Advanced

Electromagnetic Transient
Analysis Program

Capacitor Energization
Current (kA)

Time in Milliseconds

Power Analytics Corporation

10805 Rancho Bernardo Road, Suite 270
San Diego, California 92127
U.S.A.
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Fax: 858-675-9724
www.PowerAnalytics.com

©Copyright Power Analytics Corporation 2012

All rights reserved

Version 3.10.00 October 2008

 Advanced Electromagnetic Transient Analysis Program

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Table of Contents

1. Overview ................................................................................................................... 1
2. Component Modeling ................................................................................................ 2
3. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 3
4. Sources of Transient Overvoltages ........................................................................... 3
5. Principles Transient Overvoltage Protection ............................................................. 4
6. How to Run the EMTAP Program.............................................................................. 6
7. Setting up Switching Events in EMTAP ................................................................... 10
8. References .............................................................................................................. 24

List of Figures
Figure 1: Transient Calculations of Lightning and Switching Surges ............................................ 1
Figure 2: Equivalent Networks for Example 1 ............................................................................... 2
Figure 3: Equivalent Networks for Example 2 ............................................................................... 3
Figure 4: Protection Principles........................................................................................................ 5
Figure 5: Diagram of the Sample Power System Used for Capacitor Energization Study............. 7
Figure 6: Starting the DesignBase Program.................................................................................... 7
Figure 7: Opening Sample Jobfile for Capacitor Energization Study (CAPMAG-EMTAP.AXD) 8
Figure 8: Starting EMTAP Program ............................................................................................... 9
Figure 9: EMTAP Program ICONs ................................................................................................ 9
Figure 10: Switching Event Manager ICON ................................................................................ 10
Figure 11: Analyze ICON of the EMTAP program...................................................................... 10
Figure 12: Main Switching Event Manager Dialog ...................................................................... 11
Figure 13: Adding a Switching Event to a Case/Scenario ............................................................ 12
Figure 14: Specifying Switching Time in a Case/Scenario .......................................................... 12

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Figure 15: Specifications of Switches in Close/Open Event ........................................................ 13

Figure 16: Selecting Phases Involved in the Close/open Event .................................................... 13
Figure 17: Selecting Open or Close Action in a Switching Event ................................................ 14
Figure 18: Defining Open/Close Times of Switches .................................................................... 14
Figure 19: Main Analysis Dialog of EMTAP ............................................................................... 15
Figure 20: Main Dialog for Selecting Desired Monitored Buses and Branches ........................... 16
Figure 21: Selecting Buses and Branched for on-line Plotting ..................................................... 17
Figure 22: Selecting a Case Study from List of defined Cases for Analysis ................................ 18
Figure 23: On-Line Plotting of Bus Voltage and Branch Current ................................................ 18
Figure 24: Sample Text Report of the Monitored Quantities ....................................................... 19
Figure 25: Detailed Plots of the Selected Bus Voltages/Branch Currents .................................... 20
Figure 26: Plotting RMS Values of the Selected Bus Voltages.................................................... 21
Figure 27: Detailed Plots of the Selected Branch Currents .......................................................... 22
Figure 28: Detailed Plots of the Individual Phases for the Monitored Quantities ........................ 23

Note: You can view this manual on your CD as an Adobe Acrobat PDF file. The file name is:

 Advanced Electromagnetic Transient Analysis Program EMTAP.pdf

You will find the Test/Job files used in this tutorial in the following location:

 C:\DesignBase2\Samples\EMTAP=Advanced Electromagnetic Transient Analysis Program

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Advanced Electromagnetic Transient Analysis Program

1. Overview
Electromagnetic transient analysis of power systems is one of the most crucial power system studies. Its
main objective is to study the fast transients to power systems caused by switching surges and lightning
strikes. Figure 1 below shows examples where electromagnetic transient analysis is required. Example 1
shows a lightning strike on a transmission line 3 km away from a substation. Example 2 shows a
surge of energy in a high voltage transmission line with the receiving end being opened when line
is energized. In example 1, engineers can apply the analysis to find out lightning overvoltages in the
substation in order to install arresters to protect equipment from lightning damage. In example 2,
engineers can apply the analysis to find out switching overvoltages at the receiving end in order to
coordinate the insulation level and size reactors to control overvoltages.

