28-30, 1995. vitamins 96
35. Sharma BO, Wani SA, Sharma N: Sensory Evaluation Manual for Meat and yolk 121
Chicken 111
Meat Products. Publication 36: IVRI, lzatnagar, 1997. ELISA 94
barbecue 112
36. Sharma N, Keshri RC, Sharma BO, Padda GS, Kondaiah N: Studies on kofta 112
processing and palatability properties of pork tikka. In: Advances in Meat patties 114 F
Research. R&B Cross Publishers, Bombay, 96-102, 1987. pickle 113 Flavour 82
37. Schrab. HACCP through IS0-9000 quality management system. Indian Food samosa 113 appearance 83
Industry 16(3):37-47, 1997. sausage 113 colour 83
38. Singh SP, Singh P, Prakash Rand Sharma BO: Estimation of yield of livestock seekh 112 juiciness
byproducts at state and national level in India. Agricultural Situation in /fTdia. shami kababs 112 meat fluids 84
159-163, 1987. tandoori 111 meat sample 82
39. Singh SP, Singh P, Sharma BO, Prakash R: Perspectives on meat production tikka 114 tenderness 83
and marketing. The Economic Times, Bombay, 1987. texture 83
40. Singh VP. Sharma BO: Consumer attitude towards poultry meat. Processed Fraudulent substitution
Food Industry 1(11):17-18, 1998 .. D
recognition of 88
41. $tadelman WJ, Cotterill OJ: Egg Science and Technology (2nd ed). The- AVI Dressing of poultry 100 anatomical methods 90
Publishing Company, Inc., Westport, Connecticut, 1977. defeathering 101 chemical methods 92
42. Thatcher FS! Journal of Applied Bacteriology 16: 226, 1963. evisceration 101 electrophoretic methods 93
43. Watt BK, Merril Ar.: Composition of Foods-Raw, Processe~Prepared. U$DA packaging 103 histological methods 91
Handbo()k 8, 1963. · scalding 100 physical methods 88
singeing 101 serological methods 92
 lndeK-
- Meat and Meat Products Technology
sodium nitrates 42
H processing steps shrink film 38
dehydration 46
chilling 56 vacuum 38
freezing 40
Hams chopping 56 Popular meat 62
irradiation 46
cooked 53 peeling 56 balls 64
refrigeration 39
country 54 smoking 56 loaves 64
smoking 43
processing of 53 stuffing 56 luncheon 62 .
thermal processing 44
proscicutto 54 Meat quality parameters 27 nuggests 65
Processed meat 5
Handling 99 antemortem factors 30 patties 63
Processing procedures
Human nutrition connective tissue Pork carcass
comminution 48
processed meat products 131 quantum of 29 wholesale cuts of 34
emulsification 48
processing changes 132 firmness 29 Postmortem changes 23
cooking 51
processing losses 132 marbling 29 glycolysis 24
hot processing 51
Humectants 59 meat colour 27 homeostasis 23
meat extension 50
processing techniques meat storage conditions · loss of protection
preblending 50
component blending 60 cold shortening 30 from invading microorganisms
dry infusion 60 thaw rigor 30 25
moist infusion 60 water holding capacity 28 loss of structural integrity 26 Q
Meat tissues pH decline 24
Quality control measures 71
nutritive value 19 rigor mortis 25
coliforms 72
MEPO 78 Postmortem inspection 105
Intermediate moisture meats 60 enterococci 7'2
categories 79 Poultry industry 115
restructured meat powers of 79 hazard analysis critical control
blood 116
chunking 62 point 74
schedules 80 dead birds 115
flaking 62 IS0-9000 standards 77
Microbial contamination 66 egg processing 115
tearing 62 deteriorative changes 59 standards 72
feathers 116
stability of 60 meat spoilage Bureau of Indian Standards 73
hatchery was ti 115 total viab'le counts 71
hurdle concept 61 indentification of 70 offal 116
microorganisms 67 poultry dressi g 115
L sources of 66 fertilizer 118 R
Muscle tissue 8, 12 livestock feed 118
Lamb carcass Radiation preservation 109
composition of 12 manure 115, 118
wholesale cuts of 33
carllohydrates 18 cobalt-60 gamma radiation 11 o
livestock resource· -1 Poultry meat
,lipids 17 preservation 107
minerals 19 chilling 107 s
M protein 14 curing 108
sarcoplasmic 16 Sensory evaluation 85
dehydration 109
Meat stroma 17 consumer panel 87
freezing 107
fats 20 vitamins 19 specialised panel 85
smoking 108
minerals 21 water 12 Shelf stable meat products 59
Pre-slaughter care 99
proteins 20 struct~re of 8 Preservation techniques 39
Skeletal muscle·
vitamins 21 associated connective tissue 8
canning
Meat cutting red muscle fibres . 11
N cooling 45
British 32 Smoked meats 52
filling 45
butchers 32 Nutritive value 97 Smooth muscles 12
precooking 45
French 32 seaming 45
Meat production p storage 45 T
biological value 2
curing
world scene 4 Packaging 37 Traditional meat 6
nitrite 42
Meat products modified atmosphere 38
classification of 55 overwraps 37