Children,

International Protection
Evarist Baimu

Content Product: Max Planck

type: Encyclopedia entries Encyclopedia of Public
Article last updated: April International Law [MPEPIL]
2013

Subject(s):
Children, rights
Published under the auspices of the Max Planck Foundation for International Peace and the Rule of Law
under the direction of Rüdiger Wolfrum.

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 A. Introduction: Objective of International Protection of Children
1 According to the → United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), nearly eight million children died in
2010 before reaching the age of five, largely due to preventable causes such as pneumonia,
diarrhoea, and birth complications (State of the World’s Children Report 2012 14). Millions of
others are engaged in the worst forms of child labour, including active participation in hostilities
(→ Children and Armed Conflict). These, and other children in difficult situations, need protection.
In this contribution the term ‘children’ refers to persons below the age of 18. Children need
protection because their physical and mental immaturity makes them vulnerable. As noted in para.
9 Preamble to the Convention on the Rights of the Child (‘CRC’) ‘the child, by reason of his physical
and mental immaturity, needs special safeguards and care, including appropriate legal protection,
before as well as after birth’. Children are afforded protection through the articulation and
enforcement of international law norms developed at global and regional levels.

2 A growing corpus of international law protecting children exists with roots in such diverse areas
as international → human rights law, → international criminal law, international refugee law
(→ Refugees), international humanitarian law (→ Humanitarian Law, International), international
labour law (→ Labour Law, International), and international environmental law. While all → sources
of international law are relevant, treaty-based and customary international law sources of
international law norms protecting children attract the most attention.

3 International treaty standards protecting children become meaningful and potentially

transformational when they are given legal effect in the States Parties’ domestic legal systems. With
respect to human rights treaties for example, the implementation of treaty-based obligations to
protect children requires States Parties to take all appropriate legislative, policy, administrative, and
other measures for implementation of the rights contained therein (→ Human Rights, Domestic
Implementation).

B. The Scope of International Protection of Children

1. Guaranteeing Children’s Rights

4 Among various international treaties articulating international standards for the protection of
children, human rights treaties tend to be the most comprehensive. The CRC is the most important
among all human rights treaties protecting the rights of the child. This convention and its two
optional protocols, on involvement of children in armed conflict and on sale of children, child
prostitution, and child pornography (→ Human Trafficking) enshrine rights that are applicable to
children only.

5 The CRC and other human rights treaties articulate various children’s rights, including rights
linked to their civil status such as the right to a name, the right to acquire a → nationality, the right
to preserve one’s identity, and the right not to be separated from the parents against a child’s will
(→ Family, Right to, International Protection). The treaties also enshrine generic rights such as the
freedom of expression, thought, conscience, and religion, freedom of association, and freedom of
peaceful assembly. Other generic rights include the right to privacy, the right to access to
information, and the right to freedom from torture.

6 There is a panoply of economic, social, and cultural rights recognized under international law
and articulated in the CRC and other human rights treaties. These include the right to education
(→ Education, Right to, International Protection), the right to enjoy the highest attainable standard
of health and facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health (→ Health, Right to,
International Protection), the right to benefit from social security (→ Social Security, Right to,
International Protection), and the right to a standard of living adequate for a child’s physical,
mental, spiritual, moral, and social development (→ Standard of Living, Promotion of). Under this

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 rubric one may also add various rights for children in special circumstances including children with
disabilities (→ Disabled People, Non-Discrimination of), orphans and vulnerable children, refugee
children, as well as minority and indigenous children (→ Indigenous Peoples; → Minorities,
International Protection). With respect to the implementation of these rights, States Parties to the
CRC are only required to undertake such measures progressively, to the maximum extent of their
available resources and, where needed, within the framework of international cooperation.

7 The implementation of treaty-based obligations to protect children requires States Parties to take
all appropriate legislative, policy, administrative, and other measures for the implementation of the
rights contained therein. This includes ensuring, by all appropriate means, that the CRC provisions
are given legal effect in the States Parties’ domestic legal systems. In giving effect to the obligations
under the CRC, the Committee on the Right of the Child (‘CRC Committee’) has indicated that four
general principles—non-discrimination (Art. 2 CRC), the best interests of the child (Art. 3 CRC), the
right to life, survival, and development (Art. 6 CRC; → Life, Right to, International Protection;
→ Development, Right to, International Protection), and respect for the views of the child (Art. 12
CRC)—have to be reflected in legislation and customary law as well as actions taken by social
welfare institutions, courts of law, and administrative authorities.

