Clinical Anatomy 26:29–48 (2013)

REVIEW

Anatomy of the Human Mammary Gland:

Current Status of Knowledge
FOTEINI HASSIOTOU1,2 AND DONNA GEDDES1*
1
Hartmann Human Lactation Research Group, School of Chemistry and Biochemistry,
Faculty of Science, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia,
Australia
2
School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, Faculty of Science,
The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia

Mammary glands are unique to mammals, with the specific function of synthe-
sizing, secreting, and delivering milk to the newborn. Given this function, it is
only during a pregnancy/lactation cycle that the gland reaches a mature devel-
opmental state via hormonal influences at the cellular level that effect drastic
modifications in the micro- and macro-anatomy of the gland, resulting in
remodeling of the gland into a milk-secretory organ. Pubertal and post-puber-
tal development of the breast in females aids in preparing it to assume a func-
tional state during pregnancy and lactation. Remarkably, this organ has the
capacity to regress to a resting state upon cessation of lactation, and then
undergo the same cycle of expansion and regression again in subsequent
pregnancies during reproductive life. This plasticity suggests tight hormonal
regulation, which is paramount for the normal function of the gland. This
review presents the current status of knowledge of the normal macro- and
micro-anatomy of the human mammary gland and the distinct changes it
undergoes during the key developmental stages that characterize it, from em-
bryonic life through to post-menopausal age. In addition, it discusses recent
advances in our understanding of the normal function of the breast during lac-
tation, with special reference to breastmilk, its composition, and how it can be
utilized as a tool to advance knowledge on normal and aberrant breast devel-
opment and function. Finally, anatomical and molecular traits associated with
aberrant expansion of the breast are discussed to set the basis for future com-
parisons that may illuminate the origin of breast cancer. Clin. Anat. 26:29–48,
2013. V 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
C

Key words: breast; mammary gland; anatomy; histology; stem cells;

lactocytes; lactation; breast cancer

INTRODUCTION
Grant sponsors: Medela AG, Women and Infants Research
The mammary gland is an organ unique to the Foundation.
class Mammalia, with the specific function to synthe- *Correspondence to: Donna Geddes, Hartmann Human Lactation
size, secrete, and deliver milk to the newborn upon Research Group, School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of
demand for its optimal nourishment, protection, Life and Physical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35
and development (Medina, 1996). Milks from differ- Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia.
E-mail: [email protected]
ent mammalian species vary in composition and are
uniquely appropriate for the species for which the Received 2 July 2012; Accepted 16 August 2012
milk was synthesized. In humans, the life cycle of Published online 19 September 2012 in Wiley Online Library
the female mammary gland is epitomized by drastic (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI 10.1002/ca.22165

C 2012
V Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
30 Hassiotou and Geddes