Example 1: One-Line Diagram of System for Lightning Surge Study

Example 2: System One-Line Diagram for Switching Surge Study due to Line Energization

Figure 1: Transient Calculations of Lightning and Switching Surges

Electromagnetic Transient Analysis Program (EMTAP) is designed to assist electrical engineers to

solve electromagnetic transient problems of complex power systems.

There are two major approaches in analyzing the transients in power systems, time-domain and frequency
domain approaches. With the time-domain approach the power system transient is analyzed in
time-domain and the solution of the transient for the system is expressed in terms of voltage
distributions at discrete times. Nonlinear components and switch operations can be easily handled
with this approach.

On the other hand, with the frequency-domain approach the solution for the power system transient is found
at discrete frequencies first and converted to time-domain with inverse Fourier transformation. With this
approach, frequency dependent parameters of power system components, such as those of transmission
lines and underground cables, can be easily considered. However, it is difficult with this approach to handle
switch operations and nonlinear components.

EMTAP uses time-domain approaches. It models all of the power system components (e.g. generators,
cables, transformers, etc.) into equivalent impedances with current sources. Then nodal analysis is applied to
get the nodal matrix of the network with nodal voltages being the unknown variables and current sources
being the exciting functions. By solving the linear equations, the nodal voltages at the one time step become
known, and the current sources for the next time step are calculated. Then the time step is incremented and
next loop starts. The loop will proceed until the total time period interested is covered. The solution for the
transient of the system is expressed in terms of voltage and current values at all the discrete time points.

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Selection of the time step depends on the nature of the transients. The time step is typically in the order of
micro seconds for the lightning surge study and in the order of milliseconds for the switching surge
study.

2. Component Modeling
Transient calculation is usually needed in high voltage power systems, as the ratio of the cost to the
insulation level of the system is quite high as compared to lower voltages. To calculate the electromagnetic
transient in the high voltage system, the low voltage distribution subsystems connected to the high voltage
system are usually ignored (surge impedances will limit the distances that fast transients can travel).

In lightning surge transient calculation, one of the main objectives is to study the impact of incident lightning
waves along a transmission line on the equipment of a substation. Transformers are usually of the biggest
concern, since they could be damaged by overvoltages caused by incident lightning waves. In such a study,
most part of the substation is omitted and transformers are simplified as well. The transmission lines and
arresters are the major components to be modeled in the study.

In switching surge transient calculation, the low voltage distribution subsystems are converted to Thevenin
equivalent circuits represented by series impedances and voltage sources seen by the high voltage system.
In this process, transformers are usually taken into consideration, and, therefore, removed from the resulting
network. All the components in the high voltage systems will be modeled in the switching surge studies. It is
important to note that DesignBase’s Advanced Electromagnetic Transient Analysis Program is
capable of handling large size power system thereby eliminating the need to simply the power
system under study.

Figure 2: Equivalent Networks for Example 1

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Figure 3: Equivalent Networks for Example 2

DesignBase’s advanced Electromagnetic Transient Analysis Program (EMTAP) is a time domain based
power system analysis tool. In order to model a power system in the time domain, all of the power system
components (generators, cables, over head lines, transformers, loads, etc.) converted into the
fundamental elements R, L, and C along with the transformation of the currents and voltages into their
respective time domain values. Voltages and currents are transformed into their per-phase instantaneous
values. All of the components defined in the power system are represented in phase domain (three phase
system). This approach enables the user to examine transients due to switching of specific phase(s), for
example, only one phase of three phase capacitor bank may be closed. The EMTAP computes
instantaneous values of voltages and currents in the power system. For example, if the RMS Line to Line
voltage is 13.8 kV, then, the instantaneous voltage (line-ground) is:

V (t )  2 *13.8 / 3 cos(wt   )  11.267 cos(wt   )

The same concept is used to change the currents into instantaneous time domain values.

3. Introduction
The word transient has been used in the analysis of power systems to indicate an undesirable event that
is usually momentary in nature. Power engineers, when they hear the word transients, think of a damped
oscillatory type transient produced by a RLC network. Another term in use by power engineers is surge.
When power engineers think of surge they tend to associate it with lightning strikes for which a surge
arrester is used for protection. The term transient is also associated with other terms such as sags,
swells, and interruptions.

In broad terms, transients can be classified into two categories, impulsive and oscillatory.

