ASTRONOMY LECTURE NOTES

Physics 101

Alain J. Brizard
Department of Chemistry and Physics
Saint Michael’s College, Colchester, VT 05439

Spring 2008
Contents

1 Charting the Heavens 1

1.1 How Do We Locate Objects in the Sky? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Distances in Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Light Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Stellar Parallax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.3 Angular Sizes and Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 The Copernican Revolution 7

2.1 History of Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 The Copernican Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.2 Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.3 Mean orbital speed of planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.4 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Newtonian Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.1 Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.3 Conservation Laws in Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.4 The Force of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3 Radiation: Information from the Cosmos 19

3.1 Properties of a Light Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3
 3.2 Electromagnetic (Light) Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Thermal Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4.1 Thermal Radiation and Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4.2 Doppler Shift for Moving Light Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.5 Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.5.1 Kirchhoff’s Three Laws of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4 Telescopes 25
4.1 Telescope Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 Light Focusing by Lens or Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3 Telescope Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.4 Light Gathering Power versus Telescope Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5 Atmospheric Effects and Useful Wavelengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

5 A Field Guide to the Stars 29

5.1 Stellar Parallax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2 Stellar Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3 Stellar Luminosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.4 Apparent Brightness of a Star and the Inverse-Square Law . . . . . . . . . 33
5.5 Apparent Stellar Magnitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.6 Absolute Stellar Magnitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.7 Spectral Magnitudes and Surface Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.8 Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.9 Spectroscopic Parallax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.10 MS Stellar Masses and Lifetimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

6 Star Formation 45
6.1 Star-forming Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.2 Nuclear Fusion Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
 6.2.1 E = ∆m c2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.2.2 Stellar fusion reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.3 Cluster Evolution on the HR Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.4 Stellar Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.5 Pulsating Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.6 The Death of a Low-mass Star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.7 Evolutionary Track of a Massive Star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.8 Supernovae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

7 Cosmic Ladder 67
7.1 Pulsating Variable Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.2 Supernovae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.3 Rotating Spiral Galaxies and Tully-Fischer Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.4 Hubble’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

A Mathematical Aspects 77
Chapter 1

Charting the Heavens

1.1 How Do We Locate Objects in the Sky?

[Section 1.3: The Obvious View]1
One of the first task in describing observations in Astronomy involves giving the location
of objects in the sky. Two sets of coordinates exist for that purpose (see Fig. 1.1). When
the sky is viewed from our perspective (the local sky), the location of any object in the
sky is given in terms of its direction, or azimuth, (for example, south-west direction) and
its altitude above the horizon (for example, 60o ). These coordinates are most natural
when you want to orient yourself in the sky. Although these local-sky coordinates are
useful for anyone making observations next to you, they are not useful to someone making
observations far away from you (since their local sky is different than yours, i.e., they have
a different horizon and a different zenith).
Celestial-sphere coordinates pinpoint the position of any object with respect to a fixed
celestial sphere. Thus, the position of an object is given in terms of its Right Ascension
(RA) on the Celestial Equator – measured in hours (hh), minutes (mm), and seconds (ss)
from Celestial East (CE) – and its Declination (Dec) – measured in degrees (o ), arcminutes
(10 = 1o /60), and arcseconds (100 = 10 /60 = 1o /3600) from the Equatorial Plane. An object
located in the northern celestial hemisphere has a positive declination, while an object
located in the southern celestial hemisphere has a negative declination. For example, the
Celestial North Pole (CN) is located at a declination of + 90o 000 0000 .
The celestial-sphere coordinates are analogous to a standard mailing address (appart-
ment number, street number, street name, city, state, country) while local-sky coordinates
are analogous to giving directions (e.g., turn left after 0.7 mile, then go straight until third
stop, ...). Each method of mail delivery is chosen on the basis of the proximity of the final
1
Some of the material presented in the Notes is based on the textbook Astronomy Today by E. J. Chais-
son and S. McMillan and references to section numbers refer to this textbook.

1
2 CHAPTER 1. CHARTING THE HEAVENS

Figure 1.1: Local-sky and Celestial-sphere coordinates in Astronomy. Local-sky coordinates

are defined in terms of the local horizon and the local zenith (i.e., the highest point in the
local sky). The Celestial-sphere coordinates, on the other hand, are defined in terms of the
equatorial plane and the elevation above (or below) the equatorial plane.
1.2. DISTANCES IN ASTRONOMY 3

destination.

1.2 Distances in Astronomy

1.2.1 Light Distances

Within the solar system, the obvious measure of distance is called the Astronomical Unit
(AU) defined as the average Earth-Sun distance:

1 AU = 1.50 × 1011 m = 150, 000, 000, 000 m

The average distance to the Sun (in AU) for each of the remaining seven (eight) planets are:
Mercury = 0.387, Venus = 0.723, Mars = 1.524, Jupiter = 5.203, Saturn = 9.537, Uranus
= 19.191, and Neptune = 30.069 (Pluto = 39.482).2 While the AU is a large distance on
the human scale, it is still too small as a unit of distance in Astronomy.
The light-year (abbreviated ly) is a very simple and convenient way to represent stellar
distances in Astronomy. It is defined as the distance covered by light (traveling at the
speed of light, c = 3 × 108 m/sec) in the course of one year (1 year = 3.15 × 107 sec):

1 ly = 3 × 108 m/sec × 3.15 × 107 sec ' 9.5 × 1015 m

= 9, 500, 000, 000, 000, 000 m

A few representative light-distances are given below:

Human Body = 6 × 10−9 light-second

1
Circumference of the Earth = 0.133 light-second ( 7.5 )
Earth-Moon = 1.28 light-second
Earth-Sun = 500 light-seconds = 8 13 light-minutes
Nearest Star = 4.3 light-years
Distance to Galactic Center = 26,400 light-years
Galactic Diameter = 105 light-years
Diameter of Observable Universe = 1 − 20 × 109 light-years

An important aspect of astronomical distances is that light just received from a distant
star located at a distance L(ly) = cT took the time T to reach us. Hence, light coming
from the Sun (located 500 light-seconds away) at this moment actually left the surface of
the Sun 500 seconds ago (i.e., the Sun is nearly 8 minutes old when we see it). The further
out in space we look, the further BACK IN TIME we are looking!
2
Note that to the nearest integer, the planetary distances in Mercury-Sun units are: Mercury = 1,
Venus = 2, Earth = 3, Mars = 4, Jupiter = 13, Saturn = 25, Uranus = 50, and Neptune = 78 (Pluto =
102).
4 CHAPTER 1. CHARTING THE HEAVENS

Figure 1.2: Stellar parallax as a measure of distance

1.2.2 Stellar Parallax

[Section 1-7: The Measurement of Distance]

Unfortunately, the light-year is impossible to measure in practice as a unit of distance.
Instead, astronomers use the parsec (abbreviated “pc”) as a practical unit of distance.
The astronomical distance to a nearby star is measured in terms of its stellar parallax Π,
defined as half of its apparent angular displacement as viewed from Earth at a six-month
time interval (see Fig. 1.2).
Since the two points of view are separated by a distance of D = 2 AU (Astronomical
Unit; 1 AU = 1.50 × 108 km), the stellar parallax is defined in terms of the distance
L  1 AU from the Sun to the Nearby Star as
1 AU 360o
Π = × .
L 2π
For example, a nearby star with a stellar parallax of 100 (1 arcsec = 1o /3600) is located at
a distance of
1 AU 360o
L = × = 3.09 × 1016 m.
(1o /3600) 2π
A new unit of stellar distance is, therefore, defined as the parsec (pc):
1
L(pc) = ,
Π(arcsec)
where
1 pc = 3.09 × 1016 m = 3.27 ly = 206, 265 AU.
1.2. DISTANCES IN ASTRONOMY 5

Figure 1.3: Relation between distance L, linear size D, and angular size ∆: (a) all three
objects have the same angular size ∆, with D1 /L1 = D2 /L2 = D3 /L3 and (b) all three
objects have the same linear size D, with ∆1 L1 = ∆2 L2 = ∆3 L3 .

The nearest star to the Sun, Proxima Centauri (RA = 14h 40m and Decl. = − 60o 500 ),
has a stellar parallax of Π = 0.77200 and, thus, its distance to the Sun is

L(pc) = 1 pc/(0.772) = 1.30 pc = 4.23 ly.

1.2.3 Angular Sizes and Distances

[More Precisely 1-1 and 1-3]

The angular size ∆ of an object of linear size D located at a distance L (much much
larger than D) is measured in degrees (o ) and is calculated as (see Fig. 1.3)
D 360o
∆ = ×
L 2π
For example, at arm’s length (L = 67 cm), my thumb (D = 2 cm) has an angular size of
1.7o , the angular size of the distance between my thumb and my little finger is approxi-
mately 20o , and the angular size of my fist is approximately 10o . When two identical objects
(same linear size) are placed at different distances, the farthest object has the smallest an-
gular size. A human face (D = 0.20 m) has an angular size of 2.3o at a distance of 5 m
and an angular size of 1.2o at a distance of 10 m.
Distances between objects that appear in the sky are generally given as angular dis-
tances. The smallest angular distance measured between two points in the sky is called
6 CHAPTER 1. CHARTING THE HEAVENS

Figure 1.4: Angular resolution in Astronomy. Note how a sharper image is associated
with the lower angular resolution. The angular spot-size of the Andromeda Galaxy (L =
2.5 × 106 ly) is 1600 × 400 .

angular resolution. Angular resolution can be greatly increased above naked-eye vision
with the help of powerful telescopes. A human eye with perfect vision can resolve two dots
separated by 1 cm at a distance of 30 m and, hence, human vision has an angular resolution
of 0.019o = 1.140 . The optical telescope at Mount Palomar has an angular resolution of
0.027500 , i.e., it can resolve two dots separated by 1 cm from a distance of 75 km!.
Chapter 2

The Copernican Revolution

2.1 History of Astronomy

[Section 2.1 – Ancient Astronomy]

