PHYSICS CHAPTER 12

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 Matter is made up of
many particles called
atoms or molecules.
 Matter can exist in one
of the following states i.e.
solid, liquid and gas.
gas

Introduction
CHAPTER 12:
Elastics properties of matter
(2 Hours)
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 PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
Learning Outcome:
12.1 Stress and strain (1 hour)
http://portal.kms.matrik.edu.my

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

 Define stress and strain for a stretched wire.
 Sketch and explain the graph of stress-strain.
 Distinguish between elastic and plastic deformation.
 Sketch and distinguish F−e graph for elastic and ductile
materials.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
12.1.1 Stress, σ and strain, ε
 Consider a rod that initially has uniform cross-sectional area, A
and length l0.Stretch the rod by applying the forces of equal
magnitude F⊥ but opposite directions at the both ends and the
rod will extent by amount e as shown in Figure 12.1.
l0 A
F⊥ F⊥
Figure 12.1
e
 Stress is defined as the ratio of the perpendicular force, F⊥ to
the cross-sectional area, A.
F⊥
OR stress, σ =
A
Where
F⊥ : the force act perpendicular to the cross section
A : cross - sectional area 3
PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
 This type of stress is called tensile stress.
stress
 Stress is a scalar quantity and its dimension is given by

[σ ] = [ F] MLT − 2
[σ ] = 2
[ A] L
[σ ] = ML− 1T − 2
 The unit for stress is kg m−1 s−2 or N m−2 or pascal (Pa).
(Pa)
 Strain (ε ) is defined as the ratio of extension (elongation), e
to original length, l0 .
OR
e l − l0 Where
Strain, ε = = e : extension (elongation)
l0 l0 l : final length
l0 : original (initial) length
 This type of strain is called tensile strain.
strain
 Strain is a scalar quantity and dimensionless (no unit).
unit)

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
Example 12.1
A load of mass 2 kg is attached to the end of a
vertical wire of length 2 m and of diameter 0.80
mm. The wire is extended by 0.60 mm. Calculate
a) the tensile stress,

b) the tensile strain.

Solution:
F mg 2 × 9.81
a) Tensile stress,σ = = 2 = −3 2
=
A πr π (0.40 × 10 )
e 0.60 × 10− 3
b) Tensile strain, ε = = =
l 2
PHYSICS CHAPTER 12

Example 12.2
A wire of length 4 m and of radius 1 mm is extended by 1.5
mm when it is stretched by a force of 100 N. Calculate the
stress and the strain of the wire.

Solution:
F 100
Tensile stress, σ = = −3 2
=
A π (1.0 × 10 )
e 1.50 × 10− 3
Tensile strain, ε = = =
l 4

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
12.1.2 Force-extension graph and stress-strain graphs
Graphs for metal (ductile material)

Force, F Plastic Extension, e

deformation
Elastic D E
deformation E
D
C Plastic
B
A deformation
C
B
A Elastic
T deformation
OT Extension, e O Force, F
Figure 12.2a Figure 12.2b

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
Stress, σ Plastic
deformation
Elastic D
deformation E

C
B
A

OT Figure 12.2c Strain, ε Description

A : proportionality limit
B : elastic limit
C : yield point
D : point of maximum force (stress)
E : fracture (breaking) point 8
PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
Explanation for Figures 12.2a, 12.2b and 12.2c
OA - The force (stress) increases linearly with the extension
(strain) until point A.
A Point A is the proportionality limit.
- The straight line graph (OA) obeys Hooke’s law which
states “Below the proportionality limit, the restoring
force, Fs is directly proportional to the extension, e.”

Fs = − ke where k : force (Hooke) constant

The negative sign indicates that the restoring force is the

opposite direction to increasing extension.
extension
B - This is the elastic limit of the material.
- Beyond this point, the material is permanently stretched
and will never regain its original shape and length.
length If the
force (stress) is removed, the material has a permanent
extension of OT.
OT
- The area between the two parallel line (AO and CT)CT
represents the work done to produce the permanent
extension OT.
OT
- OB region is known as elastic deformation.
deformation 9
PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
 Figure 12.3 shows the stress-strain graphs for various materials.