2. Development and Survival of the Child

8 States that have ratified the CRC have the obligation to ensure to the maximum extent possible
the survival and development of the child. Implementation of this obligation requires a holistic
approach in enforcing all CRC provisions including those protecting, inter alia, the right to
education, healthcare, nutrition (→ Food, Right to, International Protection), and social security as
well as those recognizing responsibilities of the parents. It also entails the improvement of perinatal
care for mothers and babies, working to reduce the infant and child mortality rate, and the creation
of conditions that improve the well-being of children. Aspects hereof have been captured in the
Millennium Development Goals (→ United Nations, Millennium Declaration), which include
reducing by 2/3, between 1990 and 2015 the under-five mortality rate, reducing by 3/4 the
maternal mortality ratio, and ensuring universal primary education for all children.

3. Protection of Children in Family Environment and Alternative Care

9 The CRC contains provisions which require States to protect the child from all forms of physical
or mental violence, injury, or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation,
including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s), or any other person who
has the care of the child. The CRC stipulates that a child temporarily or permanently deprived of his
or her family environment, or in whose own best interests cannot be allowed to remain in that
environment, shall be entitled to special protection and assistance provided by the State. In
addition, the CRC recognizes that inter-country adoption may be considered as an alternative
means of child care, if the child cannot be placed in a foster or an adoptive family, or cannot in any
suitable manner be cared for in the child’s country of origin.

10 International legal instruments tend to combine the legal protection of the child with efforts to
promote and preserve family life, on the assumption that children’s protection can be accomplished
in the context of a family as a unit of society. Yet, it is also not uncommon for violations of
children’s rights, including child abuse and neglect, corporal punishment, child marriage, and
harmful practices such as female genital mutilation, to take place in the family setting. Handling this
double-sided role of the family in child protection is a continuing challenge in the efforts to ensure
international protection of children. Likewise while cyberspace offers children opportunities to
exercise their right to access information and express themselves, it also exposes such children to
violence including cyber-bullying and cyber-grooming.

11 Related to the protection of children in a family setting is the question of → child abduction

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 across borders. This issue has public as well as → private international law dimensions. On the
public international law front, the CRC requires States Parties to take measures to combat the illicit
transfer and non-return of children abroad. On the private international law front, there are treaties
which seek to protect children from, among other things, abduction and trafficking, and which also
enforce child support obligations and child custody. One of the key global instruments in this
respect is the Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction of 1980. This
convention has two aims: first, to secure the prompt return of children wrongfully removed to or
retained in any State Party; and second, to ensure that rights of custody and of access under the
law of one State Party are effectively respected in the other States Parties.

12 Equivalent treaties exist at regional level, for example the European Convention on Recognition
and Enforcement of Decisions Concerning Custody of Children and on Restoration of Custody of
Children of 1980. In the Americas, international treaties protecting children have been adopted
under the auspices of the → Organization of American States (OAS). These include the 1984 Inter-
American Convention on Conflict of Laws Concerning the Adoption of Minors, the 1989 Inter-
American Convention on Support Obligations, the 1989 Inter-American Convention on the
International Return of Children and the 1994 Inter-American Convention on International Traffic in
Minors.

4. Protection of Children in Armed Conflict

13 The CRC restricts the involvement of children in armed conflict by only allowing children aged
16 or above to be recruited or used in armed conflict. The 1990 African Charter on the Rights and
Welfare of the Child (‘African Children’s Charter’) of the → African Union (AU) prohibits the use of
children in armed conflict or recruitment of children in the → armed forces. One of the two optional
protocols to the CRC prohibits the use of children below 18 in hostilities and compulsory recruitment
of children (see also → Forced Labour/Slave Labour). However, children who are 16 or older may
be voluntarily recruited into the armed forces.