∼ 4000 BC Earliest astronomical observations recorded

∼ 3000 BC Stonehenge is built
∼ 2000 BC Constellations first drawn up by astronomers
First solar-lunar calendars
∼ 1000 BC Rise of astrology (Assyria)

[Section 2.2 – The Geocentric Universe]

425 BC Democritus: Atomic Theory

385 BC Democritus: Milky Way is composed of many stars
360 BC Venus and Mercury orbit the Sun
330 BC Aristotle: Geocentric model of the Solar system
280 BC Aristarchus: Heliocentric model of the Solar system
First estimate of Earth-Sun distance
260 BC Aristarchus: Earth-Moon distance and size of the Moon are calculated
240 BC Eratosthenes measures circumference of Earth
130 BC Hipparchus produces star catalogs and charts (∼ 1000 brightest stars)
140 AD Ptolemy: Geocentric model based on epicycles to explain retrograde
motion of planets

7
8 CHAPTER 2. THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION

Figure 2.1: Zodiacal constellations along the Ecliptic Line

Figure 2.2: Ptolemy’s epicycles used to generate the observed retrograde motion of planets
while maintaining Aristotle’s Geocentric model
2.1. HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY 9

[Section 2.3 – The Heliocentric Model of the Solar System]

1054 Year of the Great Crab Nebula supernova in Taurus (China)

1543 Copernicus publishes Heliocentric model (30 years after its inception)
1576 Tycho Brahe (Denmark) observes motion of planets and supernova (Cassiopea)
1582 Pope Gregory XIII introduces calendar reform
1603 Bayer designation of stars (α, β, ...)
1608 First telescope (Holland)

[Sections 2.4 & 2.5 – The Birth of Modern Astronomy & The Laws of Planetary Motion]

1609 Kepler proposes his first two laws of planetary motion

? First Law: Planets moved around the Sun in elliptical orbits
? Second Law: Equal areas are swept in equal times
Galileo uses telescope for astronomical purposes (Moon & Jovian Moons, ...)
1619 Kepler proposes his third law of planetary motion
? Third Law: [Period(year)]2 = [Radius(A.U.)]3
? Orbital periods (year): Mercury = 0.24, Venus = 0.61, Mars = 1.88,
Jupiter = 11.87, Saturn = 29.45, Uranus = 84.07, Neptune = 164.88
1632 Galileo supports Copernicus’ Heliocentric theory of the Solar system
1668 Newton builds first reflecting telescope
1669 Algol (β Persei) is recognized as a variable star (→ eclipsing binary)
1675 First determination of speed of light by Romer
10 CHAPTER 2. THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION

Figure 2.3: Kepler’s First and Second Laws of planetery motion

[Section 2.7 – Newton’s Laws & A Post-Newtonian Universe]

1687 Newton publishes his Universal Theory of Gravitation

→ explains Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion
1705 Halley predicts return of Comet in 1758 (based on Newton’s theory)
1758 Halley’s Comet returns
1781 Messier’s first observations of galaxies, nebulae and star clusters
Uranus is discovered by Herschel
1801 First asteroid (Ceres) is discovered
1842 Doppler effect is discovered
1846 Neptune is discovered by Galle (as predicted by Leverrier and Adams)
1905 Einstein proposes his Theory of Special Relativity
Hertzsprung studies giant and dwarf stars
Leavitt discovers Cepheid variables
1916 Einstein proposes his Theory of General Relativity
1919 General Relativity is confirmed during solar eclipse
1923 Hubble shows that galaxies lie beyond Milky Way
1929 Hubble observes recession of galaxies and proposes Hubble’s law
1930 Pluto is discovered (2006: Pluto is demoted to a minor planet)
1965 Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation is observed
→ Big Bang Theory is confirmed
1990 Hubble Telescope is launched
1992 Vatican admits error concerning judgement of Galileo
2.2. THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION 11

Figure 2.4: Hubble Deep Field near the Big Dipper

2.2 The Copernican Revolution

Nicolai Copernicus (1473-1543)

Copernicus introduced (on his death bed) a heliocentric model of the solar system, which
challenged the geocentric model of Ptolemy (100-170 AD). The Copernican model easily
explains the retrograde motion of planets around the Sun as viewed from Earth.

2.2.1 Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

Tycho made precise measurements of the positions of the planets but failed to discover the
laws of planetary motion.

2.2.2 Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

[Section 2.5 – The Laws of Planetary Motion]

Kepler, Tycho’s apprentice, tried to match Tycho’s planetary data to circular motions.
A discrepancy of 80 for Mars (rembember that perfect human vision has an angular res-
olution of 10 ) forced Kepler to abandon the idea of circular motions. From 1610 to 1618,
Kepler published his three laws of planetary motion.
12 CHAPTER 2. THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION

Figure 2.5: Kepler’s First Law: Each planet moves along an elliptical orbit around the Sun
(located at one focus).

Figure 2.6: Kepler’s Second Law: As a planet moves around its orbit, it sweeps an equal
area in an equal amount of time.
2.2. THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION 13

Figure 2.7: Kepler’s Third Law: More distant planets orbit the Sun at slower average
speeds, obeying the precise relation p(y)2 = a(AU)3 .

2.2.3 Mean orbital speed of planets

For example, in the course of one day, Saturn (which is moving at an average speed of
9.64 km/s) travels a distance of 8.33 × 105 km and, thus, from a distance of 9.54 AU
(= 1.43 × 109 km), it appears to have moved an angular distance of

8.33 × 105 360o

9
× = 0.033o = 2.00 ,
1.43 × 10 2π

which can be observed to the naked eye.

2.2.4 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Galileo perfected the telescope (invented in 1608) and applied it (in 1609) to astronomical
observations of the Sun, planets, and moons (e.g., the Moon and the moons of Jupiter).
His numerous observations provided an experimental basis for the Copernican model of the
solar system. Galileo’s other major achievements include the development of the Scientific
Method (Read Section 1.2).
14 CHAPTER 2. THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION

Figure 2.8: Mean orbital speed of each planet versus its mean orbital radius. Note how a
distant planet moves slowly and has to travel a longer distance to complete its revolution
around the Sun.

Figure 2.9: Kepler’s Third Law for the Moons of Jupiter

2.3. NEWTONIAN REVOLUTION 15

2.3 Newtonian Revolution

2.3.1 Glossary of Terms

• Speed [m/s] tells how far an object travels in a given amount of time.
• Velocity [m/s] is given as speed in a given direction.
• Acceleration [m/s2] tells the rate of change of velocity (either speed or direction).
• Mass [kg] is defined as the measure of inertia.
• Momentum [kg · m/s] is defined as the product of mass and velocity.
• Force [N = kg · m/s2 ] is defined as the rate of change of momentum.
• Weight [N] describes the force due to gravity.
• Energy [J = N · m] comes in four types: kinetic (motion), potential (position),
radiative (light), and thermal (total kinetic energy).

2.3.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion

[Section 2.7 – Newton’s Laws]

• Newton’s 1st Law: An object moves with constant velocity (including being at rest)
unless a net force acts on it.

If an object does not move in a straight line at constant speed,

a net force must be acting on it.

• Newton’s 2nd Law: Force = mass × acceleration.

• Newton’s 3rd Law: When object A exerts a force on object B, object B reacts back
on object A with a force of equal magnitude but opposite direction.

The gravitational attraction of Earth to the Sun is as strong as the

graviational attraction of the Sun to Earth.

2.3.3 Conservation Laws in Astronomy

Conservation Law of Angular Momentum

As a planet (mass m) orbits the Sun, its motion conserves a quantity known as angular
momentum, defined as the product of mass m × velocity v × orbital radius r (see Figure).
This conservation law is the basis of Kepler’s Second Law, which states that equal areas
are swept in equal times as a planet moves about the Sun.
16 CHAPTER 2. THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION

Figure 2.10: The conservation law of angular momentum explains Kepler’s Second Law

Conservation Law of Energy

Energy can be transferred from one object to another or transformed from one type to
another, but the total amount of energy is always conserved.
The thermal energy of a gas is defined as the total kinetic energy of the gas particles.
The temperature of the gas is defined in terms of the average kinetic energy of the gas
particles. The unit of temperature is the Celsius (C) or Kelvin (K): TK = TC + 273 K.

2.3.4 The Force of Gravity

Newton discovered the Theory of Universal Gravitation, represented by an inverse-square

law with distance:
m1 m2
F12 = G ,
d2
where F12 denotes the gravitational attraction force between two objects (masses m1 and
m2 ) separated by a distance d, and G = 6.67 × 10−11 N · m2 /kg2 .
The escape velocity Vesc of an object (of mass m) located at the surface of a planet
(of mass M and radius R) is obtained by equating the gravitational (potential) energy
2
EG = GmM/R to the kinetic energy EK = mVesc /2 of the object:
s
2GM
Vesc =
R
2.3. NEWTONIAN REVOLUTION 17

For example, the escape velocity from the surface of Earth is

s
2 × (6.67 × 10−11 ) × (5.97 × 1024 )
Vesc = ' 11 km/s
6.36 × 106
18 CHAPTER 2. THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION
Chapter 3

Radiation: Information from the

Cosmos

3.1 Properties of a Light Wave

[Section 3.1 – Information from the skies]

• Amplitude describes the strength of a wave.

• Period T (s) = duration of a complete wave cycle
• Frequency f(Hz) = 1/T = number of times a cycle repeats itself per second.
• Wavelength λ(m) = spatial period of the wave.
• Wavespeed v(m/s) = λ · f = speed at which wave travels.
• Photon light particle whose energy E is proportional to frequency f.

