The same functional groups found in organic

compounds are also present in biochemical

compounds. Usually, however, there is a greater
structural complexity associated with biochemical
compounds as a result of polyfuncti0nality; several
Topic Outline: different functional groups are present. Often
biochemical compounds interact with each other,
a. Occurrence, properties, physiological within cells, to form larger structures. But the same
functions of Carbohydrates chemical principles and chemical reactions
b. Classification of Carbohydrates associated with the various organic functional groups
c. Structure and Backbone of Carbohydrates that were previously considered apply to these larger
d. Carbohydrates Metabolism biochemical structures as well.

Objectives: BIOCHEMISTRY
 describe the nature and occurrence of An Overview
Carbohydrates Biochemistry is the study of the chemical
 describe the physical, chemical, substances found in living organisms and the
physiological properties of Carbohydrates chemical interactions of these substances with each
 classify the types of Carbohydrates other. Biochemistry is a field in which new
 illustrate and draw the structure and discoveries are made almost daily about how cells
backbone of Carbohydrates manufacture the molecules needed for life and how
the chemical reactions by which life is maintained
occur. The knowledge explosion that has occurred in
the field of biochemistry during the last decades of
the twentieth century and the beginning of the
twenty-first is truly phenomenal.

A biochemical substance is a chemical

substance found within a living organism.
Biochemical substances are divided into two groups:
bioinorganic substances and bioorganic substances.
Bioinorganic substances include water and
inorganic salts. Bioorganic substances include
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Although the human body is usually thought

The naturally present sugars fructose, glucose, and sucrose
of as containing mainly organic (biochemical)
all contribute to the sweetness of ripe peaches. substances, such substances make up only about
one-fourth of total body mass. The bioinorganic
With this chapter, focus shifts from "organic substance water constitutes more than two-thirds of
chemistry" to "biochemistry." This chapter, and all the human body, and another 4%-5% of body mass
remaining chapters in the textbook, deal with comes from inorganic salts.
biochemical topics, that is, subjects associated with
the chemistry living systems. Only a few of the many
facets of this vast subject can be considered. The
approach for these considerations will be similar to
that previously used for the organic subject matter.
Initial chapters are devoted to each of the major
classes of biochemical compounds (carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids), followed by
chapters addressing the metabolism of
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. In this first
"biochapter," the subject is carbohydrates.
1
 of Carbohydrates
 Human uses for carbohydrates of the plant kingdom
extend beyond food. Carbohydrates a polyhydroxy aldehyde, a
 Carbohydrates in the form of cotton and linen are used as polyhydroxy ketone, or a compound that yields
clothing. polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones upon
 Carbohydrates in the form of wood are used for shelter
and heating in making paper.
hydrolysis. It is also the most abundant class of
bioorganic molecules on planet earth. Also known as
saccharides or carbs, are sugars or starches.
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of molecular
size as;
Carbohydrates are the most abundant
class of bioorganic molecules on planet Earth.
Although their abundance in the human body is
relatively low (Section 1-1), carbohydrates  a carbohydrates that contains a single polyhydroxy
constitute about 75% by mass of dry plant aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone unit.
materials (Figure 1-2). ◄  are the simplest sugars and serve
as the building blocks of larger molecules.
Green (chlorophyll-containing) plants  pure monosaccharides are water soluble, white,
produce carbohydrates via photosynthesis. In this crystalline solids.
process, carbon dioxide from the air and water
from the soil are the reactants, and sunlight
Food Examples:
absorbed by chlorophyll is the energy source.
CO2 + H2O + solar energy Chlorophyll
carbohydrates + O2
Plant Enzymes

Figure 1-2 Most of the matter in plants, except water, is

carbohydrate material. Photosynthesis, the process by which
carbohydrates are made, requires sunlight.

Plants have two main uses for the

carbohydrates they produce. In the form of
cellulose, carbohydrates serve as structural
element, and in the form of starch, they provide
energy reserves for the plants.