14 Most of international humanitarian law norms apply to children by virtue of the latter’s status as
members of a protected group such as civilians or non-combatants (→ Civilian Population in
Armed Conflict). The four → Geneva Conventions I–IV (1949) and the Additional Protocols
(→ Geneva Conventions Additional Protocol I [1977]; → Geneva Conventions Additional Protocol
II [1977]) impose specific obligations on belligerents aimed at protecting children. The Geneva
Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, for example, requires
special treatment for children with regards to material for relief, distribution of food, and medical
care, as well as family reunification. The four Geneva Conventions have received almost universal
ratification. Additionally, it is significant that elements of the four Geneva Conventions, for example
rules in Common Art. 3 Geneva Conventions, are widely regarded as having the status of
customary international law, which means they are binding even on States that have not ratified the
treaties, unless these States have persistently objected to such norms (→ Persistent Objector).

15 The Statute of the → International Criminal Court (ICC) (‘Rome Statute’; [adopted 17 July 1998,
entered into force 1 July 2002] 2187 UNTS 90), which is widely regarded as reflecting the existing
customary international law on international crimes, lists the following as crimes under international
law: → genocide, → crimes against humanity, → war crimes, and the crime of → aggression.
Children are protected by virtue of being a member of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group in
the case of genocide; civilian population in the case of crimes against humanity; or a person
protected under the provisions of the applicable Geneva Convention or Additional Protocol in the
case of war crimes. The criminalization of these egregious violations of human rights affords
additional protection to all individuals and groups including children.

16 Children are also expressly protected under the crime of genocide, which prohibits forcible
transfer of children of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group to another group committed with

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 the intent to destroy in whole or in part the former group. The Rome Statute also criminalizes
conscripting or enlisting children under the age of 15 into armed forces or groups or using them to
participate actively in hostilities. In Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and
Santigie Borbor Kanu (‘Brima Case’) the Appeals Chamber of the Special Court for Sierra Leone
(→ Mixed Criminal Tribunals [Sierra Leone, East Timor, Kosovo, Cambodia]) affirmed that
conscripting, enlisting, and using children under 15 in hostilities is a war crime under customary
international law. In the same case, the chamber also indicated that forced marriage of girls as part
of a widespread and systematic attack against the civilian population, constitutes an ‘other
inhumane act’ (at para. 202) qualifying as a crime against humanity.

5. Protection of Unaccompanied or Separated Children Including

Asylum-Seeking, Refugee, Stateless, and Internally Displaced
Children
17 Non-refoulement obligations concerning unaccompanied or separated children derive from
international human rights, humanitarian, and refugee law. The key international instruments in this
regard are the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (‘UN Refugee
Convention’ [adopted 28 July 1951, entered into force 22 April 1954] 189 UNTS 150) and its
supplemental instrument, the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees ([adopted 31 January
1967, entered into force 4 October 1967] 606 UNTS 267). These instruments lay out
comprehensive standards of protection, treatment, and the rights of refugees, including provisions
relating to movement (→ Movement, Freedom of, International Protection), personal security
(→ Security, Right to, International Protection), education, identity papers and travel documents,
housing (→ Housing, Right to, International Protection), employment, and religion. The definition of
who is a ‘refugee’ in these instruments establishes who can claim the refugee status and
consequential international protection and assistance, including the rights enumerated above.

18 However, the CRC falls short in some respects of its quest to protect child refugees. Its
definition of the refugee child is still too narrow as it is based on the 1951 UN Refugee Convention.
The Convention defines a refugee as a person who is outside the country of his nationality and is
unable or unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country due to well-founded fear of
being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group,
or political opinion. This definition is restrictive as it is based on individually determined subjective
fear of persecution and ignores the group dimension, ie the possibility that individuals may flee their
country of origin for reasons other than individual persecution. In addition, the CRC is silent on the
need to protect internally displaced children and neither does it require States to provide asylum
(→ Asylum, Territorial) or the right of entry to children (→ Immigration).

19 The applicable regional instrument in Africa, the AU’s African Children’s Charter, goes some
way to address these limitations. First, it is to be applied in light of other regional instruments,
including Art. 1 (2) AU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa
([adopted 10 September 1969, entered into force 20 June 1974] 1001 UNTS 45), which in Art. 1 (2)
broadens the term ‘refugees’ to embrace persons—individuals or groups—compelled to seek
refuge from ‘external aggression, occupation, foreign domination, or events seriously disturbing
public order in either part or the whole of [the] country of origin’. Second, the African Children’s
Charter requires that internally displaced children whether through natural disaster, internal armed
conflicts, civil strife, or breakdown of economic and social order receive the same protection as
refugee children.

6. Protection of Children in the Workplace

20 Under the CRC, children have the right to be protected from economic exploitation and from
performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child’s education, or to be

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 harmful to the child’s health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral, or social development.