Figure 3.1: Characteristic properties of a wave

19
20 CHAPTER 3. RADIATION: INFORMATION FROM THE COSMOS

Figure 3.2: Parts of the light (electromagnetic) spectrum

3.2 Electromagnetic (Light) Spectrum

3.3 Properties of Matter

• Atom Matter is composed of atoms; it is composed of a nucleus
(protons + neutrons) and is surrounded by electrons.
• Element Each atom corresponds to a single chemical element.
• Atomic Number Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom (Z).
• Atomic Mass Number Number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus (A).
• Isotopes Versions of a chemical element (same Z) with different
numbers of neutrons (different A).

Light Interacts with Matter

• Emission: Matter can emit light waves.

• Absorption: Matter can absorb light.

• Transmission: Light can go through matter under certain conditions.

• Reflection/Scattering: Light waves can be reflected/scattered by matter.

3.4. THERMAL RADIATION 21

Figure 3.3: Horse Head Nebula seen in different lights: Visible (courtesy of Howard Mc-
Callon), near-infrared (2MASS), and mid-infrared (ISO) view of the Horsehead Nebula.
Image assembled by Robert Hurt.

3.4 Thermal Radiation

3.4.1 Thermal Radiation and Temperature

The continous spectrum emitted by a radiating object is characterized by its surface tem-
perature; hence, the continuous radiation is called thermal radiation (a.k.a. blackbody
radiation). The Figure below shows that thermal radiation has two important properties:

◦ Hotter objects show greater intensity at all wavelengths.

◦ Hotter objects emits photons of higher average energy represented by Wien’s Law,
which states that the peak intensities of thermal radiation coming from hot objects
occur at shorter wavelengths.

constant
λmax = .
T

◦ Stefan-Boltzmann Law [L = luminosity, A = area, T = temperature of body]

L = σ · A T4

where σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4

22 CHAPTER 3. RADIATION: INFORMATION FROM THE COSMOS

Hence, the location of the peak intensity in the continuous spectrum of a star can tell us
something about its surface temperature.

3.4.2 Doppler Shift for Moving Light Sources

[Section 3.5 – The Doppler Effect]

The location of the peak intensity in the continuous spectrum and the location of
absorption lines associated with a star is affected by the relative motion of the star as
viewed from Earth. This effect is know as the Doppler effect, which applies to all types of
waves (e.g., sound and light).
When a star is in radial relative motion (i.e., its distance to Earth changes), its emission
spectrum is shifted according the Doppler-shift equation

∆λ λ − λ0 vr
= = ± ,
λ0 λ0 c

where λ0 denotes the rest wavelength of an emission line, λ denotes the observed wavelength
of that emission line, and ± vr /c denotes the ratio of the radial velocity to the speed of
light (+ vr if the star is moving away, or receeding, from us and − vr if the star is moving
toward us).
3.5. SPECTROSCOPY 23

A spectrum becomes redshifted when its source is moving away from us. On the other
hand, a spectrum is blueshifted when its source is moving toward us.

3.5 Spectroscopy

3.5.1 Kirchhoff’s Three Laws of Radiation

[Section 4.1 – Spectral Lines]

◦ First Law (Continuous Spectrum): a radiating object produces a continuous
thermal radiation spectrum that depends on its it surface temperature.
◦ Second Law (Emission Spectrum): All chemical elements, ions, and molecules emit
a line spectrum composed of discrete wavelengths that form a specific pattern characteristic
of its chemical origin. The emission spectrum is associated with light emitted during the
de-excitation of electrons from higher atomic energy levels to a lower energy level.
◦ Third Law (Absorption Spectrum): When light coming from a hot continuous-
spectrum source passes through a cooler gas, certain specific wavelengths characterisitic
of the cooler gas are removed from the continuous spectrum. The absorption spectrum is
associated with light absorbed during the excitation of electrons from a lower energy level
to higher energy levels.
24 CHAPTER 3. RADIATION: INFORMATION FROM THE COSMOS

Figure 3.4: The radiation emitted at the hot surface of a star travels through the star’s
“cold” atmosphere before being released into space. The spectrum of a star observed on
Earth contains its continuous (thermal) spectrum as well as discrete dark lines associated
with its absorption spectrum.

The Figure below shows applications of the Kirchhoff’s Laws for the case of hydrogen.

Note that the emission (and absorption) spectrum of each chemical element provides a
unique fingerprint and, thus, the absorption spectra of stars can tell us something about
their chemical composition (see Fig. 3.4).
Chapter 4

Telescopes

TELESCOPE
A device used to COLLECT star light over a large area and
FOCUS it onto a small viewing area (i.e., eye or camera).

4.1 Telescope Parts

[Section 5.1 – Telescope Design]

• Objective Lens or Objective Primary Mirror (diameter D)

• Tube (length L)
• Eyepiece Lens

4.2 Light Focusing by Lens or Mirror

• A (converging) lens and a (concave) curved mirror have the ability to concentrate star
light onto a small point called the FOCAL point, located at a distance called the focal
length f from the lens/mirror.
• The eyepiece lens of a telescope has a focal length fe that is much smaller than the
focal length fo of the objective lens (or primary mirror).

25
26 CHAPTER 4. TELESCOPES

Figure 4.1: Two different types of telescopes

4.3 Telescope Powers

[Section 5.3 – Telescope Size]
• Light Gathering Power ∝ (Diameter)2
• Magnification Power = fo /fe
• Resolving Power

λ(µm)
angular resolution (arc sec) = 0.25 ×
Diameter(m)

Examples:

Visible (optical) telescope: λ = 500 nm = 0.5 µm and D = 1 m ⇒ 0.12500

Radio telescope: λ = 10 m = 107 µm and D = 100 m ⇒ 2500000 = 6.94o

4.4 Light Gathering Power versus Telescope Diameter

A telescope’s diameter D helps to determine the faintest detectable stars (the limiting
magnitude).
4.5. ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS AND USEFUL WAVELENGTHS 27

Figure 4.2: Angular resolution provided by a telescope

4.5 Atmospheric Effects and Useful Wavelengths

28 CHAPTER 4. TELESCOPES
Chapter 5

A Field Guide to the Stars

5.1 Stellar Parallax

[Section 17.1 – The Solar Neighborhood]
The stellar parallax of a star is defined as half of its apparent shift relative to the
background of distant stars as we move from one side of Earth’s orbit around the Sun to
the other side.
1
D(pc) =
Π(arcsec)
Example: Proxima Centauri (Alpha Centauri complex at RA = 14h 40m and Decl. = − 60o
500 ) has a parallax of Π = 0.772 00 and thus its distance is D = 1.295 pc (or 4.23 ly). Note
that 30 stars are found within 4 pc of Earth.
Stellar parallaxes can be used to measure distances up to 100 pc (i.e., powerful ground-
based telescopes can be used to measure parallaxes as small as 0.01 arc sec – this is
the angular diameter of a dime viewed from 350 km away). The Hipparcos mission
(http://sci.esa.int/home/hipparcos/) involves an orbiting satellite with a 29-cm reflect-
ing telescope on board. The Hipparchos Parallax Survey has pushed the parallax limit to
about 200 pc (and thus the Hipparcos Survey includes roughly a million stars).

5.2 Stellar Motion

The true motion of a star can be decomposed into its radial motion (how fast a star is
moving along a line-of-sight view from the Earth) and its transverse (or proper) motion
(how fast it is moving on the Celestial sphere taking into account the star’s parallax).
For example, Aldebaran (α Tau) changes its Celestial coordinates at a yearly rate

29
30 CHAPTER 5. A FIELD GUIDE TO THE STARS

Figure 5.1: The true velocity of a star in space is a combination of its transverse velocity
(as seen on the Celestial Sphere and measured in arcsec per year) and its radial velocity.

of 0.06300 in right ascension and − 0.19000 in declination. Its proper motion is therefore
vp = 0.2000 per year or given the fact that it is 16 pc away (it has a parallax of Π = 0.06300 ),
the proper motion of Aldebaran takes place at a speed of

0.2000 · (1o /360000 ) 2π rad 1 year

× o
× ×(16 pc·3.09×1013 km/pc) = 15.2 km/s.
year 360 365 × 24 × 3600 sec

The conversion factor from vp(arcsec/year) to v(km/s) is simply

vp(arcsec/year)
v(km/sec) = 4.75(km · year/sec) × .
Π(arcsec)

The radial motion of a star can be measured by using the Doppler effect; the radial velocity
of Aldebaran is + 54.1 km/s. Theqcombined radial and transverse motions of Aldebaran
give its true motion at a speed of (15.2 km/s)2 + (54.1 km/s)2 = 56.2 km/s.

5.3 Stellar Luminosity

[Section 17.2 – Luminosity and Apparent Brightness]

The luminosity (or absolute brightness) of a star is the total amount of energy radiated
away by the star per second. The units of luminosity is, therefore, the Watt (W).
5.3. STELLAR LUMINOSITY 31

Figure 5.2: At around 150 light-years (48 pc), the Hyades star cluster (4h 27m , +15o 520 )
makes the jaw of the bull depicted in the Taurus constellation. Rings denote present star
positions. The tip of each line shows, from precise Hipparcos data, where the star will be
in 100,000 years’ time. True members of the Hyades will remain in company. Other stars
travelling much faster or slower than the average do not belong to the cluster, although
close in their directions and distances (out to 300 light-years).
32 CHAPTER 5. A FIELD GUIDE TO THE STARS

Figure 5.3: Stellar radii

The luminosity L of star depends on its surface temperature T (measured in degrees

Kelvin) and its radius R (measured in meters):
L = σ T 4}
| {z × 4π 2
| {zR }
energy flux area

where σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4 .