Dietary intake of plant materials is the

major carbohydrate source for human and
animals. The average human diet should ideally
be about two-thirds carbohydrates by mass.
Carbohydrates have the following functions in
humans:

1. Carbohydrate oxidation provides energy.

2. Carbohydrate storage, in the form of glycogen,
provides a short-term energy reserves.
3. Carbohydrates supply carbon atoms for the
synthesis of other biochemical substances
(proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids).
4. Carbohydrates form part of the structural
framework of DNA and RNA molecules.
5. Carbohydrates linked to lipids (Chapter 2) are
structural components of cell membranes.
6. Carbohydrates linked to proteins (Chapter 3) 2
function in a variety of cell-cell and cell-
molecule recognition processes.
 Monosaccharaides are classified as aldoses or ketones
on the basis of what type of carbonyl group is present.
 Aldose - a monosaccharide that
contains an aldehyde functional
group. Aldoses are polyhydroxy
aldehydes.
 Ketose - a monosaccharide that
contains a ketone functional group.
Ketoses are polyhydroxy ketones.

Monosaccharaides are often

classified by both number of carbon atoms
and their functional group.

In the terms of carbon atoms, trioses

ate the smallest monosaccharides that can
exist. There are two compounds, one an
aldose ( glyceraldehyde) and the other a
ketose ( dihydroxyacetone).

Sugar is a general designation for

either a monosaccharide or a
disaccharaides.

FISCHER PROJECTION
 Carbohydrate nomenclature is unique to ―sugar
OF SUGAR MOLECULES
chemistry‖ — we do not name monosaccharides
using the IUPAC rules.
 Monosaccharide names end in ―ose‖

Examples:

Monossacharides are divided into (2)

families the D form and L form sugars.

 D: the –OH group on the chiral C

furthest from the C=O comes out of
the plane of paper and points to the
right.
 L: the –OH group on the chiral C
D-Glyceraldehyde and Dihydroxyacetone furthest from the C=O comes out of
 the simplest of the monosaccharides, these two the plane of paper and points to the
trioses are important intermediates in the process of left.
glycolysis.
 Glycolysis is a series of reactions that extract energy
We will briefly survey some important
from glucose by splitting it into two three-carbon
molecules called pyruvates. pentoses and hexoses, and their derivatives.
3
D-Glyceraldehyde is a chiral molecule, but
Dihydroxyacetone is not.
 D-glucose also called dextrose or blood sugar,
A hydroxyl group in a monosaccharide can
is the most important monosaccharide in human
react with the carbonyl to form a cyclic hemiacetal.
metabolism. It tastes sweet, nutritious, and is an
Hemiacetals are made by the reaction of an
important component of human diet.
aldehyde with an alcohol. A hemiacetal contains a C
atom bonded to an -OH and an -OR group.

A monosaccharide contains both an alcohol

and an aldehyde group. It can react with itself to form
a cyclic hemiacetal.

fruit sugar, is most common natural ketoses.

Honey is 40% fructose

sometimes called "brain sugar" it is a component of

glycoproteins found in brain and nerve tissue. It is also
Special terminology exist for the hemiacetal
present in the chemical markers that distinguish
carbon atom presents in a cyclic monosaccharides
various types of blood—A, B, AB and O. structure. This carbon atom is called the "anomeric
carbon atom." An anomeric carbon atom is the
hemiacetal carbon present in a cyclic monossacharide
structure.

 is a pentose
 a component of a variety of complex
molecules, including ribonucleic acids 4
(RNAs) and energy-rich compounds such as
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
 Cyclic monosaccharide formation always The pair of cyclic hemiacetals with the OH on the
produces two stereoisomers an alpha form and a hemiacetal carbon in different positions are called
beta form. These two isomers are called anomers. anomers.
Anomers are cyclic monosaccharaides that differ For D-sugars:
only in the position of the substituents on the The α-anomer has the OH pointing down.
anomeric carbon atom. The β-anomer has the OH pointing up.

Monosaccharides: Reactions of Monosaccharides.

Reactions of monosaccharides are rxns of carbonyl
Their Cyclic Form and hydroxyl groups

– Aldehyde and ketone groups can be reduced

Cyclic forms of monosaccharaides are usually – Aldehyde and alcohol groups can be oxidized
drawn with the Haworth. Projection in which the ring
is viewed from the side at an angle. The edge of the Oxidation of Monosaccharides
ring closest to the viewer is drawn with a bold line for Benedict’s reagent is a copper compound that
perspective. Substituents on the ring in a Haworth will oxidize only aldehyde groups (aldoses) and not
projection are either ―up‖ or ―down‖. alcohols.
A sugar that reacts with Benedict’s solution is
called a reducing sugar since it reduces the ion Cu2+
à Cu+

NOTE: Some Ketoses give positive results for

Benedict’s test because they rearrange to aldehydes
in the strongly basic Benedict solutions.