21 The protection against child labour is also afforded through ILO Conventions No 138 (Minimum
Age Convention [1973]) and No 182 (Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention [1999]) of the
→ International Labour Organization (ILO). Under Convention No 138 the minimum age for
employment must not be less than the age of completion of compulsory education, and in no event
less than 15 years with 14 years allowed under certain conditions. Convention No 182, on the other
hand, requires States Parties to prohibit and eliminate the worst forms of child labour including
trafficking, slavery, sexual exploitation, and hazardous work. Aspects of normative rules articulated
in Convention 182 and related to the protection of children from the worst forms of child labour are
now reflected in the → Equator Principles which have been voluntarily adopted, and are enforced,
by a growing number of financial institutions in their lending transactions.

7. Protection of Children Belonging to Vulnerable Groups

22 The CRC also has provisions which address the needs of children belonging to other
vulnerable groups including children with disabilities, children belonging to ethnic, religious, or
linguistic minorities, or persons of indigenous origin. Some authors have criticized the CRC for not
going far enough in protecting children of these groups. The desired protection of children with
disabilities for example is blunted by overly focusing on a modest non-discrimination objective
rather than a more ambitious objective of enhancing their inclusion in the society. Likewise the CRC
is said to have failed to adequately protect girl children by not prescribing the minimum age of
marriage and recognizing the right to sex education. The CRC has also been criticized for failing to
articulate the rights of certain groups of children including gay children (see also → Gay Rights),
children whose parents areimprisoned (especially children in prison with their mothers), and street
children.

C. Compliance with International Norms Protecting Children

1. Holding Individuals Accountable for International Crimes against

Children
23 Efforts to prosecute and punish international crimes began with the → international military
tribunals of Nuremberg and Tokyo in the immediate aftermath of World War II. Fifty years later, ad
hoc international criminal tribunals and national–international hybrid courts have been established
to try and punish individuals accused of committing international crimes, some of which are
perpetrated against children. Such tribunals and courts have been established for crimes
committed in the former Yugoslavia (→ International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
[ICTY]), Rwanda (→ International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda [ICTR]), and Sierra Leone. In the
Brima Case, the Special Court for Sierra Leone convicted the accused and sentenced them to 45
and 50 years respectively in prison for various international crimes, some of which were
perpetrated against children, for example, enlisting children into armed forces.

24 Efforts to hold individuals accountable for international crimes were boosted with the entry into
force of the Rome Statute, which established the ICC. So far the ICC has opened investigations into
eight situations: the Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo (‘DRC’; → Congo,
Democratic Republic of the), Libya, Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, Republic of Kenya, Republic of Mali,
→ Sudan and Uganda. Of particular importance for child protection is ICC work in the situations in
Uganda and the DRC, both of which include investigations into international crimes perpetrated
against children.

25 On 8 July 2005, as amended 27 September 2005, the ICC’s Pre-Trial Chamber II issued, upon
request of the ICC Prosecutor, an arrest warrant for Joseph Kony, the leader of the Lord’s

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 Resistance Army, an armed group in northern Uganda, for forced enlistment of children and other
war crimes. Arrest warrants are also outstanding for other leaders of the Lord’s Resistance Army
(including Okot Odhiambo and Dominic Ongwen) for a similar set of crimes. On 14 March 2012, the
ICC convicted Thomas Lumbanga Dyilo for enlisting and conscripting children under the age of 15
into his armed group and using them to participate actively in hostilities in Ituri, in the DRC.
Following his conviction for war crimes, Lumbanga Dyilo was penalized with a 14 year jail term. ICC
trials of Germain Katanga and Bosco Ntaganda—which like wise involve allegations of war crimes
against children in DRC—are on-going. The ICC trials contribute to the international protection of
children by holding individuals responsible for crimes perpetrated against children and by
punishing them if convicted. It is expected that existence of a permanent international criminal
court is likely to deter the occurrence of these international crimes in the future.