For example, the Sun (represented by the subscript symbol ) has a radius of R =
6.96 × 108 m and a surface temperature of T = 5778 K. Its luminosity is
   
W 4

8
2
L = −8
5.67 × 10 · (5778 K) · 4π · 6.96 × 10 m = 3.85 × 1026 W.
m 2 K4

◦ A star is known as
? a dwarf star if its radius is below 0.1 R
? a giant star if its radius is between 10 R and 100 R
? a supergiant star if its radius is above 100 R

Typical giant and supergiant stars have rather cool surface temperatures and appear red in
color (these are the so-called red giants and supergiants) whereas typical dwarf stars have
high surface temperatures and appear white in color (these are the so-called white dwarfs).
When a star (of radius R and surface temperature T ) is compared with the Sun, its
luminosity is !2 !4
L R T
= ·
L R T
5.4. APPARENT BRIGHTNESS OF A STAR AND THE INVERSE-SQUARE LAW 33

Figure 5.4: Stellar radius and luminosity versus stellar mass

For example:
? Mira (o Cet) is a red giant (located at 02h 19m and − 02o 590 ) with a surface temper-
ature of 3000 K (λpeak = 0.29 cm/TK = 967 nm – near infrared) and a radius of 5.3 × 1010
m (' 76 R ) and thus its luminosity is L ' 415 L .
? Sirius B (the companion to Sirius A = α CMa) is a white dwarf (located at 06h 45m
and − 16o 430 ) with a surface temperature of 24,000 K (λpeak = 0.29 cm/TK = 121 nm –
ultraviolet) and a radius of 7 × 106 m (' 0.01 R ) and thus its luminosity is L ' 0.03 L .
We note that the radius R of a star is observed to be a function of its mass M and
consequently the star’s luminosity L also depends on its mass M.

5.4 Apparent Brightness of a Star and the Inverse-

Square Law

The apparent brightness of a star is defined as the amount of energy striking a unit area
per second (also known as the energy flux). The apparent brightness of a star as viewed
from Earth is inversely proportional to the square of its distance from Earth. Hence, if the
Sun was twice as far away from the Earth as it is now, its apparent brightness would be
four times less (i.e., our average ground temperature would drop from ∼ 20 o C ∼ 300 K to
75 K ∼ − 200 o C).
As an example, consider the apparent brightness of a 60W-lightbulb. At a distance of
34 CHAPTER 5. A FIELD GUIDE TO THE STARS

1 m its apparent brightness is 4.8 W/m2 whereas at 2 m it is down to 1.2 W/m2 (or four
times less).
The apparent brightness ` of a star is expressed in terms of its luminosity L and its
distance D to Earth according to the Inverse Square Law:
L
` = .
4π D2
For example, the Sun’s apparent brightness is
L
` = 11 2
= 1387 W/m2 ,
4π(1.5 × 10 m)

which means that if we could convert solar energy into electrical energy with 100 % effi-
ciency, a 1-meter solar panel (located at the Equator at noon) could provide energy for
approximately 25 60W-lightbulbs.
Note that it is the apparent brightness of a star which is measured on Earth. Con-
sequently, two stars could have the same apparent brightness (`f ar = `near ) and yet have
very different luminosities (Lf ar > Lnear ) if Lf ar /Df2 ar = Lnear /Dnear
2
. It is important to
remember this when you look at constellations in the night sky!
From the luminosity-mass relation shown above, we can conclude that some of the
brightest stars in our night sky include far-away massive stars with large luminosities. On
the other hand, some nearby stars could even be too faint to see to the naked eye if their
masses are too small.

5.5 Apparent Stellar Magnitude

Stars are often compared on the basis of their magnitudes. The Greek astronomer Hip-
parchus ranked the stars visible to the naked-eye into six different categories. The brightest
stars were categorized as first magnitude, the next brightest stars were second magnitude,
and so on, down to the faintest stars visible to the naked-eye which were sixth magnitude.
The 1-6 magnitude range spans a factor of about 100 in brightness (i.e., a magnitude-1
star is 100 times brighter than a magnitude-6 star). Each magnitude step of 1 corresponds
to a factor of about 2.5 in brightness (Note: 1001/5 ' 2.5).
Modern astronomers have expanded the magnitude scale in a number of ways. First,
the apparent magnitude is now defined as1
!
− m/2.5 `0
`m = `0 10 or m = 2.5 log ,
`m
1
See Appendix A for a brief introduction to the properties of powers of 10 and logarithms.
5.5. APPARENT STELLAR MAGNITUDE 35

where `0 is the brightness associated with apparent magnitude m = 0 (it is equal to

2.52 × 10−8 W/m2 ) and `m is the brightness of a star of apparent magnitude m. We thus
find, for example, `−1 = `0 101/2.5 ' 2.5 `0 = 6.3 × 10−8 W/m2 .
The apparent magnitude of the Sun is
! 2!
`0 2.52 × 10−8 W/m
m = 2.5 log = 2.5 log = −26.85
` 1387 W/m2
while the apparent magnitude of the full Moon is − 12.5. We can in fact express apparent
stellar brightness in terms of solar brightness (` = 1387 W/m2 ) as
!
` `
= 10(m −m)/2.5 or m = m + 2.5 log
` `

The following apparent-magnitude scale shows the wide range of stellar apparent mag-
nitudes using the naked eye, binoculars, and ground-based or orbiting telescopes:

Object Apparent Magnitude

Sun − 26.85
Full Moon − 12.5
Sirius − 1.5
Naked Eye < +6
Binoculars < + 10
1 − m Telescope < + 18
4 − m Telescope < + 26
Hubble Telescope < + 30

Note that at its limit the 4-m telescope can see objects which are 10−8/2.5 ' 1/1600 times
fainter than the objects visible at the limit of a 1-m telescope.
The formula for brightness ` versus luminosity L and distance D is
2
25 × 10−12

` L D L
= = × ,
` L D L [D(pc)]2
where D = 1 AU = 5 × 10−6 pc is the distance Earth-Sun. The apparent magnitude m
of a star of luminosity L and distance D(pc) is therefore
' +3
z
 }| {
−12
m = m − 2.5 log(10 ) + 5 log D(pc) − 2.5 log(25 L/L ).

A Sun-like star, with luminosity L ' L (− 2.5 log 25 ' − 3.5) at distance D, will have an
apparent magnitude approximately given as

m ' 5 log D(pc) − 0.5.

36 CHAPTER 5. A FIELD GUIDE TO THE STARS

Hence, at D = 1 pc, a Sun-like star has apparent magnitude m ' − 0.5 (quite visible);
at D = 10 pc, we find m ' + 4.5 (still visible); and at D = 100 pc, we find m ' + 9.5
(not visible to the naked eye and barely visible with binoculars). We note that the Hubble
telescope can see sun-like stars up to 1 Mpc (one million parsecs) from Earth (m ' + 29.5).

5.6 Absolute Stellar Magnitude

[More Precisely 17-1]
An absolute-magnitude scale can also be established for stellar luminosity L. Here, the
absolute magnitude M of a star is defined as the apparent magnitude of the star if it were
located at a distance of 10 pc from Earth, i.e.,
L
`M = = `0 10− M/2.5 → LM = L0 10− M/2.5,
4π (10 pc)2
where L0 = 4π (10 pc)2`0 = 3.0 × 1028 W (' 78 L ). Hence, the Sun’s absolute magnitude
M is !
L0
M = 2.5 log = 4.72,
L

It is now possible to combine the apparent magnitude m and the absolute magnitude
M to arrive at the so-called distance modulus m − M:
!2
− m/2.5 LM 10 D(pc)
`0 10 = `m = = `0 10− M/2.5 → 10(m−M )/5 =
4πD2 D(pc) 10
or taking the logarithm of both sides

!
D(pc)
m − M = 5 log
10

Hence, for the Sun, we find m + 5 − M = − 26.6 and thus D = 4.85 × 10−6 pc =
1.50 × 1011 m = 1 A.U. The distance modulus, therefore, implies that

D < 10 pc ⇒ m − M < 0 ⇒ m < M

D = 10 pc ⇒ m − M = 0 ⇒ m = M
D > 10 pc ⇒ m − M > 0 ⇒ m > M

Note that the absolute magnitude M of a star is one of its intrinsic properties. Other
intrinsic properties include its radius R, its surface temperature T , its luminosity L, its
5.7. SPECTRAL MAGNITUDES AND SURFACE TEMPERATURES 37

Figure 5.5: Continuous spectra for three different stars

mass M, its chemical composition and age. In fact it appears that the mass of a Main-
Sequence star (a very common type of star, such as the Sun) is strongly correlated to its
luminosity, i.e., by combining measurements of a few hundred stars, we find
!3.5
L M
' .
L M

Massive giant and supergiant stars tend to have large luminosities compared to the Sun
whereas light white dwarfs have small luminosities.

5.7 Spectral Magnitudes and Surface Temperatures

[Section 17.3 – Stellar Temperatures]
The surface temperature of a star can often be measured from only two brightness mea-
surements at two different wavelengths in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The blue (B) magnitude mB of a star is obtained by using a blue (B) filter (which passes
only radiation in the range 380 to 480 nm) and measure the blue brightness of that star.
Similarly, by using a visual (V) filter (which passes only radiation in the range 490 to 590
nm – approximately yellow), the visual magnitude mV of the star can be determined.
When a star is brighter in the blue range than in the visual range (i.e., mB < mV or
mB − mV < 0), the star tends to be rather hot. On the other hand, when the star is
brighter in the visual range than in the blue range (i.e., mV < mB or mB − mV > 0), the
38 CHAPTER 5. A FIELD GUIDE TO THE STARS

Figure 5.6: Stellar Spectra Comparison of spectra observed for seven stars having a range of
surface temperatures. The spectra of the hottest stars, at the top, contain lines for helium
and (although not indicated in the O spectrum shown here) lines for multiply ionized heavy
elements. In the coolest stars, at the bottom, there are no lines for helium, but lines of
neutral atoms and molecules are plentiful. At intermediate temperatures, hydrogen lines
are strongest. All seven stars have about the same chemical composition.

star tends to be rather cool. In fact, we find the following table:

mB − mV Surface Temperature(K) Color Spectral Type % Population

− 0.31 30, 000 electric blue O 1
− 0.24 20, 000 blue B 10
0.00 10, 000 white A 22
0.35 7, 000 yellow − white F 19
0.65 6, 000 yellow G 14
1.2 4, 000 orange K 31
1.7 3, 000 red M 3

where color refers to the color of the surface of the star.