Stress, σ

Steel

Glass
Copper
Aluminium

O Strain, ε
Figure 12.3
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
C - The yield point marked a change in the internal structure
of the material.
- The plane (layer) of the atoms slide across each other
resulting in a sudden increase in extension and the
material thins uniformly.
uniformly
CDE - This region is known as plastic deformation.
deformation
- When the force (stress) increases, the extension
(strain) increases rapidly.
rapidly
D - The force (stress) on the material is maximum and is
known as the breaking force (stress).
(stress) This is sometimes
called the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS).
(UTS)
E - This is the point where the material breaks or fractures.
fractures

 Ductile materials - undergo plastic deformation before

breaking.
breaking
- such as steel, copper, aluminium.
 Brittle materials - do not show plastic behaviour
(deformation).
(deformation)
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- such as glass.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
Graph for rubber (elastic material)
Stress, σ
X

σ1 increasing stress
W
decreasing stress
Y

O Figure 12.4
ε1 ε2 Strain, ε

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12

 Explanation for Figure 12.4

 Rubber undergoes elastic deformation.
deformation
 It is able to regain its original shape and length when the
stress is removed but does not obey Hooke’s law. law
 The strain produced when decreasing the stress (X→Y) is
greater than the strain produced when increasing the stress
(W→X) as shown in Figure 12.4.
 The shaded area is called the hysteresis loop and it
represents the energy loss per unit volume.
volume
 This energy lost in the form of heat dissipation.
dissipation

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
Learning Outcome:

12.2 Young’s Modulus (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Define and use Young’s modulus.
 Explain relationship between Young’s modulus and
Hooke’s law.
1
 Derive and use strain energy, U = Fe
2
 Deduce strain energy from the F−e graph and the
stress−strain graph.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
12.2.1 Young modulus, Y
 is defined as the ratio of the tensile stress to the tensile
strain if the proportionality limit has not been exceeded.
exceeded
OR
Tensile stress
Y=
Tensile strain
 F⊥ 
 
 A F⊥ l0
Y= Y=
 e Ae
 
 l0 
 It is a scalar quantity and its dimension is given by

[Y ] = [ F⊥ ][ l0 ]
= ML− 1T − 2
[ A][ e]
 The unit of Young modulus is kg m−1 s−2 or N m−2 or Pa.
Pa 15
PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
 Young’s modulus does not depend to the length of the wire
but it depend to the material made the wire.
wire
 Young’s modulus does not change if the length of the wire is
increase or decrease.
decrease
 Table 12.2 shows the value of Young modulus for various
material.
Material Y (GPa)
Aluminium 69

Copper 110

Steel 200

Nylon 3.7

Glass 70

Table 12.1
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
Relationship between force constant, k and Young modulus,
Y for a wire
 From the statement of Hooke’s law and definition of Young

modulus, thus
F = ke
YAe
and F=
l0
YAe
ke =
l0
YA
k=
l0

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
12.2.2 Strain energy
 When a wire is stretched by a load (force), work is done on the
wire and strain (elastic potential) energy is stored within.
 Consider the force-extension graph of this wire until the
proportionality limit ( Hooke’s law) as shown in Figure 12.11.
Force

F Proportionality limit

Strain energy

0
Figure 12.5
e extension
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
 The total work done, W in stretching a wire from 0 to e is given
e
∫
by
W = Fde = Shaded Area
0
1
W = strain energy = Fe
2
 From the definitions of tensile stress and tensile strain, thus
F
stress = F = (stress) A
A
e
strain = e = (strain )l0
l0
1
strain energy = (stress)(strain ) Al0 Volume
2
strain energy 1
= (stress)(strain )
volume 2
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
 This strain energy per unit volume is the area under the
stress-strain graph until the proportionality limit (straight line
graph) as shown in Figure 12.6.
Stress

σ Proportionality limit

Strain energy per

unit volume

0 ε Strain
Figure 12.6
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
Example 12.4
A force of 25 N is applied to the end of a wire that is 4 m long,
and causes an extension of 0.20 mm. If the diameter of the
wire is 2 mm, calculate
a) the stress,

b) the strain,

c) the Young’s modulus

Solution
a) F mg 25
σ = = = −3 2
=
A πr 2
π (1.00 × 10 )
e 0.20 × 10− 2
b) ε = = =
l 4

