Chapter 1.

The Integral1
MAC 2312 - 81054

1. Riemann Sums and the Definite Integral

Example 1.1. The velocity of a projectile fired straight into the air is
v(t) = 49 − 9.8t m/sec.
(1) Find an lower estimate for the total distance traveled by the projectile during the first four
seconds using n = 4 and n = 5 number of subintervals of [0, 4] of the same size. Which
lower estimate is better?

(2) In view of the answer obtained in part 1, can you write a formula that represents the exact
distance traveled by the projectile during the first four seconds?

1
By Alberto A. Condori. Department of Mathematics, Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL 33965.
[email protected].
1
MAC 2312 - 81054 Calculus II Fall 2020

The General Framework: Given a function f on an interval [a, b], we

b−a
(1) divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of the same size ∆x = ,
n
(2) take a sample of the y-values of a function f within each of the n subintervals, say
f (c1 ), f (c2 ), . . . , f (cn ), and
(3) compute the sum
n
X
f (c1 ) · ∆x + f (c2 ) · ∆x + . . . + f (cn ) · ∆x = f (ck )∆x. (1.1)
k=1
(This quantity is often called a Riemann sum.)

The Main Conclusion: Better estimates on a desired quantity (e.g. total distance traveled
and length, respectively) can be obtained by sampling the function more often; that is, compute
the sum (1.1) with more terms, or equivalently, more subintervals. This is of course equivalent to
allowing n grow larger.

Hence, we are led to compute the following limit

n
X
lim [f (c1 ) · ∆x + f (c2 ) · ∆x + . . . + f (cn ) · ∆x] = lim f (ck )∆x. (1.2)
n→∞ n→∞
k=1
Z b
To avoid this cumbersome notation, we denote this limit by f (x) dx instead because
a
• the only two ingredients needed for its computation are the interval [a, b] and the function
f , and
• the limit came about from computing a sum2 of products of the form f (x) × ∆x.
Z b
The number f (x) dx is called the definite integral of f over [a, b]. Here
a

(1) b is referred to as

(2) a is referred to as

(3) f (x) is referred to as

(4) x is referred to as

Z b
Warning! Recall that f (x) dx denotes the limit in (1.2). This limit need not exist in general.
a
On the other hand, as it turns out, if f is a continuous function on [a, b], then the limit (1.2) exists.
2The symbol R was adopted and adapted by G. Leibniz in 1675 from the word R umma, i.e. “sum”.

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Example 1.2. For the velocity function in Example 1.1, the lower estimates for the distance
traveled represent (fill in the blanks):
a Riemann sum for v(t) on the interval with

subintervals, taking the sample points to be endpoints.

Example 1.3. Express the integral as a limit of Riemann sums. Do not evaluate the limit.
Z 3 x
(1) x sin dx
0 3

Z 9
x
(2) √ dx
1 1+ x

2. Geometric Interpretation of the Integral

The summands in a Riemann sum (1.1) have the following geometric interpretation:
f (ck ) · ∆x represents the area of the box with height f (ck ) and width ∆x whenever
f (ck ) is positive.
Notice that if the number n of subintervals used in a Riemann sum is large and f is positive, then
the box with height f (ck ) and width ∆x is very close to the area enclosed by the graph of f is the
respective subinterval. Consequently,
Rb
If f is positive and continuous on [a, b], then a f (x) dx represents the area enclosed
by the graph of f and the x-axis on the interval [a, b].
Example 2.1. Use geometric arguments to evaluate the following.
Z 5
(1) |x| dx
−2

Z 0
(2) the area enclosed by g(x) = x and the x-axis on interval [−2, 0] and x dx
−2

Rb
Remark 2.2. If f is negative on [a, b] (c.f. Example 2.1), then a f (x) dx is also negative and equals
the negative of the area of the region between f and the x-axis on [a, b].
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Example 2.3. Use the graph of the function y = h(x) as shown in Figure 1, to find

Figure 1. The graph of the function h in Example 2.3

Z 0
(1) h(x) dx
−6

Z 4
(2) h(x) dx
2

(3) area between h and the x-axis on [0, 6]

Z 6
(4) h(x) dx
−6

(5) area between h and the x-axis on [−6, 6]

Example
Z 0 2.4. Evaluate the integral by interpreting it in terms of areas.
p
1 + 16 − x2 dx
−4

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3. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

As seen in the previous section, it is important to compute the definite integral,
Z b Xn
f (x) dx = lim f (ck ) · ∆x,
a n→∞
k=1
because this number could represent total distance traveled, the length of a curve, or the area
enclosed by a curve and the x-axis. However, using the limit definition of the integral is of limited
computational value; after all, computing a Riemann sum can be very tedious. The following part
of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus allows one to find the value of a definite integral without
having to compute any Riemann sums.