Each spectral type is normally subdivided into ten parts labeled from 0 to 9, with 0
associated with the highest temperature of each type. Hence, a star with spectral type O2
is hotter than a star with spectral type O9. The Sun’s spectral type is G2.
5.8. HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL DIAGRAM 39

5.8 Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

[Section 17.5]
The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram is a plot of luminosity L (or absolute magnitude
M) versus surface temperature T (or spectral type OBAFGKM). Stars are not distributed
randomly on the HR diagram but instead fall into one of four well-defined regions and one
of five different luminosity class (I-V).
40 CHAPTER 5. A FIELD GUIDE TO THE STARS

◦ Main Sequence Stars

The first region, called the Main Sequence (or MS for short), is a narrow band which
stretches diagonally across the HR diagram from the top left corner (where we find bright
O-type stars) to the bottom right corner (where we find faint M-type stars). Most stars
in the night sky are main-sequence stars; for example, the Sun is a main-sequence star.
Almost all of the main-sequence stars have stellar radii in the range of 0.1 R to 10 R .
The luminosity L for a main-sequence star is expressed a strong function of its mass M
as LM S /L ∼ (M/M )3−4 . MS stars belong to the stellar luminosity class V and their
masses range from 0.08 M 2 (with a minimum luminosity ∼ 10−3 L ) to about 90 M .
Note: The surface temperature (and spectral type) of a star can often be measured
from only two brightness measurements at two different wavelengths in the visible part of
the electromagnetic spectrum. The blue (B) magnitude mB of a star is obtained by using
a blue (B) filter (which passes only radiation in the range 380 to 480 nm) and measure
the blue brightness of that star. Similarly, by using a visual (V) filter (which passes only
radiation in the range 490 to 590 nm – approximately yellow), the visual magnitude mV of
the star can be determined. When a star is brighter in the blue range than in the visual
range (i.e., mB < mV or mB − mV < 0), the star tends to be rather hot. On the other
hand, when the star is brighter in the visual range than in the blue range (i.e., mV < mB
2
Jupiter’s mass is 0.00095 M
5.8. HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL DIAGRAM 41

or mB − mV > 0), the star tends to be rather cool.

◦ Red Giant Stars
The second region, called the Red-Giant (RG for short) region, is an area above the main
sequence which is characterized by stars with stellar radii between 10 R and 100 R and
whose spectral type is limited to the GKM range. Most red-giant stars have stellar masses
in the range of 1 to 3 solar masses (comparable to the lower part of the Main Sequence);
RG stars belong to the stellar luminosity classes II-IV.
◦ Supergiant Stars
The third region, called the Supergiant (SG for short) region, is a broad area above the
red-giant region which is characterized by stars with stellar radii greater than 100 R and
whose spectral type is in the BAFG range. Most supergiant stars have stellar masses from
5 to 20 solar masses (comparable to the upper part of the Main Sequence) and absolute
magnitudes lower than − 6.0; SG stars belong to the stellar luminosity class I.
◦ White Dwarfs
The fourth region, called the White-Dwarf (WD for short) region, is a region below the
main sequence which is populated by hot stars with stellar radii smaller than 0.1 R and
whose spectral type is in the OBAF range. All white-dwarf stars have stellar masses below
1.4 solar masses.
42 CHAPTER 5. A FIELD GUIDE TO THE STARS

5.9 Spectroscopic Parallax

[Section 17.6 – Extending the Cosmic Distance Scale]

So far, the only accurate way to measure luminosity (or absolute magnitude) was to
combine our measurements of apparent brightness (or apparent magnitude) and distance
(measured by stellar parallax). The distance measurement by stellar parallax, unfortu-
nately, extends to about 200 pc (at most), which limits our determination of luminosity.
When we look at a cluster of stars (a compact group of stars that are gravitationally
tied to each other, e.g., the Pleiades), it is a fair assumption to assume that most of the
stars in the cluster belong to the Main Sequence. We can, thus, use the apparent brightness
and spectral type of a typical MS star in the cluster to obtain its distance by a method
called Spectroscopic Parallax.
Here, once the absolute magnitude M is determined from the HR diagram for an MS
star of a given spectral type, we can use its observed apparent magnitude m to determine
its distance

D = 10(m+5−M )/5 pc.

For example, an A0 MS star has a luminosity of about L ' 100 L and, thus, an absolute
5.10. MS STELLAR MASSES AND LIFETIMES 43

magnitude of
!
L
M ' M − 2.5 log = 4.72 − 5.00 = − 0.28.
L

If an A0 MS star is observed in a star cluster with an apparent magnitude of m = + 9.00,

then its spectroscopic-parallax distance is

D ' 10(9.00+5−(−0.28))/5 pc = 102.856 pc = 718 pc,

which is well outside of the range of measurement for the standard stellar parallax (< 200
pc). The range of spectroscopic-parallax distance extends to about 10,000 pc.

5.10 MS Stellar Masses and Lifetimes

[Section 17.8 – Mass and Other Stellar Properties]
We have seen previously that the mass of a star determines many of its properties. In
fact, there is a theorem (known as the Vogt-Russell Theorem) that states that:

The mass and composition of a star uniquely determine its radius, luminosity
(surface temperature), and internal structure, as well as its subsequent evolution.

The Figure above shows the distribution of stellar masses along the Main Sequence.
Since the lifetime τ of a MS star obeys the relation

Mass (energy)
τ ∝ ,
Luminosity (energy loss)

we find that
τ M/M M/M 1
= ∼ 4
∼ ,
τ L/L (M/M ) (M/M )3
where τ ∼ 10 billion years is the expected MS lifetime of the Sun. Hence, a massive
MS star (M = 10 M ) is expected to remain τ ∼ (1/10)3 τ ∼ 10 million years on the
Main Sequence. On the other hand, a light MS star (M = 0.1 M ) is expected to remain
τ ∼ (1/0.1)3 τ ∼ 10, 000 billion years on the Main Sequence.
44 CHAPTER 5. A FIELD GUIDE TO THE STARS

Figure 5.7: Mass distribution on the Main Sequence.

Figure 5.8: Logarithm of MS lifetime (in years) as a function of mass ratio M/M .
Chapter 6

Star Formation

6.1 Star-forming Regions

[Section 19.1]
Interstellar clouds are subject to two opposite forces: the inward force due to gravity
and the outward force due to the internal gas pressure. If the temperature of the gas is too
high, or if its density is too low, the cloud cannot contract gravitationally and the thermal
expansion of the cloud continues forever. On the other hand, if the temperature of the gas
is low enough, or its density is high enough, the cloud begins to contract gravitationally.
The gravitational pressure at the surface of the gas is proportional to the square of
its mass M and inversely proportional proportional to the fourth-power of its radius R,
i.e., Pgrav ∝ M2/R4 . The internal gas pressure Pgas , on the other hand, is given as
Pgas ∝ M T /R3 , where T is the internal temperature of the cloud and M/R3 is proportional
to the mass density of the cloud. Hence, we note that the internal temperature T ∝ M/R
rises as the interstellar cloud of mass M contracts (i.e., as R decreases). This relationship
indicates that massive clouds heat up faster than light clouds. The search of star nurseries,
therefore, involves looking for cold molecular clouds.
• Protostar [Section 19.2 – The Formation of Stars like the Sun]
As the temperature reaches 1 million degrees (106 ) K, a protostar is formed. Its ra-
dius is still larger than its eventual main-sequence stellar radius and its core and surface
temperatures continue to rise. From its radius and surface temperature, we calculate a
surprinsingly large value for its luminosity. Beginning with the protostar phase, one can
now plot the evolutionary track of the protostar. Because the protostar is still not in equi-
librium, the inward gravitational pressure is still greater than the (outward) internal gas
pressure. Hence, it continues to contract radially and its temperature continues to rise and
the protostar progressively gets closer to the Main Sequence (see protostellar evolution-

45
46 CHAPTER 6. STAR FORMATION

Figure 6.1: Scenario for the evolution of a protostar toward the Main Sequence

ary tracks in Figure 19.8, shown above). Here, massive molecular clouds reach the Main
Sequence higher (and sooner) than lower-mass clouds.
If the original molecular cloud was initially spinning, it must spin faster as it collapses
to conserve angular momentum. This results in the formation of a protostellar disk around
the protostar. Planets may form in this disk as the protostar continues to grow. Eventually
stellar winds and jets clear away the surrounding gas and a newly formed star emerges.