An impulsive transient is a sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady-state condition of voltage,
current, or both, that is unidirectional in polarity (primarily either positive or negative). The most common
cause of impulsive transients is lightning. Due to the high frequencies involved, the shape of the transient
waveform can quickly change due to network components. Also, impulsive transients can have
significantly different characteristics when viewed from different parts of the power system. This type of
transient usually excites the natural frequency of the power network and produces oscillatory transients.

An oscillatory transient is a sudden non-power frequency change in the steady-state condition of the
voltage, current, or both, that includes positive and negative polarity values. Oscillatory transients consist
of voltage, current, or both voltage and current, whose instantaneous values change polarity very rapidly.
These transients are defined by their frequency.

Oscillatory transients with a primary frequency of over 500 kHz and of short duration (milliseconds) are
considered high frequency and are often the result of a local network response to a lightning strike.
Medium frequency oscillatory transients (caused by lightning stroke, cable switching, or multiple capacitor
switching) are between 5 and 500 kHz, and can be measured in tens of microseconds. Low frequency
oscillatory transients are typically caused by capacitor switching (although there are many other causes)
and are less than 5 kHz and last up to fifty microseconds.

4. Sources of Transient Overvoltages

The two main types of transient overvoltages on utility systems are capacitor switching and lightning
strikes.

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Capacitor switching:

Capacitor switching is one of the most common occurrences on a utility system. Capacitors provide
voltage support and supply reactive power, which helps to reduce losses in transmission. The problem
with capacitors is that they interact with the inductance of the power system and create oscillatory
transients when they are energized.

Typically, when capacitors are switched into the network the initial voltage across the capacitor is zero.
Since capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously, the bus voltage where the capacitor is located is
momentarily pulled down to zero and then rises with the capacitor voltage back to the system voltage.
But, for typical capacitors in inductive power systems, the capacitor voltage overshoots and oscillates at
the natural or resonant frequency of the system. This overshoot voltage can be as high as 2 per unit
depending on the power system damping, but typically is in the 1.3 to 1.5 per unit range.

If power factor correction capacitors are located at a customer bus (usually on the customer side of the
utility transformer) the overvoltage transient can propagate through the transformer and be amplified by
nearly the amount of the turn ratio of the transformer. This is a consequence of certain types of low-
voltage capacitors and step-down transformers whose impedance forms a natural frequency at or near
the switching frequency of the switched capacitor.

There are two economical methodologies that can be used to reduce these capacitor-switching
transients. Method one is for the utility to switch the capacitor via a synchronous breaker or
switch/switches with pre-insertion resistors. Method two is to insert surge arresters at the customer
location in order to limit the transient voltage magnitude.

Lightning Strikes:

Lightning is one of the most potent sources of impulsive power system transients. Lightning can strike
the primary phase and/or ground, secondary phase and/or ground, or some type of grounded structure.
A strike to this type of equipment can result in lightning currents being conducted from the power system
into industrial loads. The most common conduction path is a direct strike to the phase or secondary
conductor. Very similar over-voltages can be observed from lightning current flowing through ground
conductors. A note here that strikes to the primary phase can be conducted to the grounding network
through the arresters located on the service transformer. While most of the surge current is eventually
dissipated into the ground network nearest the strike point, a substantial amount of the surge current will
circulate to other ground points during the first few microseconds of the lightning strike.

There are many ways that lightning induced transient overvoltages can enter an industrial power system.
One way for the transient to enter is via the capacitive coupling of the service transformer. The surge is
so fast that the inductance of the transformer blocks the first part of the wave from passing through the
turn ratio, but the inter-winding capacitance offers a ready path for the high frequency wave. This permits
the existence of a secondary voltage that is greater than the turns ratio would suggest. This type of
capacitive coupling would depend greatly on the inherent design of the service transformer. Another way
that the transient can enter the load is via the grounding network located at the service transformer. This
can present a problem if the grounding network of the load offers a smaller resistance to the surge current
than the utility ground system. Thus the surge current flows through the ground conductors of the load on
its way to ground.

5. Principles Transient Overvoltage Protection

There are several fundamental principles of overvoltage protection of load equipment including:

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 Limit the voltage across the sensitive insulation

 Divert surge currents away from loads
 Block surge current from entering the load
 Bond ground references together at the equipment
 Reduce/prevent surge current from flowing between ground points
 Create a low-pass filter using limiting and blocking principles.