5
 Food examples:
The bond that links the two
SUGAR ALCOHOLS monosaccharides of a disaccharide (glycoside)
together is called a glycosidic linkage. A glycosidic
linkage is the bond between two monosaccharides
The carbonyl group present in a
resulting from the reaction between the
monosaccharide (either an aldose or a ketone) hemiacetal carbon atom-OH group of one
can be reduced to a hydroxyl group, using monosaccharide and an-OH group on the other
hydrogen as the reducing agent. For aldoses monosaccharide. It is always a carbon-oxygen-
carbon bond in a disaccharide.
and Ketoses, the product of the reduction is the
corresponding polyhydroxy alcohols. Such
polyhydroxy alcohols are called sugar alcohols
or alditols. For example, the reduction of D-
glucose gives D-glucitol.

A carbohydrates that contains two

monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each
other. Disaccharides are crystalline and water-
soluble substances.

Examples:
 Sucrose (table sugar)- It is purified from
sugar cane or sugar beets.
 Lactose (milk sugar)- a disaccharide found
in milk. It has the formula C12H22O11 and
is an isomer of sucrose.
 Maltose (malt sugar)- a sugar found in
some cereals and candies. It is a product of
starch digestions and may be purified from
barley and other grains.

 are short polymers containing 2-10

monosaccharide residues.

 a carbohydrates that contains three to ten

monosaccharide units covalently bonded
to each other.

6
Example: Most common oligosaccharides are
disaccharides
Cellobiose is a disaccharide formed when the
polysaccharide cellulose is broken down. The following are found in peas and beans:
Cellobiose is made by connecting two glucose
molecule by a β(1à4) glycosidic bond. Raffinose (trisaccharide)
Stachyose (tetrasaccharide)
Cellobiose cannot be used as a source of glucose Verbascose (pentasaccharide)
by humans since we lack the enzyme to
hydrolyze the glycosidic bond. These oligosaccharides are indigestible since they
contain galactopyranose residues involved in α-
(1à6) glycosidic bonds that humans lack the
enzyme to hydrolyze.
 is a disaccharide found in milk
 consists of a galactose connected to a
glucose residue by a β(1à4) glycosidic
bond.
 sounds like cellobiose! But the OH on C-4
is up in galactose and down in glucose.
 intolerance is the inability to hydrolyze
lactose due to an enzyme deficiency.  a polymeric carbohydrates that contains many
monosaccharide units covalently bonded to
each other.
 often also called glycan’s
 Glycan is an alternate name for
Sucrose, or table sugar, is a disaccharide with
polysaccharide.
two twists: different residues and no
hemiacetal. The glycosidic bond in sucrose is
formed between the hemiacetal C of α-
glucopyranose and the hemiacetal C of β-
fructofuranose This is an α,β-(1↔2) glycosidic
bond.

7
Polysaccharides contain 10 or more residues In a Chitin is a homopolysaccharide of the glucose
homopolysaccharide, all the residues are the same derivative N-acetyl-D-glucosamine-Chitin makes
monosaccharide In a heteropolysaccharide, the up the hard exoskeleton of crustaceans and
residues are built from more than one type of insects.
monosaccharide The primary functions of
polysaccharides are to: Provide structure (e.g. -The polymer chains hydrogen bond to each other
cellulose) leading to chitin’s rigidity.

Store energy (e.g. starch and glycogen) Example of a heteropolysaccharide is hyaluronic

acid.

Hyaluronic acid is found in the lubricating

fluid that surrounds joints, and also in the vitreous
humor inside the eye.

A storage polysaccharide is a polysaccharide that

is a storage from for monosaccharides and is used
as an energy source in cells.

Starch is a homopolysaccharide used by some

plants to store energy; there are 2 components of
starch:

1) Amylose - an unbranched-chain glucose

polymer, usually accounts for 15%-20% of the
starch.