• A Star is born!
As the protostellar core temperature reaches 107 K, Hydrogen burning (see below) be-
comes possible and stellar evolution now proceeds very differently. Because of the tremen-
dous amounts of energy released through thermonuclear fusion, the outward thermal pres-
sure is now more than able to match the inward gravitational pressure and stellar equilib-
rium is reached. A main-sequence star is born when the rate of hydrogen burning within
the star’s core becomes high enough the balance the rate at which the star radiates energy
away.
The energy released in the course of nuclear fusion is used by the star for two purposes:
(1) keep the core temperature high to further facilitate nuclear fusion; and (2) maintain an
equilibrium between the inward gravitational pressure and the outward thermal pressure.
Hence, as long as energy-producing nuclear fusion reactions occur in the core of a star, the
outward thermal pressure is able to match the inward gravitational pressure and the star
achieves an equilibrium radius.
In the course of the main-sequence phase of the star, its mass, radius, and temper-
6.1. STAR-FORMING REGIONS 47

Figure 6.2: Stellar equilibrium involves a balance between the inward gravitational pressure
and the outward gas (or radiation) pressure

ature change very little and thus the position of the star in the Main Sequence remains
approximately constant. It took about 30 to 50 million years for the star to reach the
main-sequence phase from the interstellar-matter phase. Current astrophysical theories
predict that the star remains in the main-sequence phase until about 10% of the original
stellar mass M (Hydrogen) has been converted into Helium, i.e., the product of the star’s
luminosity L and the time τ spent as a main-sequence star is set equal to the energy content
so that
τ ∝ M L−1 ∼ M−3
since L ∼ M4. Using the Sun as a basis for comparison, we find for the Sun τ = 12 × 109
y, so that the MS lifetime of a star of mass M and luminosity L is
  (M/M )
τ 109 y = 12 × .
(L/L )

For example, for an O3-type star (M ' 60 M , L ' 2 × 106 L ) we find τO3 ' 360,000
years, while for an M0-type star (M ' 0.5 M , L ' 0.09 L ) we find τM 0 ' 67 billion
years. Hence, massive stars are born on the Main Sequence sooner than lighter stars (e.g.,
the Sun took about 50 million years to reach the Main Sequence phase, while O-type stars
approximately take one million years), massive stars are born with higher core and surface
temperatures, and massive stars remain as Main-Sequence stars for a shorter period of time
(FIFO = First In First Out). In fact, because of their higher core temperatures, massive
stars are more likely to undergo Hydrogen fusion through the carbon-cycle (CNO) reactions,
while lighter stars undergo Hydrogen fusion through the proton-proton (pp) reactions; the
Sun is actually quite close to the transition point between pp and CNO fusion reactions.
48 CHAPTER 6. STAR FORMATION

Figure 6.3: Nuclear energy curve showing where fusion and fission reactions can produce
energy.

6.2 Nuclear Fusion Reactions

The energy source which makes stars so much hotter than ordinary matter comes from the
energy released in the course of thermonuclear fusion reactions. In nuclear fusion reactions,
light nuclei fuse together to create heavier nuclei. In the opposite scenario, nuclear fission,
an unstable heavy nucleus splits appart to create two or more lighter nuclei. To act as an
energy source, the process of nuclear fusion (or fission) must be accompanied with a release
of energy.

6.2.1 E = ∆m c2

The production of energy by nuclear reactions is a wonderful application of Einstein’s

celebrated formula E = ∆m c2, which relates the conversion of mass ∆m into energy E (c
is the speed of light). To be more specific, a nuclear reaction allows reactants to interact
with each other to create products. Energy is also produced by the reaction (E > 0) if the
total mass of reactants is larger than the total mass of products generated by the reaction
6.2. NUCLEAR FUSION REACTIONS 49

(∆m > 0):

!
X X
E = m − m c2 = ∆m c2
Reactants Products

Nuclear fusion reactions release energy only if one of the initial nuclei is lighter than
Iron (56Fe); see Fig. 6.3. For example, the nuclear fusion of two isotopes of Hydrogen
(Deuterium = 21 H and Tritium = 31 H) produces Helium (He) as well as one neutron, which
share the energy released by the reaction:
2
H + 31 H → 4
He + 10 n + Energy
|1 {z } |2 {z } | {z }
= 5.0301 u = 5.0113 u = 17.6 MeV

Energy is required, on the other hand, to fuse Helium (4 He) and Lead (208Pb) nuclei to
form a Polonium (212Po) nucleus.
In contrast, nuclear fission reactions release energy when the initial (unstable) nucleus
is heavier than Iron. For example, the nuclear fission of Uranium-235 (induced by the
absorption of a “slow” neutron) produces isotopes of Rubidium (Rb) and Cesium (Cs) as
well as three fast neutrons, which carry most of the energy released by the reaction:
= 236.053 u = 235.868 u = 172 MeV
z }| { z }| { z }| {
235 1 90 143 1
92 U + 0n → 37 Rb + 55 Cs + 3 0n + Energy

Since most of the matter in the Universe is in the form of Hydrogen (1 H) with a smaller
proportion of Helium (4 He), the energy source of stars is nuclear fusion of light nuclei
starting with Hydrogen.

6.2.2 Stellar fusion reactions

Stellar fusion reactions begin with Hydrogen burning in which Hydrogen is transformed
into Helium. Hydrogen burning proceeds by two different processes: proton-proton (pp)
reactions and carbon-cycle (CNO) reactions.

Proton-proton Reactions

The proton-proton reactions require a minimum core temperature of about 10 million

degrees (107 ) K. Once this threshold temperature is reached, the production of a Helium-4
nucleus requires 4 protons (Hydrogen nucleus):

Proton-Proton Reactions: 4 1 H → 4 He
50 CHAPTER 6. STAR FORMATION

Figure 6.4: Energy production rates for proton-proton and CNO reactions

The production of Deuterium (2 H, an isotope of Hydrogen) takes a very long time

but once it is created, it quickly reacts with Hydrogen again to form Helium-3 (3 He, an
isotope of Helium). In the last reaction of the proton-proton cycle, two Helium-3 nuclei fuse
together to form Helium-4 (4He) while releasing two Hydrogen nuclei. Hence, at the end
of the proton-proton reactions, four Hydrogen nuclei have been fused to produce Helium-4.
We note that proton-proton reactions release about
Epp = 6.3 × 1014 J per kg of Helium-4 produced,
and the proton-proton reaction rate is proportional to the fourth-power (∝ Tc4) of the core
temperature Tc . Note that since the Sun produces its nuclear fusion energy by the pp-
reactions, its luminosity L = 3.85 × 1026 J/s corresponds to approximately 600 billion kg
(6 × 1011 kg) of Helium-4 produced every second!
Stars on the lower part of the Main Sequence undergo hydrogen burning through proton-
proton reactions. As a result of this process, the structure of these stars involves a core
surrounded by a large radiative zone and an outer convective zone (which increases with
lower mass).

CNO Reactions

As the core temperature Tc reaches 15 to 20 million degrees K, the proton-proton reactions

become less likely than the carbon-cycle reactions in which Hydrogen is transformed into
Helium in the presence of Carbon-12 (12 C):
Carbon-cycle (CNO) Reactions : 4 1 H + 12
C → 4 He + 12
C
6.3. CLUSTER EVOLUTION ON THE HR DIAGRAM 51

Figure 6.5: H-R diagram of (a) a young (open) star cluster and (b) an old (globular) star
cluster

The carbon-cycle reactions release about

ECN O = 6.0 × 1014 J per kg of Helium-4 produced,

which is about the same as the energy released for the pp reactions. The reaction rate for
the CNO-cycle reactions is proportional to Tc17.
Stars on the upper part of the Main Sequence undergo hydrogen burning through CNO
reactions, which explains their high luminosities. As a result of this process, the structure
of these stars involves a convective core (which increases with higher mass) surrounded by
an outer radiative zone.

6.3 Cluster Evolution on the HR Diagram

[Section 19.6 – Star Clusters]
Star clusters can be viewed as miniature stellar laboratories to investigate the evolution
phases of stars as they reach the Main Sequence (from protostars) and as they leave the
Main Sequence toward their death. There are two types of clusters: open clusters tend to
be composed of younger stars, while globular clusters tend to be composed of older stars.
The difference is especially noticeable when the clusters are plotted on an HR diagram.
The changing HR diagram of a hypothetical star cluster (see Figure below). (a) Ini-
tially, stars on the upper main sequence are already burning steadily, while the lower main
52 CHAPTER 6. STAR FORMATION

Figure 6.6: The age of a globular cluster can be determined by the main-sequence turnoff,
i.e., the age of the most massive star that remains on the Main Sequence.

sequence is still forming. (b) At 107 years, O-type stars have already left the main se-
quence, and a few post-main-sequence supergiants are visible. (c) By 108 years, stars of
spectral type B have evolved off the main sequence. More supergiants are visible, and the
lower main sequence is almost fully formed. (d) At 109 years, the main sequence is cut off
at about spectral type A. The subgiant and red giant branches are just becoming evident,
and the formation of the lower main sequence is complete. A few white dwarfs may be
present. (e) At 1010 years, only stars less massive than the Sun still remain on the main
sequence. The clusters subgiant, red giant, and horizontal branches are all discernible, and
many white dwarfs have now formed.
6.4. STELLAR EVOLUTION 53

Figure 6.7: Evolution of a Sun-like star after its Main-Sequence phase (each numbered step
is discussed in the Table).

6.4 Stellar Evolution

[Section 20.2 – Evolution of a Sun-like Star]
The evolution of a Sun-like star beyond the Main Sequence is summarized in Table 20.1
(see below) and Figure 6.7.

Stage Approximate Time Tc (106 K) Ts (K) Radius(R ) Object

to Next Stage
7 1010 yr 15 6, 000 1 Main-sequence star
8
8 10 yr 50 4, 000 3 Subgiant branch
5
9 10 yr 100 4, 000 100 Red-giant branch
7
10 5 × 10 yr 200 5, 000 10 Horizontal branch
11 104 yr 250 4, 000 500 Asymptotic-giant branch
12 105 yr 300 100, 000 0.01 Carbon core
3, 000 1, 000 Planetary nebula
13 100 50, 000 0.01 White dwarf
54 CHAPTER 6. STAR FORMATION