σ
c) E= =
ε 21
PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
Example 12.5
A thin steel wire initially 1.5 m long and of diameter 0.50 mm is
suspended from a rigid support. A mass of 3 kg is attached to the
lower end of the wire. Calculate
a. the extension of the wire,
b. the energy stored in the wire.
(Young’s modulus for steel = 2.0 × 1011 N m−2)
−3
Solution : m = 3 kg; l0 = 1.5 m; d = 0.5 × 10 m
Y = 2.0 × 1011 N m − 2
a. The cross sectional area of the wire is
π d2 π ( 0.5 × 10 −3
) = 1.96 × 10
A= A= −7
m2
4 4
The applied force to the wire is given by
F = W = mg
= 3( 9.81)
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
−3
Solution : m = 3 kg; l 0 = 1.5 m; d = 0. 5 × 10 m
Y = 2.0 × 1011 N m − 2
a. By applying the Young’s modulus formulae, hence
Fl0
Y=
Ae
2.0 × 10 =
11 ( 29.4 )(1.5)
(
1.96 × 10 − 7 e )
b. By applying the equation of the strain energy, thus
1
Energy stored = Fe
2
1
(
= ( 29.4) 1.13 × 10 − 3
2
)
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
Example 12.6
A copper wire LM is fused at one end, M to an iron wire MN as
shown in figure below.

L M N F
The copper wire has length 0.90 m and cross-section area
0.90 × 10−6 m2. The iron has length 1.40 m and cross-section
area 1.30 × 10−6 m2. The compound wire is stretched and the total
length increases by 0.01 m. Determine
a. the ratio of the extension of copper wire to the extension of iron
wire,
b. the extension of each wire,
c. the applied force to the compound wire.
(Given Y iron = 2.10 × 1011 Pa ,Y copper = 1.30 × 1011 Pa )

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
Solution : l0C = 0.90 m; AC = 0.90 × 10 − 6 m 2 ; l0I = 1.40 m;
AI = 1.30 × 10 − 6 m 2 ; e total = 0.01 m;
YC = 1.30 × 1011 Pa; YI = 2.10 × 1011 Pa;
Fl0 Fl0
a. Apply : Y= thus e =
Ae YA
Hence the ratio of extensions is given by
FC l0C
eC YC AC
= and FC = FI = F
eI FI l0 I
YI AI
eC YI AI l0C
=
eC
=
( )( )
2.10 × 1011 1.30 × 10 − 6 ( 0.90 )
eI YC AC l0 I eI ( )( )
1.30 × 1011 0.90 × 10 − 6 (1.40 )
PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
Solution :
b. The total extension of the compound wire is
etotal = eC + eI and eC = 1.5eI
Hence the extension of the iron wire is
0.01 = 1.5eI + eI
eI = 4.0 × 10 − 3 m
and the entension of the copper wire is
eC = 1.5( 4.0 × 10 − 3 )

c. The applied force is given by

Fl0C F ( 0.90 )
YC =
AC eC
(1.30 × 10 ) (
11
=
)(
0.90 × 10 − 6 6.0 × 10 − 3 )
PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
Exercise 12.1
1. A support cable on a bridge has an area of cross-section of
0.0085 m2 and a length of 35 m. It is made of high tensile steel
whose Young’s modulus is 2.8 ×1011 Pa. The tension in the
cable is 720 kN.
Calculate
a. the extension of the cable.
b. the strain energy stored in the cable.
ANS. : 0.0106 m; 3.81 kJ
2. A wire of length 0.50 m is fixed horizontally between two
supports separated by 0.50 m. When a mass of 8.0 kg hangs
from the middle of the wire, the mid-point sags by 1.00 cm. The
diameter of the wire is 2.8 mm. Calculate the Young’s modulus
of the wire.
(Given g = 9.81 m s−2)
ANS. : 1.99 × 1011 Pa

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
3. Wire A has twice the radius of wire B. The Young’s modulus
for B is twice that of A. One end of A is joined to one end of
B. A mass of 3 kg is suspended vertically from the free end
of B. If the length of wire B is increased by 1%, calculate the
percentage increase in the length of wire A.

Answer: 0.125%

4. A rubber cord of a catapult has a cross-sectional area of 2.0

mm2 and a length of 10.0 cm. It is stretched to 12.0 cm and
then released to vertically launch a stone of mass 30 g.
Determine the velocity of the stone if the Young’s modulus
of rubber is 5.0×108 N m-2 .

Answer: 16.33 m s-1

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
5.

The stress exerted on a wire and the strain produced are

shown in Figure 12.5.
E
C
B
A
stress

0 strain

Figure12.7
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 12

a) Explain the physical meaning of the points A,B,C

and E shown in Figure 12.5 .
b) Explain how you would determine the energy
stored in the wire.
c) How would you differentiate between a brittle and
a ductile material?
d) State two important characteristics of rubber.
e) Define Young’s Modulus.
f) Explain how you would determine the value of
Young’s Modulus from the graph.
Answer : ....?

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 PHYSICS CHAPTER 12
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THE END…
Next Chapter…
CHAPTER 13 :
Heat

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