2) Amylopectin - a branched glucose polymer,

accounts for the remaining 80%-85% of the
starch.

Glycogen, or animal starch, is very similar to

amylopectin, except that the chains in glycogen
branch more frequently.

8
 Most people are familiar with
carbohydrates, one type of macromolecule,
especially when it comes to what we eat. To lose
weight, some individuals adhere to ―low-carb‖
diets. Athletes, in contrast, often “carb-load”
before important competitions to ensure that
they have enough energy to compete at a high
level.

Carbohydrates are, in fact, an essential part of

our diet; grains, fruits, and vegetables are all
natural sources of carbohydrates.

 Carbohydrates provide energy to the

body, particularly through glucose, a
simple sugar that is a component of
starch and an ingredient in many staple
foods.
 Carbohydrates also have other important
functions in humans, animals, and plants. Figure 1. Monosaccharide are classified based on the
position of their carbonyl group and the number of
carbons in the backbone. Aldoses have a carbonyl
Carbohydrates can be represented by the group (indicated in green) at the end of the carbon
stoichiometric formula (CH2O)n, where n is the chain, and ketoses have a carbonyl group in the
number of carbons in the molecule. middle of the carbon chain. Trioses, pentoses, and
hexoses have three, five, and six carbon backbones,
Carbohydrates are classified into (3) respectively.
subtypes:
The chemical formula for glucose is
C6H12O6. In humans, glucose is an important source
 Monosaccharides
of energy. During cellular respiration, energy is
 Disaccharides released from glucose, and that energy is used to help
 Polysaccharides make adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Plants
synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water,
and glucose in turn is used for energy requirements
for the plant. Excess glucose is often stored as starch
that is catabolized (the breakdown of larger
molecules by cells) by humans and other animals
that feed on plants.

Monosaccharides (mono– = “one”; Galactose and fructose are other common

sacchar– = “sweet”) are simple sugars, he monosaccharides. Galactose is found in milk sugars
most common of which is glucose. and fructose is found in fruit sugars. Although
In monosaccharide the number of carbons are glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same
usually ranges from 3-7.
chemical formula (C6H12O6), they differ
Mostly monosaccharide names end with the
structurally and chemically (and are known as
suffix –ose.
isomers) because of the different arrangement of
functional groups around the asymmetric carbon; all
of these monosaccharides have more than one
asymmetric carbon.
9
Figure 2. Glucose, galactose, and fructose are all
hexoses. They are structural isomers, meaning they
have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6).

Monosaccharides can exist as a linear chain Figure 3. Sucrose is formed when a monomer of
or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions glucose and a monomer of fructose are joined in a
they are usually found in ring forms. dehydration reaction to form a glycosidic bond. In
Glucose in a ring form can have two different the process, a water molecule is lost. By convention,
arrangements of the hydroxyl group (−OH) the carbon atoms in a monosaccharide are
around the anomeric carbon (carbon 1 that numbered from the terminal carbon closest to the
becomes asymmetric in the process of ring carbonyl group. In sucrose, a glycosidic linkage is
formation). If the hydroxyl group is below carbon formed between carbon 1 in glucose and carbon 2 in
fructose.
number 1 in the sugar, it is said to be in the alpha
(α) position, and if it is above the plane, it is said to
be in the beta (β) position.

Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of the

monomers glucose and galactose. It is found
naturally in milk.

Form when two monosaccharides undergo Maltose, or malt sugar, is a disaccharide

a dehydration reaction (also known as a formed by a dehydration reaction between two
condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis). glucose molecules. The most common disaccharide
During this process, the hydroxyl group of one is sucrose, or table sugar, which is composed of the
monosaccharide combines with the hydrogen of monomers glucose and fructose.
another monosaccharide, releasing a molecule of
water and forming a covalent bond.
A covalent bond formed between a
carbohydrate molecule and another molecule (in
this case, between two monosaccharides) is
known as a glycosidic bond.