These principles are illustrated in Figure 4. The main function of surge arresters and transient voltage
surge suppressors is to limit the voltage that can appear between two points in the network. Therefore,
arresters need to be placed directly across the sensitive insulation that is to be protected so that the
voltage seen by the insulation is limited to a safe value. Surge suppression devices should be located as
near as possible to the critical load/insulation with a minimum lead length. In Figure 4, arrester no. 1 is
connected at the service entrance between the phase conductor and the neutral-ground bond. This
arrester provides a low impedance path for surge current to travel to ground. Thus this arrester acts to
divert the surge current away from the sensitive load/insulation.

Figure 4: Protection Principles

In Figure 4 there is another path in which the surge current can enter the sensitive load/insulation; the
external signal cable that is bonded to the local ground. If the ground conductor of the signal cable is
connected to another grounded device (and this is usually the case) located in another area, there can be
a substantial amount of surge current flowing in that ground cable. The surge arrester located at the
service entrance is electrically too remote for this condition. Therefore, another arrester (arrester # 2) is
connected directly across and as close as possible (this arrester can sometimes be placed in the control
panel itself) to the sensitive load. What is needed in the ground network is for all ground reference
conductors be bonded to one point on the load equipment. This is not to prevent the local ground
reference from rising in voltage potential due to the surge, but to ensure that all ground references in that
vicinity rise together.

Blocking techniques usually focus on high frequency surge current generated by lightning strikes and
capacitor switching events. Since normal power currents must pass unhindered through such blocking

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schemes, it is difficult and expensive to build filters that can distinguish between low frequency surge
currents and power frequency currents. High frequency blocking schemes usually consist of an inductor
or choke placed in-line (in series) with the load. Thus the high frequency voltage will be dropped across
the inductor before it reaches the sensitive loads.

The blocking function of the series inductor is sometimes combined with the voltage limiting function of
the arrester to form a low pass filter. Figure 4 shows such a circuit naturally occurring when arresters are
placed on both ends of a line feeding a load. The inductance forces the majority of the surge into arrester
# 1 while arrester # 2 simply cleans up the surge residue.

6. How to Run the EMTAP Program

In this section step by step procedure for running the EMTAP program is described. An example is used to
illustrate the program operation. The focus of this example is to study the potential effects of utility capacitor
switching transients using the EMTAP program. The example will cover the particular case in which the
customer’s power system is tuned close to the natural resonance frequency of the utility’s switching event.
Critical areas of a customer’s plant and the utility power distribution system have been modeled in order to
determine the severity of the switching transients, as well as the magnification effect caused by in-plant
Power Factor Correction (PFC) capacitors. The plant is fed at 27.6kV from the local utility substation located
at 2 miles distance from the plant. The incoming 27.6 kV feeder is step down to 600 Volts, via a 1.5 MVA
transformer with a short circuit impedance of 5.74%. The 600 Volt substation is also equipped with a 500
kVAR switchable Power Factor Correction capacitor bank. The jobfile “capmag-emtap.axd” shows a detailed
model of the system under analysis.

Capacitors are used by the local utility to regulate voltage levels and to reduce reactive power flow in the
system. When capacitors are switched on, the initial current surge causes a notch in the voltage (a sub-
cycle voltage drop). As the voltage rises back to its nominal peak, it may overshoot to levels that can
reach and even exceed 200% of nominal values. Steady state is reached after a period of voltage
oscillation. The frequency of this transient is rather low (tends to range between 200 Hz and 1.5 kHz).
The magnitude, duration, and frequency of this oscillatory transient will depend on many factors such as
load damping, system inductance, and possible resonant conditions in the system, etc. When this
transient reaches a capacitor bank circuit tuned at or near its oscillation frequency, it will be amplified
causing problems to customers at the receiving end. The single-line diagram for the system modelled in
“capmag-emtap.axd” is shown in Figure 5:

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Figure 5: Diagram of the Sample Power System Used for Capacitor Energization Study

HOW TO START EMTAP

Start DesignBase by double clicking on the program ICON as shown below:

Figure 6: Starting the DesignBase Program

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After starting the DesignBase program, either create a new job file by selecting the File|New command, or
open an existing jobfile by selecting the File|Open command. Here open the sample jobfile as shown
below:

Figure 7: Opening Sample Jobfile for Capacitor Energization Study (CAPMAG-EMTAP.AXD)

To start EMTAP, from the main screen of the DesignBase program, select Analysis -> EMTAP as shown
in Figure 8:

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Figure 8: Starting EMTAP Program

The EMTAP program ICONs are shown in Figure 9 below. The first ICON is “Options”.