2. Holding States Accountable for Failing to Protect Children

26 The CRC Committee does not have the mandate to consider individual complaints alleging
violations of the CRC. However, this is about to change following the adoption of new Optional
Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child which would permit considerations of
communications by or on behalf of individuals or group of individuals alleging violations of their
rights. On the other hand the CRC regional counterpart, the African Committee of Experts on the
Rights and Welfare of the Child—the body established to monitor the implementation of the African
Children’s Charter—can receive communications alleging violations of the charter from any person,
group, or recognized → non-governmental organization[s] (‘NGOs’; → Human Rights, Individual
Communications/Complaints). Likewise, other treaty-based human rights bodies, such as the
→ Human Rights Committee of the United Nations (‘UN’), the → African Commission on Human and
Peoples’ Rights (ACommHPR), the → African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACtHPR), or
the → European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), which have a mandate to receive and consider
complaints, are not precluded from considering cases alleging violations of provisions of the
respective treaty protecting children (see also → Human Rights, Treaty Bodies).

27 For example, in Mubilanzila Mayeka and Kaniki Mitunga v Belgium (ECtHR) App 13178/03 the
ECtHR held that the arrest, two months of detention at a closed centre for adults, and subsequent
deportation of the then five-year old Kaniki Mitunga, an unaccompanied minor without legal
immigration status in Belgium, violated Art. 3 → European Convention for the Protection of Human
Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (1950) (‘ECHR’), which confers an absolute protection from
inhuman treatment. The ECtHR also held that by failing to facilitate the family’s reunification of Ms
Mitunga and her mother, Belgium violated Art. 8 ECHR, which protects everyone’s right to respect
for his family life.

3. Holding States Accountable for Compliance with Their Treaty

Obligations
28 Like a number of the human rights instruments, the CRC provides for the establishment of a
committee of experts to supervise and monitor the implementation of the CRC. One of the key
mandates of the CRC Committee is to examine State reports (→ Human Rights, State Reports). CRC
States Parties are obliged to prepare and submit to the CRC Committee a report on the actions they
have taken to implement their obligations under the CRC. Before considering the report, the CRC
Committee would normally have a pre-sessional working group where the situation of children in the
State to be examined is discussed with UNICEF and other international organizations as well as
NGOs with mandates to protect children. Based on these discussions, a list of issues is drawn for
the actual dialogue between the CRC Committee and the State submitting the report.

29 After the discussion of the report with the State Party, the committee will, in a closed meeting,
agree on written concluding observations, which include suggestions and recommendations for
actions to be taken by the State Party being examined. On the basis of the experience gained from

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 considering State reports over years, the treaty bodies prepare general comments (→ General
Comments/Recommendations), the purpose of which is to provide clear guidance to States on
their international obligations under the respective treaty. As of 31 March 2013, the CRC Committee
had issued 15 general comments (<http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/comments.htm>).

4. The Work of International Organizations and International Non-

Governmental Organizations
30 Various international institutions have mandates to protect children. Most of the international
organizations with programmes aimed at the protection of children belong to the UN family of
international organizations. The most prominent among these is UNICEF. Established in 1946 to
meet the needs of children in post-war Europe and China for emergency aid, UNICEF is now active
in more than 190 countries and territories in the world. Its operations, which are guided by the CRC
principles and provisions, focus on children’s health and nutrition, provision of clean water
(→ Water, Right to, International Protection) and sanitation, ensuring access to quality basic
education for children, and the protection of children from violence and exploitation.

31 There are other UN bodies and specialized agencies whose mandates include aspects of child
protection (→ United Nations, Specialized Agencies). These include the ILO, the United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees (→ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for [UNHCR]),
the → United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Joint United
Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS and the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the
Empowerment of Women (‘UN Women’). The → International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
has protection responsibilities in relation to children in armed conflict. At the regional level, the OAS
Member States have established the Inter-American Children Institute, whose objective is to
contribute to integral protection of children and improvement of children’s quality of life.

32 International NGOs and their national counterparts also play a key role in the protection of
children around the world. One of the most prominent international NGOs is Save the Children,
which operates through its 30 national organizations in more than 120 countries. Among other
things, Save the Children protects children in emergencies and conflicts, contributes in enhancing
access to quality education and healthcare for children, and helps to combat hunger and
malnutrition, in particular among young children and their mothers.

D. Conclusion
33 Despite increased acceptance of the internationalization of children’s protection, as
demonstrated by the near universal ratification of the CRC (193 States Parties), the situation of
many children around the world remains precarious. One reason for this is that complying with
obligations under children’s rights to education, health care, and social security, requires
resources that may not be available to States, particularly in the developing world (→ Developing
Countries) where the majority of children live. For the developed world, trends point to a growing
ageing population whose care in the coming decades—it is feared—may require the transfer of
resources from funds established for the protection of children, thus reducing resources available
to comply with applicableobligations under children’s economic, social, and cultural rights.