changes in composition, architecture, and functional- DEVELOPMENT OF THE BREAST

ity, mediated by marked changes in gene expres-
sion, that characterize its physiological stages of de- Breast development during life follows a time
velopment, all of which are aimed at allowing it to course of distinct phases. Beginning with the forma-
perform its function as a milk-producing organ with tion of the mammary crest and subsequent primitive
the birth of the infant. The key mammary develop- mammary buds during embryonic life, it continues
mental stages include fetal growth, infant (pre- with minimal growth during infancy followed by a
pubertal) growth, pubertal expansion, pregnancy- rapid growth phase at puberty in the female. Breast
and lactation-associated remodeling, and post-lacta- development culminates during the pregnancy and
tional and post-menopausal involution (Russo, 2004; lactation cycle (PLC) when the mammary gland
Geddes, 2007). A sound knowledge of the develop- undergoes complete remodeling, maturating into a
ment, anatomy, physiology, and regulation of the functional milk-secretory organ. Regression of PLC-
breast is integral in the understanding of both the induced growth is initiated as weaning is commenced
normal biology and function of this organ and its be- and is completed after involution when the breast
nign or malignant pathologies and their successful regresses to a resting state. Remarkably, the PLC-
treatment. induced mammary growth and subsequent involution
Unlike most other organs of the body, which de- can be repeated at multiple pregnancies during the
velop to a relatively mature state during embryonic reproductive life of a female. The cycle is completed
life, the mammary gland reaches a mature functional with a further phase of involution post-menopause.
state only during the pregnancy-lactation cycle (PLC) Full development of the breast during lactation is
in the adult female. Therefore, this is the most im- critical to provide the appropriate volume and com-
portant developmental stage of the breast when it is position of breastmilk for the growth, protection, and
characterized by a very high metabolic demand, development of the infant. Further, it has been
requiring about 25% of daily maternal energy intake shown that the PLC is protective against the develop-
during lactation to produce milk (Hartmann, 2007). ment of breast cancer in the long term (Key et al.,
Human breastmilk has a unique biochemical and cel- 2001), particularly when it occurs before the age of
lular composition, providing the infant with optimal 30 and with an interval of less than 14 years
nutritional, protective, and developmental factors. between menarche and the first pregnancy. Multi-
Due to this, the American Academy of Pediatrics parity confers slightly more protection; however, the
(AAP, 2005) and the World Health Organisation effect is not as great as that of the first pregnancy
(Russo, 2011). The above strongly suggest that
(WHO) recommend breastfeeding (or the provision
pregnancy and lactation induce permanent breast
of mother’s own milk) for all infants, including high
changes through which they exert a protective,
risk and premature infants. Despite this, few women,
yet still not well understood, effect against breast
especially in developed countries, reach current rec-
malignancy.
ommendations for breastfeeding duration, which
state exclusive breastfeeding to six months postpar-
tum, with breastfeeding to continue up to two years Fetal Development
or beyond. This situation suggests inadequate sup- Embryonic development of the breast is initiated
port of the mother-infant dyad (term and preterm) by six weeks of gestation from a thickened ectoder-
to achieve and maintain a successful lactation, mal ridge extending from the groin to the axilla on
demonstrating a clear need to bridge scientific inves- the anterior surface of the embryo (milk line). The
tigation of breast function and development of evi- entire ridge apart from the pectoral region (second
dence-based medical treatment. to sixth rib) regresses to form the mammary gland.
In addition to pathologies associated with suc- Supernumerary glands may develop at any location
cessful lactation, breast cancer is another devastat- along the ectodermal ridge presenting as either
ing pathology of the mammary gland, with current mammary glands or accessory nipples in 2–6% of
statistics reporting it as the most frequent cancer women (Vorherr, 1974; Schmidt, 1998; Russo,
and cancer-related cause of death in women world- 2004).
wide (AIHW, 2010). Despite considerable scientific Between week 7 and 8 of gestation (embryo 10–11
effort into elucidating the primary cause of breast mm), the mammary parenchyma invades the stroma
cancer, the differing responses to therapy and char- forming an elevated portion termed the mammary
acteristics of its various subtypes (Perou et al., crest. A basement membrane separates the invading
2000) together with the lack of basic understanding ectodermal cells from the underlying mesoderm.
of the physiology of the breast have hindered the de- Between 10 and 12 weeks gestation (embryo 30–68
velopment of appropriate preventative guidelines mm), mammary epithelial buds form, a phase that
and treatment options for these patients. This review marks the commencement of distinct differentiation
summarizes the current knowledge of the normal patterns. At this stage, subtle differences can be seen
anatomy of the human breast and the distinct between males and females, such as the female ovoid
changes it undergoes during the key developmental versus male spherical budding shape, and the female
stages that characterize it. In addition, anatomical smaller bud volume. The smooth musculature of the
and molecular traits associated with aberrant expan- areola and nipple are formed between 12 and 16
sion of the breast are discussed to set the basis for weeks. The appearance of the mammary buds does
future comparisons that may illuminate the origin of not change significantly until weeks 13–20, when a
breast cancer. depression is formed at the surface of the buds and
 A Review of the Anatomy of the Female Breast 31