In this section, we discuss the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. This theorem establishes an
important connection between two distinct branches of Calculus: differentiation and integration.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus - Part 2. If f is a continuous function on [a, b] and F

Z b
0
is a function such that F (x) = f (x), then f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a
Any function F such that F 0 (x) = f (x) is called an antiderivative of f . Thus, in order for this
theorem to be useful, we must be able to recognize when a function (f ) is the derivative of another
function (F ).

F (x) xp ea·x ln |x| sin(x) sinh(x)

f (x)

F (x) cos(x) tan(x) sin−1 (x) tan−1 (x)

f (x)

Example 3.1. Evaluate the following definite integrals:

Z 2 
2 1
(1) 3x − dx
1 x

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Z 4 
2π
(2) 5x − √ dx
1 3 x

Z π/4
1 + tan2 x dx


(3)
0

Remark. To avoid the side work, we use the notation:

Z 1
(4) (2x + 3)(x2 + 5) dx
0

Z 1  
1 4
(5) √ + dx
1/2 1−x 2 x

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MAC 2312 - 81054 Calculus II Fall 2020

Example 3.2. Compute the area of the region between f (x) = x3 − x2 − 2x and the x-axis on
[−1, 2].

Moral of the story: Many quantities in applications can be represented in terms

of definite integrals and the FTC is the key to compute their values!
Thus, it is important to be able to determine the antiderivative F (x) of a function f (x). The
collection of all possible antiderivatives of f is denoted by
Z
f (x) dx.

For instance, Z
cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C,
Z
where C is an arbitrary constant. f (x) dx is called the indefinite integral of f .

Example 3.3. Find the following indefinite integrals:

Z  √4 9

2 3 3
(1) 7 + x + 5x + x + √ 7
dx
x2

Z √
3

x+4
(2) √ dx
x

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MAC 2312 - 81054 Calculus II Fall 2020
Z x
Example 3.4. Let G(x) = t2 dt. Compute G(x) and G0 (x).
1

Fundamental Theorem R x of Calculus - Part 1. Suppose f is a continuous function on [a, b].

Then the function G(x) = a f (t) dt has derivative G0 (x) = f (x) for a < x < b.
Example 3.5. Find the derivatives of the following functions.
Z x
5
(1) G(x) = 2 2020
dt
1 (t + 3)

Z 2020
5t + 1
(2) H(x) = dt
x t2 + 3

√
Z x
(3) K(x) = sin t dt
π

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4. The Substitution Rule

As seen in the previous section, every differentiation formula yields an integration formula. For
instance,
Z
d 2
tan x = sec x yields sec2 x dx = tan x + C.
dx
More generally, Z
h0 (x) dx =
Z  
5
Example 4.1. Find ex · x4 dx.

Integral form of the Chain Rule. The Chain Rule states that
the derivative of f (g(x)) equals f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x).
Z
Therefore, f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) dx = f (g(x)) + C.

The Substitution Rule. Notice that if we let u = g(x), then the two formulas shown above
lead to the following: Z Z
f (g(x)) · g (x) dx = f 0 (u) du.
0 0

This is called the Substitution Rule; it makes the use of the “integral form of the chain rule”
somewhat more procedural.
Example
Z 4.2. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
cos 3x2 + 5 x dx


(1)

Z
(2) e7 tan t+3 sec2 t dt

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MAC 2312 - 81054 Calculus II Fall 2020
Z
(3) cos z · sin2 z dz

Example
Z 4.3. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
p
(1) x2 4 + 5x3 dx

ln(s7 )
Z
(2) ds
s

Z
1
(3) √ dy
cos2 y 1 + tan y

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MAC 2312 - 81054 Calculus II Fall 2020
Z
1
(4) p dq
1 − 9q 2

Z
4t
(5) dt
(3t2 + 1)2

Z
4
(6) dt
3t2 +1

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MAC 2312 - 81054 Calculus II Fall 2020
Z b
Important: In the notation f (x) dx, it is implicitly assumed that the limits of integration
Za d
a and b are x-values. Likewise, f (u) du assumes that c and d are u-values! Therefore, when
c
using the Substitution Rule with a definite integral, be sure that the limits of integration consist
of u-values!
Example 4.4. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
Z 1 p
(1) x2 x3 + 1 dx
−1

Z 1
y
(2) dy
0 y+1

Z  
1
Example 4.5. Compute x csc2 (x2 + 1) + 2
dx.
x +1

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