34 In addition, measures dealing with particular economic, social, and cultural challenges,
affecting adults and children alike, do not always focus on specific needs of children. Due to their
physical, social, emotional, and mental immaturity, children tend to be uniquely vulnerable and may
require tailored measures. An ever-increasing focus on the vulnerability of individual children as
well as specific groups of children—and concerted efforts to address those vulnerabilities—are
necessary. For example, given the predicted increase of climate change-induced incidences of
natural disasters, a proper response to the climate challenge should also entail measures that
specifically address the needs of children who are likely to be disproportionately affected by these

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 disasters owing to their vulnerability.

35 There are emerging issues relating to children’s protection for which the international
community of States seems adequately equipped with international instruments to respond to.
These include such issues as protecting children affected by HIV/AIDS, for which at least a nascent
normative framework exists. Yet, protecting children’s rights in these instances requires further
clarification of aspects of existing norms of international law.

36 At the same time, the emerging technological advances in various fields, including genetic
engineering, information and communication technologies, biotechnology, and nanotechnology
(see also → Cloning, International Regulation), are likely to spur new challenges that may expose
lacuna in the existing normative framework, and point to the need for further evolution and change
of the existing international norms protecting children. Furthermore, the growing attention paid to
the need for environmental protection is likely to lead to further development and elucidation of
such legal concepts as intergenerational rights and obligations.

Select Bibliography
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Select Documents
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October 1986) 1520 UNTS 217 (Banjul Charter).

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Symbiosis Law School; date: 15 March 2018
 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (adopted 11 July 1990, entered into
force 29 November 1999) OAU Doc CAB/LEG/24.9/49 (1990).
COE ‘European Convention on Recognition and Enforcement of Decisions concerning
Custody of Children and on Restoration of Custody of Children’ (done 20 May 1980, entered
into force 1 September 1983) CETS No 105.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (adopted 18
December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS 13.
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (adopted 9
December 1948, entered into force 12 January 1951) 78 UNTS 277.
Convention on the Rights of the Child (adopted 20 November 1989, entered into force 2
September 1990) 1577 UNTS 3.
Geneva Declaration on the Rights of the Child (adopted 26 September 1924) (1924) 21
League of Nations Official Journal Spec Supp 43.
Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction (concluded 25
October 1980, entered into force 1 December 1983) 1343 UNTS 89.
Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Co-operation in Respect of Intercountry
Adoption (adopted 29 May 1993, entered into force 1 May 1995) 1870 UNTS 182.
ILO, ‘Convention No 138 concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment’ (adopted 26
June 1973, entered into force 19 June 1976) 1015 UNTS 297.
ILO, ‘Convention No 182 concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination
of the Worst Forms of Child Labour’ (adopted 17 June 1999, entered into force 19 November
2000) 2133 UNTS 161.
Inter-American Convention on Conflict of Laws concerning the Adoption of Minors (adopted
24 May 1984, entered into force 26 May 1988) OAS Treaty Series No 62 (1985).
Inter-American Convention on International Traffic in Minors (adopted 18 March 1994,
entered into force 15 August 1997) OAS Treaty Series No 79 (1994).
Inter-American Convention on Support Obligations (adopted 15 July 1989, entered into force
6 March 1996) OAS Treaty Series No 71 (1989).
Inter-American Convention on the International Return of Children (adopted 15 July 1989,
entered into force 4 November 1994) OAS Treaty Series No 70 (1989).
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children
in Armed Conflict (adopted 25 May 2000, entered into force 12 February 2002) 2173 UNTS
222.
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child
Prostitution and Child Pornography (adopted 25 May 2000, entered into force 18 January
2002) 2171 UNTS 247.
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on a Communications
Procedure (opened for signature on 28 February 2012, not yet in force) annexed to UN Doc
A/RES/66/138.
Prosecutor v Alex Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and Santigie Borbor Kanu (Appeals
Chamber Judgment) SCSL–2004–16–A (22 February 2008).

From: Oxford Public International Law (http://opil.ouplaw.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2015. All Rights Reserved. Subscriber:
Symbiosis Law School; date: 15 March 2018