◦ Red-Giant Phase until the Horizontal Branch

As a Main-Sequence star, Hydrogen burning in the core produces cold Helium ash which
accumulates at the center of the star. As core Hydrogen burning is displaced from the
core, the dynamical balance between the inward gravitational pressure and the outward
radiation pressure begins to shift.
◦ First, the heavier Helium core begins to contract gravitationally which eventually
allows Hydrogen burning to occur in a thin shell surrounding the stellar core.
◦ Second, since Hydrogen-shell burning proceeds more quickly than core burning, the
star’s radius balloons to a value between 50 and 100 times its MS radius and its surface
temperature cools down to about 3,000 K.
◦ Third, as its surface radius increases rapidly, its luminosity increases by a factor
of 1,000 to 10,000 above its MS value. As its surface radius increases, we note that the
Helium-core radius continues to contract graviationally so that the Helium-core density
continues to rise until it reaches a maximum value (called degenerate-electron pressure)
beyond which core contraction ceases. Additional Hydrogen-shell burning therefore causes
the Helium core to grow hotter and more massive.
◦ Fourth, if the star is massive enough (i.e., if the Helium core can reach a mass of
approximately 0.6 M and a temperature of 100 million degrees K), the Helium core starts
to undergo nuclear fusion by the Triple-alpha process:
↓ 4 He ↓ 4 He ↓ 4 He
z }| { z }| { z }| {
4
He + 4He → 8Be∗ + → 12
C + → 16
O + → ···

in which the first reaction produces an unstable nucleus of Beryllium-8 (8 Be∗); it turns out
that the probability that this unstable Beryllium nucleus fuses with a third Helium-4 is
high enough for the production of 12C to proceed at a reasonable rate. As the Helium-core
temperature continues to rise, Helium-core burning accelerates until the core temperature
reaches about 300 million degrees K at which point an explosive event, called the Helium
Flash, occurs. The relative reaction rate for the 3α-reactions is proportional to Tc41 (a 10%
temperature increase leads to an increase in luminosity by a factor of 1.141 ' 50). At the
peak of the Helium Flash, the energy production rate in the core is equal to about 1014
times the solar luminosity.
Most of this energy is however dissipated in the outer layers of the Red-Giant star and
at the end of the Helium Flash, the stellar core once again behaves like a normal (non-
degenerate) gas, so that stellar equilibrium is re-established (i.e, as the core radius expands,
the core density drops). The net result of the Helium Flash is a slight decrease in luminosity
accompanied with a slight increase in surface temperature. We note that massive stars
experience very weak Helium Flashes since their Helium-core temperatures can typically
reach 100 million degrees K even before Helium-core densities can reach degenerate-electron
pressures. In the post-Helium-Flash period of the Red-Giant phase, stars enter a stable
period, called the Horizontal Branch, in which Helium-core burning and Hydrogen-shell
6.4. STELLAR EVOLUTION 55

Figure 6.8: HR diagram of an old cluster of stars

burning take place. The Helium-core fusion reactions transform Helium-4 into Carbon-12
so that the stellar core becomes progressively Carbon-rich (and Oxygen-rich) and Helium-
poor.
The HR diagram of the globular cluster M80 (approximately 8 kpc away) shown below
shows the various stages of stellar evolution until the Horizontal Branch.
56 CHAPTER 6. STAR FORMATION

Figure 6.9: Stellar evolution scenarios for light (M < 6 M ) and massive (M > 8 M )
stars.
6.5. PULSATING STARS 57

6.5 Pulsating Stars

As Red-Giant stars enter the Horizontal Branch, stars which are massive enough undergo
pulsations in their radius and luminosity. The existence of this pulsating behavior depends
on the temperature of the outer layer of the star and its opacity (i.e., its ability to trap
radiation). If radiation is trapped in the outer layer (i.e., if opacity is high), the star’s
radius increases dramatically and outer-layer heating is high. As the outer-layer tempera-
ture increases, opacity falls until radiation is no longer trapped and the star’s radius and
temperature decrease. A decrease in temperature causes the cycle to repeat.
There are two types of pulsating (or Variable) stars: Cepheid variables and RR
Lyrae variables. To a very large degree, the pulsating period of a Cepheid variable
depends strongly on its luminosity. For example, for the brightest Cepheid variables
(L ' 30, 000 L ) we find pulsating periods of about 100 days, while for the faintest
Cepheid variables (L ' 500 L ) we find pulsating periods of about 1 day. The pulsating
period of RR Lyrae variables is nearly independent of luminosity and is typically less than
1 day.

6.6 The Death of a Low-mass Star

[Section 20.3]
For stellar masses below 8 M , the core temperature never reaches the 600 million K
needed for a new round of nuclear reactions to occur. The red giant star is very near
the end of its nuclear-burning lifetime. The CO (carbon-oxygen) core becomes degenerate
again (i.e., the core contraction and core heating stop). Eventually the helium-shell and
58 CHAPTER 6. STAR FORMATION

hydrogen-shell burning processes lead to an unstable stellar envelope, which results in a

strong stellar wind (produced by high radiation pressure in the stellar envelope) that ejects
much of the envelope. Observations of red giants and supergiants reveal that these stars
lose mass at rates ranging from 10−9 to 10−4 M :
!
dM L R M
' 10−13 · · M yr−1
dt L R M

Eventually, all stars more massive than the Sun transform all the core Helium into
Carbon and Oxygen and the same path which lead to the Red-Giant phase is repeated (i.e.,
cold carbon-core contraction ⇒ increased core density and temperature ⇒ Helium-shell
burning begins ⇒ degenerate-electron pressure is reached in the Carbon core ⇒ · · ·). This
second ascending track in the HR diagram leads to the Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB)
which is characterized by Red Supergiant stars. This red-supergiant phase is accompanied
with strong stellar winds which results in an increasingly significant mass loss (as much
as 10−4 M per year). The AGB star now begins to move rapidly to the left on the HR
diagram as the hot stellar core is progressively revealed.
◦ White-Dwarf Phase
Once the outer layers have been removed from an AGB star, its small stellar core becomes
a hot (≥ 20, 000 K) star with a small radius (≤ 0.1 R ). This star is known as a White
Dwarf. This end phase applies only to stars whose MS masses were less than about 8 M .
6.6. THE DEATH OF A LOW-MASS STAR 59

Figure 6.10: Post-Main-Sequence evolution tracks for MS stars of masses 1 M , 5 M ,

and 25 M .
60 CHAPTER 6. STAR FORMATION

6.7 Evolutionary Track of a Massive Star

[Section 20.4 – Evolution of Stars more massive than the Sun]
High-mass stars (M > 8 M ) evolve much faster than their low-mass counterparts.
All evolutionary changes happen much more rapidly because their large mass and stronger
gravity generate more heat, thereby speeding up all stages of stellar evolution. For example,
evolution for a 15-solar-mass star proceeds so rapidly that the star doesn’t even reach the
red-giant region before helium fusion begins. The star achieves a core temperature of 100
million K while it is still close to the Main Sequence. The star’s evolutionary track moves
smoothly horizontally off the Main Sequence.

PLANETARY NEBULAE
When Sun-like stars get old, they become cooler and redder, increasing their sizes and
energy output tremendously: they are called red giants. When the red giant star has
ejected all of its outer layers, the ultraviolet radiation from the exposed hot stellar core
makes the surrounding cloud of matter created during the red giant phase glow: the object
becomes a planetary nebula.
6.7. EVOLUTIONARY TRACK OF A MASSIVE STAR 61

HUBBLE FINDS AN HOURGLASS NEBULA AROUND A DYING STAR

This is an image of MyCn18, a young planetary nebula located about 8,000 light-years
away, taken with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) aboard NASA’s Hubble
Space Telescope (HST). This Hubble image reveals the true shape of MyCn18 to be an
hourglass with an intricate pattern of ”etchings” in its walls. According to one theory for
the formation of planetary nebulae, the hourglass shape is produced by the expansion of
a fast stellar wind within a slowly expanding cloud which is more dense near its equator
than near its poles. What appears as a bright elliptical ring in the center, and at first sight
might be mistaken for an equatorially dense region, is seen on closer inspection to be a
potato shaped structure with a symmetry axis dramatically different from that of the larger
hourglass. The hot star which has been thought to eject and illuminate the nebula, and
therefore expected to lie at its center of symmetry, is clearly off center. Hence MyCn18,
as revealed by Hubble, does not fulfill some crucial theoretical expectations. Hubble has
also revealed other features in MyCn18 which are completely new and unexpected. For
example, there is a pair of intersecting elliptical rings in the central region which appear
to be the rims of a smaller hourglass. There are the intricate patterns of the etchings on
the hourglass walls. An unseen companion star and accompanying gravitational effects may
well be necessary in order to explain the structure of MyCn18.
62 CHAPTER 6. STAR FORMATION

HUBBLE PROBES THE COMPLEX HISTORY OF A DYING STAR

This NASA Hubble Space Telescope image shows one of the most complex planetary
nebulae ever seen, NGC 6543, nicknamed the ”Cat’s Eye Nebula.” Hubble reveals surpris-
ingly intricate structures including concentric gas shells, jets of high-speed gas and unusual
shock-induced knots of gas. Estimated to be 1,000 years old, the nebula is a visual ”fossil
record” of the dynamics and late evolution of a dying star. A preliminary interpretation
suggests that the star might be a double-star system. The dynamical effects of two stars
orbiting one another most easily explains the intricate structures, which are much more
complicated than features seen in most planetary nebulae. (The two stars are too close
together to be individually resolved by Hubble, and instead, appear as a single point of light
at the center of the nebula.) According to this model, a fast ”stellar wind” of gas blown off
the central star created the elongated shell of dense, glowing gas. This structure is embed-
ded inside two larger lobes of gas blown off the star at an earlier phase. These lobes are
”pinched” by a ring of denser gas, presumably ejected along the orbital plane of the binary
companion. The suspected companion star also might be responsible for a pair of high- speed
jets of gas that lie at right angles to this equatorial ring. If the companion were pulling in
material from a neighboring star, jets escaping along the companion’s rotation axis could
be produced. These jets would explain several puzzling features along the periphery of the
gas lobes. NGC 6543 is 3,000 light-years away in the northern constellation Draco.
The term planetary nebula is a misnomer; dying stars create these cocoons when they
lose outer layers of gas. The process has nothing to do with planet formation, which is
predicted to happen early in a star’s life.
6.8. SUPERNOVAE 63