10
 Figure 4. Common disaccharides include
maltose (grain sugar), lactose (milk
sugar), and sucrose (table sugar).
Figure 5. Amylose and amylopectin are two
different forms of starch. Amylose is composed of
unbranched chains of glucose monomers
connected by 1,4 glycosidic linkages.
Amylopectin is composed of branched chains of
glucose monomers connected by and 1,6
Polysaccharides is a long chain of glycosidic linkages. Because of the way the
monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bond. subunits are joined, the glucose chains have a
The chain may be branched or unbranched, and helical structure.
it may contain different types of monosaccharides.
The molecular weight may be 100,000 daltons or
more depending on the number of monomers Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in
joined. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin humans and other vertebrates and is made up of
are primary examples of polysaccharides. monomers of glucose.
Starch is the stored form of sugars in plants and is
made up of a mixture of amylose and Cellulose is the most abundant natural
amylopectin (both polymers of glucose). biopolymer.
Starch is made up of glucose monomers that are Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers that are
joined by 1-4 or 1-6 glycosidic bonds. The linked by β 1-4 glycosidic bonds.
numbers 1- 4 and 1-6 refer to the carbon number of
the two residues that have joined to form the bond.

11
 Figure 7. Insects have a hard outer exoskeleton
made of chitin, a type of polysaccharide.

This exoskeleton is made of the biological

macromolecule chitin, which is a polysaccharide-
containing nitrogen.
Chitin is also a major component of fungal cell walls;
fungi are neither animals nor plants and form a
kingdom of their own in the domain Eukarya.

CARBOHYDRATES
METABOLISM
 The whole of the biochemical processes
responsible for the metabolic formation,
Figure 6. In cellulose, glucose monomers are breakdown and interconversion of
linked in unbranched chains by β 1-4 glycosidic carbohydrates in living organism.
linkages. Because of the way the glucose subunits  Carbohydrates are central to many essential
are joined, every glucose monomer is flipped metabolic pathways. Plants synthesize
relative to the next one resulting in a linear, fibrous
carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water
structure.
through photosynthesis, allowing them to store
energy absorbed from sunlight internally.
 When animals and fungi consume plants, they
Carbohydrates serve various functions in use cellular respiration to break down these
different animals. Arthropods (insects, stored carbohydrates to make energy available
crustaceans, and others) have an outer to cells. Both animals and plants temporarily
skeleton, called the exoskeleton, which protects store the released energy in the form of high-
their internal body parts. energy molecules, such as ATP, for use in
various cellular processes.
 Although humans consume a variety of
carbohydrates, digestion breaks down complex
carbohydrates into a few simple monomers
(monosaccharide) for metabolism: glucose,
fructose, and galactose.
 Glucose constitutes about 80% of the products
and is the primary structure that is distributed
to cells in the tissues, where it is broken down
or stored as glycogen.
 In aerobic respiration, the main form of cellular
respiration used by humans, glucose and
oxygen are metabolized to release energy, with
carbon dioxide and water as by products.
 Most of the fructose and galactose travel to the
liver, where they can be converted to glucose.
 Some simple carbohydrates have their own
enzymatic oxidation pathways, as do only a few
of the more complex carbohydrates.
 The disaccharide lactose, for instance, requires
the enzyme lactase to be broken into its
monosaccharide components, 12 glucose and
galactose.
  aerobic oxidation
 Glycolysis
 Gluconeogenesis
 Pentose Phosphate Pathway
 Glycogenesis
 Glycogenolysis

Gluconeogenesis
 the reverse process of glycolysis It involves the
conversion of non-carbohydrate molecules
into glucose
 the non-carbohydrate molecules that are
converted in this pathway include pyruvate,
lactate, glycerol, alanine, and glutamine.
Glycolysis  this process occurs when there are lowered
amounts of glucose.
 the process of breaking down a glucose  the liver is the primary location of
molecule into two pyruvate molecules, while gluconeogenesis, but some also occurs in the
storing energy released during this process as kidney.
ATP and NADH.
 nearly all organisms that break down glucose
utilize glycolysis.
 this pathway is common to both anaerobic
and aerobic respiration

13
Gluconeogenic pathway
The main pathway for gluconeogenesis is
essentially a reversal of glycolysis, but there are
three energy barriers obstructing a simple reversal
of glycolysis.