proliferation of distinct epithelial progenitor popula- Puberty

tions results in secondary bud formation and branch-
ing. At around 20 weeks gestation (fetus ¼ 10 cm), Puberty induces rapid breast growth driven by
secondary buds that have gradually elongated appear ovulation and the establishment of regular menstrual
as 15–25 solid cords, which grow into the stromal tis- cycles. Increase in breast size is mainly due to
sue reaching the subcutaneous tissue below the mes- increased deposition of adipose tissue within the
enchyme (Hovey, 2002; Russo, 2004). Branching and gland (Russo et al., 1987). However, distinct
canalization of the cords results in the formation of changes of further epithelial and stromal develop-
monolayered primary milk (lactiferous) ducts by 32 ment are also observed and are fueled by an ovarian
weeks gestation (Hovey, 2002). The degree of mam- hormonal circuit that acts on mammary stem cell
mary development at birth varies from simple tubules (MaSC) populations thought to exist in the basal
to branching ducts; however, no relationship has ductal layer (Neville et al., 2002; Anderson and
been reported between the developmental state of Clarke, 2004; Russo, 2004; Visvader, 2009; Asselin-
the breast at birth and its potential to expand and Labat et al., 2010). These changes include elonga-
functionally mature during life (Anbazhagan and tion of the existing ducts and branching into second-
Gusterson, 1994; Osin et al., 1998; Howard and ary ducts at the termini of which bi-layered epithelial
Gusterson, 2000). buds appear and form clusters called lobules (Russo
Formation of the mammary vascular system and Russo, 1992; Russo, 2004). Typically, the mam-
begins as mesenchymal cells differentiate at 7 weeks mary mini-remodeling at each menstrual cycle does
into erythroblasts and primitive blood vessels. This is not fully regress at the end of the cycle. Thus, com-
followed by the appearance of small capillaries pounding epithelial development continues gradually
between 9 and 10 weeks, and subsequently the for- during adolescence through to adult life until approx-
mation of a concentric vascular network 12–13 imately the age of 35 (Russo and Russo, 1992;
weeks gestation. Development of the vascular sys- Russo, 2004). In the mature virgin, three distinct
tem is complete by week 16 as blood is circulated to types of lobules have been observed, which have
the skin and the secretory, adipose, and connective been classified according to their degree of develop-
tissues of the gland. ment. Lob 1 consists of approximately 11 ductules,
In the final eight weeks of gestation, the periductal Lob 2 of about 47 ductules, and Lob 3 of approxi-
stroma increases in density along with a limited mately 80 ductules (Russo, 2004). The proportions
amount of lobulo-alveolar development (Naccarato et of each lobule type vary widely among individuals.
al., 2000). The ducts open onto the nipple area at 32 Despite this, a shift from Lobs 1–3 to a fourth lobule
weeks gestation (Tobon and Salazar, 1974). Pigmen- type (Lob 4) containing mature alveoli is typically
tation of the skin around the nipple and development observed in women during pregnancy.
of Montgomery glands also occurs. It is believed that
the adipose tissue of the mammary gland, which is Pregnancy
considered essential for mediating further growth of
the mammary parenchyma via signaling cascades, is Although a mini-remodeling of the breast occurs
formed by specialized connective tissue from the at each menstrual cycle, it is not until a PLC that a
deeper subcutaneous mesenchyme that has lost its complete remodeling of the breast occurs as it grad-
capacity to form fibers (Vorherr, 1974). Growth hor- ually transforms into a fully mature functional organ.
mone is thought to play an important role in mam- This remodeling takes effect via changes in circulat-
mary epithelial expansion and development both dur- ing hormonal complexes that activate MaSCs.
ing fetal and adult life, as evidenced by mouse studies The maturation stages are directly regulated by
(Nandi, 1958). Interestingly, maternally derived lac- increased levels of the circulating lactogenic hormone
togenic hormones present in the fetal circulation at complex (estrogen, progesterone, and prolactin) that
birth can cause production of small amounts of colos- induces ductal branching, alveolar morphogenesis,
trum that can be expressed from the infant’s mam- and secretory differentiation (Pang and Hartmann,
mary glands shortly after birth. Regression of the 2007). Other hormones and growth factors that are
infant’s mammary gland normally occurs spontane- direct regulators of mammary expansion during preg-
ously within four weeks postpartum and coincides nancy include placental lactogen, epidermal growth
with a decrease in infant prolactin levels (Vorherr, factor, TGFa, and stromal paracrine factors, whereas
1974; Russo et al., 1982). insulin, growth hormone, glucocorticoids, and fibro-
blast growth factors are involved indirectly (Medina,
1996; Czank, 2007). Blood placental lactogen has
Neonatal and Pre-pubertal Development been shown to be strongly correlated with breast
growth (Hartmann, 2007), probably via stimulation of
The breast of a newborn consists of rudimentary stem/progenitor cell proliferation. During pregnancy,
ducts that have small club-like termini that regress soon an initial phase of cellular proliferation of MaSCs and
after birth. Until early childhood, the mammary gland progenitor cells results in de novo synthesis of new
remains at an immature resting state with minimal fur- ducts, elongation of the existing ducts via mitotic ac-
ther development and virtually no differences in struc- tivity in the terminal end bud, extensive epithelial
ture between males and females (Russo, 2004). Growth branching, and formation and expansion of spherical
of the gland is isometric prior to puberty with allometric structures called alveoli at the terminal buds (mam-
growth of both the mammary epithelium and stroma mogenesis) (Sternlicht et al., 2006a; Sternlicht et al.,
initiated at puberty (8–12 years) (Russo, 2004). 2006b). Each alveolus is embedded within the stroma
32 Hassiotou and Geddes