Figure 6.11: Supernova types I and II

6.8 Supernovae
[Section 21.3]
Massive stars quickly grow hotter and become Blue Supergiants which eventually de-
velop Iron cores. Because Iron fusion reactions requires energy, the outward thermal (and
radiation) pressures drops dramatically and the inward gravitational pressure causes the
stellar core to collapse catastrophically thereby producing a Supernova explosion. During
this explosion, the core density reaches enormous values far exceeding the degenerate-
electron density and the outer layers are propelled outwardly (fuelled by the graviational
energy released by the core collapse). In the span of a few seconds, the Supernova becomes
brighter than an entire galaxy (i.e., a few billion suns) and elements heavier than Iron are
produced (e.g., Copper, Iodine, Zinc, Lead, etc). According to most astrophysical theories,
the collapsed stellar core has now become a Neutron star or even a Black Hole (if its mass
is large enough).
64 CHAPTER 6. STAR FORMATION

Figure 6.12: Stages of a supernova type I explosion: White-dwarf (CO core) & Red-giant
Binary system → Carbon Detonation (Hydrogen-poor spectrum)

Figure 6.13: Stages of a supernova type II explosion: Massive Blue Supergiant → Iron-core
Collapse (Hydrogen-rich spectrum)
6.8. SUPERNOVAE 65

HUBBLE FINDS MYSTERIOUS RING STRUCTURE AROUND SUPERNOVA 1987A

This striking NASA Hubble Space Telescope picture shows three rings of glowing gas
encircling the site of supernova 1987A, a star which exploded in February 1987. Though
all of the rings appear inclined to our view (so that they appear to intersect) they are
probably in three different planes. The small bright ring lies in a plane containing the
supernova, the two larger rings lie in front and behind it. The rings are a surprise because
astronomers expected to see, instead, an hourglass shaped bubble of gas being blown into
space by the supernova’s progenitor star (based on previous HST observations, and images
at lower resolution taken at ground-based observatories). One possibility is that the two
rings might be ”painted” on the invisible hourglass by a high-energy beam of radiation that
is sweeping across the gas, like a searchlight sweeping across clouds. The source of the
radiation might be a previously unknown stellar remnant that is a binary companion to the
star that exploded in 1987. The supernova is 169,000 light years away, and lies in the dwarf
galaxy called the Large Magellanic Cloud, which can be seen from the southern hemisphere.
66 CHAPTER 6. STAR FORMATION

HUBBLE’S SUPER-SHARP VIEW OF THE DOOMED STAR ETA CARINAE

Even though Eta Carinae is more than 8,000 light-years away, structures only 10 billion
miles across (about the diameter of our solar system) can be distinguished. Eta Carinae
was the site of a giant outburst about 150 years ago, when it became one of the brightest
stars in the southern sky. Though the star released as much visible light as a supernova
explosion, it survived the outburst. Estimated to be 100 times more massive than our Sun,
Eta Carinae may be one of the most massive stars in our Galaxy.
Chapter 7

Cosmic Ladder

[Sections 24.1-3]
In this chapter, we consider methods for measuring astronomical distances from the
nearest star to the Sun to the most distance points in the Universe. Each method represents
a rung in the Cosmic Ladder (see Fig. 7.1).

• Stellar Parallax (D < 200 pc)

• Spectroscopic Parallax (D < 10 kpc)
• Cepheid Variables (D < 15 Mpc)
• Standard Candles (D < 200 Mpc)
• Hubble’s Law (D > 200 Mpc)

The first method in the Cosmic Ladder is the parallax method, which is accurate to
distances less than 200 pc. The limitations of the parallax method are set by the angular
resolution of telescopes. The second method is the spectroscopic parallax method applied
to young clusters, which is accurate to approximately 10 kpc.

7.1 Pulsating Variable Stars

[Section 23.2 – Measuring the Milky Way]
Pulsating variables stars are Red-Giant stars which are massive enough undergo pul-
sations in their radius and luminosity. The existence of this pulsation behavior depends
on the temperature of the outer layer of the star and its opacity (i.e., its ability to trap
radiation). If radiation is trapped in the outer layer (i.e., if opacity is high), the star’s ra-
dius increases dramatically and outer-layer heating is high. As the outer-layer temperature
increases, opacity falls until radiation is no longer trapped and the star’s radius shrinks

67
68 CHAPTER 7. COSMIC LADDER

Figure 7.1: Cosmic ladder displaying methods for measuring distances in Astronomy

Figure 7.2: Cepheid light curve

7.1. PULSATING VARIABLE STARS 69

Figure 7.3: Location of Cepheid and RR Lyra variable stars on the HR diagram

(under gravity) and its internal temperature decreases. A decrease in temperature causes
the cycle to repeat.
There are two types of pulsating variable stars: Cepheid variables and RR Lyrae
variable stars.
To a very large degree, the pulsating period of a Cepheid variable depends strongly on
its luminosity.
For example, for the brightest Cepheid variables (L ' 30, 000 L ) we find pulsating
periods of about 100 days, while for the faintest Cepheid variables (L ' 500 L ) we find
pulsating periods of about 1 day. The pulsating period of RR Lyrae variables is nearly
independent of luminosity and is typically less than 1 day.
• Standard Candles [Section 24.2 – The Distribution of Galaxies in Space]
A Standard Candle is an object with easily recognizable luminosity features which can
be used to calculate distance

s
L
D =
4π `

once the apparent luminosity ` is known.

70 CHAPTER 7. COSMIC LADDER

Figure 7.4: Period-luminosity relation for Cepheid variables

7.2 Supernovae
A supernova (SN) is a star that suddenly increases its luminosity dramatically and then
slowly dims again over time. At its peak, a supernova may be as bright as 1010 L (i.e.,
MSN ' − 20), which means that a supernova should be visible to the naked eye (m < + 6)
within a distance of about 106 pc. Based on their luminosity-versus-time diagram (a.k.a.
light curve), there are two kinds of supernovae: a Type-I supernova (which does not show
hydrogen lines in its spectrum) normally occurs in a binary system in which a normal star
sheds matter onto a white-dwarf companion at a rapid rate (where Carbon burning takes
place almost instantaneously) whereas a Type-II supernova (which shows hydrogen lines in
its spectrum) explosion normally occurs at the center of a massive star and its light curve
exhibits a characteristic plateau.
Once the peak apparent brightness `peak is known, the distance is approximately
v
u 10
u 10 L
D' t .
4π`peak

7.3 Rotating Spiral Galaxies and Tully-Fischer Rela-

tion
The characteristic luminosity of a galaxy L? is approximately equal to 1011 L since it is
typically composed of about 5 to 10 billion Sun-like stars. All galaxies (ellipticals, spirals,
7.4. HUBBLE’S LAW 71

Figure 7.5: Supernova light curves

barred spirals, and irregulars) are also known to rotate at a rotation velocity vc which can
be measured by Doppler effect.
For spiral and barred-spiral galaxies [see Hubble Sequence in Table 24.1 and Figure 24.9
(see above)], the rotation velocity rapidly increases from a small value near the galactic
center and flattens out to a nearly constant value vcL near its visible edge.
It turns out that there is a strong correlation between the rotation velocity vcL of a
spiral galaxy and its luminosity L:
 0.22
L
vcL = 220 km/s
L?
This relation is called the Tully-Fischer relation. Since the mass of the visible galaxy M
2
is proportional to vcL , we can also estimate the mass of spiral and barred-spiral galaxies.
The rotation velocity is measured by Doppler effect on a wavelength of λ0 = 21 cm:
∆λ/λ0 = |vcL |/c.

7.4 Hubble’s Law

[Section 24.3]
For galaxies which are sufficiently far from our own galaxy (i.e., outside the Local
Group), galaxies were observed by Hubble to move away from us at a recession speeds
which increase with distance from us.
72 CHAPTER 7. COSMIC LADDER

Figure 7.6: Hubble’s classification of galaxies

Figure 7.7: Galactic rotation profiles

7.4. HUBBLE’S LAW 73

Figure 7.8: Doppler measurement of galactic rotation

◦ Measurement of Galactic Distance

The measurement of galactic distance is made by assuming that all galaxies have approxi-
mately the same diameter (on average about 25 kpc). By measuring the angular diameter
θ (in arcsec) of a galaxy, we can calculate its distance (in Mpc) by using the formula

5, 157 Mpc
D = .
θ(arcsec)

For example, a galaxy which has an angular diameter of 10 arcsec is assumed to be at a

distance of 515.7 Mpc.
◦ Measurement of Recession Speed
Because the recession motion of far-away galaxies is radial in nature, the Doppler effect is
an ideal method for measuring speed. Since the motion is away from us, the wavelength
λ0 of a known emission line is shifted to a higher value λ > λ0 or ∆λ = λ − λ0 > 0.
The recession speed is simply given as cz, where c = 3 × 105 km/s is the speed of light,
and z is the so-called redshift parameter defined as
∆λ
z =
λ0

When the recession speed cz is plotted versus distance D, we see a linear relationship
which is known as Hubble’s law.
◦ Hubble’s Law
We can use Hubble’s law to determine galactic distance D of a galaxy by simply measuring
74 CHAPTER 7. COSMIC LADDER

Figure 7.9: Galactic Doppler redshift

Figure 7.10: Hubble’s Law

7.4. HUBBLE’S LAW 75

Figure 7.11: Cosmic galactic survey

the redshift parameter of that galaxy. The slope of the graph cz-versus-D is known as the
Hubble constant H0 (which has units of km s−1 Mpc−1 ).

vr = c z = H0 × D

Its inverse 1/H0 can actually give an estimate of the age of the Universe!
76 CHAPTER 7. COSMIC LADDER
Appendix A

Mathematical Aspects

Scientific Notation

Power of 10 Prefix Symbol Example

10−9 nano n nanometer (nm)
10−6 micro µ micrometer (µm)
10−3 milli n millimeter (mm)
3
10 kilo k kilometer (km)
106 mega M megajoule (MJ)
109 giga G gigajoule (GJ)

Basic Properties of 10x and log y

10a · 10b = 10a+b 10−a = 1/10a 100 = 1 (10x )a = 10a·x

log(a · b) = log a + log b log(1/a) = − log a log 1 = 0 log(y a) = a · log y

77