Glycogenolysis/Glycogen
Catabolism
 the breakdown of glycogen. In the liver,
muscles, and the kidney, this process occurs
to provide glucose when necessary.
 A single glucose molecule is cleaved from a
branch of glycogen, and is 14
transformed into
glucose-1-phosphate during this process
 This molecule can then be converted to
glucose-6-phosphate, an intermediate in Glucagon
the glycolysis pathway.
 Glucose-6-phosphate can then progress  Glucagon in the liver stimulates
through glycolysis. Glycolysis only glycogenolysis when the blood glucose is
requires the input of one molecule of ATP lowered, known as hypoglycemia. The
when the glucose originates in glycogen. glycogen in the liver can function as a backup
source of glucose between meals.
 Alternatively, glucose-6-phosphate can be
converted back into glucose in the liver  Adrenaline stimulates the breakdown of
and the kidneys, allowing it to raise blood glycogen in the skeletal muscle during
glucose levels if necessary. exercise.
 In the muscles, glycogen ensures a rapidly
accessible energy source for movement.

Glycogenesis
 the process of synthesizing glycogen. In
humans, excess glucose is converted to
glycogen via this process
 Glycogen is a highly branched structure,
consisting of glucose, in the form of glucose-
6-phosphate, linked together.
 The branching of glycogen increases its
solubility, and allows for a higher number of
glucose molecules to be accessible for
breakdown.
 Glycogenesis occurs primarily in the liver,
skeletal muscles, and kidney.

15
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
 An alternative method of oxidizing
glucose. It occurs in the liver, adipose
tissue, adrenal cortex, testis, milk glands,
phagocyte cells, and red blood cells.
 It produces products that are used in other
cell processes, while reducing NADP to
NADPH.
 This pathway is regulated through changes Significance of Pentose Phosphate
in the activity of glucose-6-phosphate
pathway:
dehydrogenase.
1. To To supply ribose 5-phosphate for bio-
synthesis of nucleic acid;
2. supply NADPH as H-donor in metabolism

NADPH is very important "reducing power"

for the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol, and
amino acids, etc.

16
 Anabolism of Carbohydrates

Anabolism is the process by which the In these steps simple organic acids can be
body utilizes the energy released by catabolism to converted into monosaccharides such as glucose
synthesize complex molecules. These complex and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as
molecules are then utilized to form cellular starch.
structures that are formed from small and simple
precursors that act as building blocks. Glucose is made from pyruvate, lactate,
glycerol, glycerate 3-phosphate and amino acids
and the process is called gluconeogenesis.

Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to

glucose-6-phosphate through a series of
intermediates, many of which are shared with
glycolysis.

Usually fatty acids stored as adipose tissues

cannot be converted to glucose through
gluconeogenesis as these organisms cannot convert
acetyl-CoA into pyruvate.

Glycans and polysaccharides are complexes

of simple sugars. These additions are made possible
by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar-
phosphate donor, such as uridine diphosphate
glucose (UDP-glucose), to an acceptor hydroxyl
group on the growing polysaccharide.

There are three basic stages of anabolism:

Carbohydrates are a group of
macromolecules that are a vital energy source for
Stage 1 involves production of precursors the cell and provide structural support to plant
such as amino acids, monosaccharides, cells, fungi, and all of the arthropods that include
isoprenoids and nucleotides. lobsters, crabs, shrimp, insects, and Carbohydrates
are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides,
Stage 2 involves activation of these and polysaccharides depending on the number of
precursors into reactive forms using energy monomers in the molecule.
from ATP Monosaccharides are linked by glycosidic
bonds that are formed as a result of dehydration
Stage 3 involves the assembly of these reactions, forming disaccharides and
precursors into complex molecules such as polysaccharides with the elimination of a water
proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic molecule for each bond formed.
acids
Glucose, galactose, and fructose are
common monosaccharides, whereas common
disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose.
Starch and glycogen, examples of polysaccharides,
are the storage forms of glucose in plants and
animals, respectively.
17
 The long polysaccharide chains may be branched or unbranched. Cellulose is an example of an
unbranched polysaccharide, whereas amylopectin, a constituent of starch, is a highly branched molecule.
Storage of glucose, in the form of polymers like starch of glycogen, makes it slightly less accessible for
metabolism; however, this prevents it from leaking out of the cell or creating a high osmotic pressure that could
cause excessive water uptake by the cell.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1carbohydrates/chapter/reading-types-of-/

18