Figure 9: EMTAP Program ICONs

The next icon shown below is “Switching Event Manager”, here the close/open times of switches defined
in the power system can be specified.

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Figure 10: Switching Event Manager ICON

And finally, to start an electromagnetic transient simulation, select the “Analyze” ICON of the EMTAP
program as shown in Figure 11:

Figure 11: Analyze ICON of the EMTAP program

7. Setting up Switching Events in EMTAP

Simulation of electromagnetic transient event such as capacitor energization, lighting strikes, cable
energization, etc. is essentially specification of times at which switches are closed (sometime opening of

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a switch may be used). To specify the close/open times for different switches/breakers defined in the
power system, select “Switching Event Manager” ICON. The event dialog is shown below:

Figure 12: Main Switching Event Manager Dialog

To the lower left part of the above dialog, four ICONs are shown, namely, “Add Case” (to create a
scenario/case), “Copy” and “Remove” (to copy or delete a scenario/case), and “Edit” to edit an existing case.

In the middle part of the above dialog, three ICONs are shown, these are, “Add Event” and “Remove” (to
specify close/open times for switches in a case/scenario or deleting a switch in a case), “Edit” is used to
modify the open/close time of switch.

From Figure 13 dialog, it can also be seen (in the left part), that a case/scenario named “24 MVAR CAP
Energization” has been specified. Only one breaker has defined for this case (shown in the right part of
Figure 13). The closing time for all of the three phases is specified to be at t=0.01667 seconds. The breaker,
once closed, connects buses MAIN and CAP24MX.

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Figure 13: Adding a Switching Event to a Case/Scenario

To add an event, Press “Add Event” ICON button as seen in Figure 13 (see the arrow in this figure). Once
“Add Event” is selected, the list of available switches/breakers defined in the network will be shown (see also
the single line diagram of the sample system shown in Figure 5 for the location of switches). The list of
switches are shown below:

Figure 14: Specifying Switching Time in a Case/Scenario

It can be seen in the above dialog, that it is possible to define:

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 Close/Open
 Phase involved
 And time of action (close/open)

In this example, three phases of the breaker between buses MAIN and CAP24MX will closed at 16.67
milliseconds as shown below:

Figure 15: Specifications of Switches in Close/Open Event

To specify which phases are involved in the close/open event, select dropdown seen below “Phase” in the
below figure (the choices are ABC, AB, AC, BC, A, B, and C phases):

Figure 16: Selecting Phases Involved in the Close/open Event

The dropdown shown next to the “Action” can be used to select the type of switching action (either close or
open) as seen in Figure 17.

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Figure 17: Selecting Open or Close Action in a Switching Event

The time at which the switching action to take place is defined in the last field shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18: Defining Open/Close Times of Switches

After defining the desired switching action in our scenario, we move on to analysis activity. Select “Analysis”
ICON as was shown in Figure 11. The main analysis dialog of the EMTAP is shown in Figure 19:

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Figure 19: Main Analysis Dialog of EMTAP

There are several simulation parameters that are required before initiating a transient run. From the upper
right part of the above dialog, it can be seen that simulation times may be defined in either millisecond or
second. Normally the selection of unit of time in millisecond is more convenient than second. Below, time
unit, we need to define total simulation time (of course based on the time unit selected, this may entered
in either millisecond or second). Next, the solution time step (integration time step) should be defined. For
example, in 60 Hz system, 1 cycle is 16.666 milliseconds. Now if the simulated phenomenon is extremely
fast, then, we should be using something in order of a few microseconds. Below the integration step, a
choice is provided to examine the results in either per unit or voltage/current in kV/kA. It also possible to
obtain the result in some multiples of the integration step. This may be useful especially when extremely
small integration step is used. EMTAP simulation usually produces large volume of result which makes it
impractical to monitor all buses and lines/cables, etc. in the power system. It is also important to note that
as we move away from the location of switching events, the transient quickly dies off which alleviate the
need to monitor far away locations from the event. Due to aforementioned, the user should carefully
select the monitored quantities. Normally there is no need to monitor a large number of buses and
branches. To specify the desired quantities for monitoring, select “Select Component(s) to Display” ICON
as shown in the right side of the above figure. The main dialog for the selecting monitored quantities is
shown in Figure 20:

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Figure 20: Main Dialog for Selecting Desired Monitored Buses and Branches

In the dialog shown to left side of the above screen capture, there are two tabs shown, one for selecting
buses and the other for selecting branches. To select buses of interest, simply double left mouse button on
the desired bus will put the bus to the right side “Selected Buses”. Similar process is used for selecting
branches. Once the required monitored quantities are specified, maximum up to two buses and two branches
can be selected for “on-line” plotting. The “on-line” plotting refers to graphing the bus voltage and branch
current as the program computes them. I.e., at every solution time step, the result up to that time will be
shown on the plot. Therefore, the on-line plots continue dynamically until total simulation time is reached. To
select buses for on-line plots, use the dropdown shown next to the “Bus:” as shown in Figure 21.

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Figure 21: Selecting Buses and Branched for on-line Plotting

The same procedure is used for selecting the branches for on-line plotting.

Before staring a transient simulation, a scenario should be selected from the list of defined scenarios. This is
only relevant if more than one scenario has been defined. To select the desired scenario, use the dropdown
shown in Figure 22.

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Figure 22: Selecting a Case Study from List of defined Cases for Analysis

Figure 23: On-Line Plotting of Bus Voltage and Branch Current

Press the “Start Simulation” button to begin transient run for the selected scenario as shown in the above
figure. As simulation progresses in time, the plots of bus voltages and branch currents will be updated upon
completion of each solution time step. Once the simulation is completed, the result of the selected quantities
may be examined in tabular format. A Sample text report is shown below.

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Figure 24: Sample Text Report of the Monitored Quantities

The detailed plots for all of the selected buses and branches can be viewed. To examine the results in
graphical form, select “View Graphic Results” button as shown in Figure 23.

The detailed graphical result dialog is shown in below figure. There are two tap shown in Figure 25, “Bus
Voltage” and “Branch Current”. The result for each selected quantity can be displayed in the
instantaneous or RMS values. The user may switch back and forth between RMS and instantaneous
value by using the radio buttons shown in this figure.

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Figure 25: Detailed Plots of the Selected Bus Voltages/Branch Currents

To plot voltage at a different bus, simply select the desired bus by right mouse click on its ID shown in upper
right part of the above figure. Once the RMS display option is selected the selection of phase will be disabled.
The reason is that the RMS value is computed according to the following relationship:

VRMS (ti )  Va2 (ti )  Vb2 (ti )  Vc2 (ti ) / 3.0

Where: Va, Vb, and Vc are phase a, b, and c voltages at time ti

The RMS value for the selected bus is shown in Figure 26. Note that the RMS values of bus voltages are
expressed in line-line and not line to ground.

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Figure 26: Plotting RMS Values of the Selected Bus Voltages

Similar to plots for bus voltages, the selected branch currents can be examined in the graphical form.
Simply select “Branch Current” tab as shown in Figure 27.

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Figure 27: Detailed Plots of the Selected Branch Currents

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Figure 28: Detailed Plots of the Individual Phases for the Monitored Quantities

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8. References
[1] Dommel, H.W. "Digital Computer Solution of Electromagnetic Transients in Single and
Multiphase Networks," IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-88, pp.338-399, April 1969.

[2] Legate, A.C. "Comparison of Field Switching Surge Measurements with Transient Network
Analyser Measurements," IEEE Trans. on Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-90, pp.1347-1354,
May/June 1971.

[3] A. Greenwood "Electrical Transients in Power Systems” Second Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1991

[4] Marti, J.R. "Accurate Modeling of Frequency-Dependent Transmission Lines in

Electromagnetic Transient Simulations," IEEE Trans. on Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-101,
pp.147-157, Jan. 1982.

[5] Wedepohl, L.M. and Wilcox, D.J. "Transient Analysis of Underground Power Transmission
Systems: System-Model and Wave Propagation Characteristics," Proc. IEE, vol. 120,
pp.252-259, Feb. 1973.

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