and separated from it via a basement membrane. It Czank, 2007; Pang and Hartmann, 2007). Blood pro-
consists of a basal mesh-like layer of myoepithelial lactin levels are high during early lactation and grad-
cells surrounding an epithelial cell layer that encapsu- ually decrease as lactation progresses (Jacobs,
lates the alveolar lumen (Russo et al., 2001; Russo, 1977; Cox et al., 1996). The effects of prolactin in
2004; Sternlicht et al., 2006c; Watson and Khaled, the mammary gland during the PLC are complex as
2008). The myoepithelial cells display phenotypic and it has been shown to stimulate not only milk synthe-
functional properties of smooth muscle cells. Trig- sis, but also cell proliferation (Neville et al., 2002).
gered by bound oxytocin stimulated by infant suck- This may be a potential mechanism allowing concur-
ling, they contract resulting in the expulsion of milk rent regeneration and differentiation of the lactating
from the alveolus through the ductal lumen toward epithelium and dynamic maintenance and turnover
the nipple (milk ejection). Oxytocin is released in a of the secretory tissue during the course of lactation.
pulsatile fashion resulting in milk flow from the It may also suggest changing/various function(s) of
alveoli, expansion of the ducts and increased intra- prolactin during the course of lactation (Czank,
ductal pressure. Milk ejection is the period of time 2007). After parturition, a characteristic change in
when milk is available to be removed by either the the integrity of the basement membrane separating
breastfeeding infant or the breast pump, and in its the mammary stroma from the epithelium is also
absence little milk can be removed. It has been observed, with tightening and reduced permeability.
recently demonstrated that each mother has a dis- This serves to control systemic and stromal signaling
tinct and relatively consistent pulse profile, at least to the mammary epithelium as well as movement of
during breast expression, with wide differences milk components or their precursors from the sys-
observed among women (Prime et al., 2011). temic circulation into either the alveolar lumen or the
In the second trimester of pregnancy and follow- lactocyte.
ing the expansion phase (alveolar development/ Colostrum is usually present for the first 3–5 days
mammogenesis), gradual increases in prolactin lev- after parturition followed by transitional milk until
els stimulate cellular differentiation at the alveolar about weeks 2–3 postpartum, after which breastmilk
sites, where mammary epithelial cells of the luminal is considered mature. Colostrum has a distinct bio-
layer further differentiate into lactocytes (Czank, chemical and cellular composition aimed at providing
2007). This secretory differentiation (Lactogenesis I) enhanced immunological protection and nutritional
occurs around 24 weeks gestation and is often and developmental support to the newborn. In addi-
accompanied by accumulation of first secretion (co- tion to high concentrations of factors providing
lostrum) within the alveoli and ducts. immunological support/protection, such as immuno-
Pregnancy-induced breast changes are clinically globulins, lactoferrin, oligosaccharides, and active
reflected as an increase in breast volume and in viable immune cells, it contains cell proliferation-
most women are complete by week 22. However, inducing factors that are thought to promote devel-
there is an enormous variation in breast growth opment of the newborn’s gastrointestinal tract and
between women ranging from either little or no stimulate hematopoiesis and immune maturation
increase to a considerable increase in size that can (Bessler et al., 1996; Playford et al., 2000; Bode and
occur either rapidly during the first trimester or more Jantscher-Krenn, 2012). It has been suggested that
gradually over the entire pregnancy (Cox et al., the one–two-day delay in the onset of secretory acti-
1999). Therefore, breast size during pregnancy is vation after parturition in women may function to
not a reliable indicator of lactation potential, particu- maximize exposure of the infant to the immune-
larly since it does not reflect the amount of secretory modulatory protective factors of colostrum
tissue contained in the breast. It is of note, however, (Hartmann, 2007) at a period when its own immune
that mothers who deliver preterm (<28 weeks) may system is still immature. At the same time, colos-
interrupt the development of the breast. This may trum contains a higher protein content (30–70 g/L or
impact on lactation efficiency, resulting in delayed 3–7%) than mature breastmilk (7–25 g/L or 0.7–
secretory activation (Lactogenesis II) and a reduc- 2.5%), which may provide an additional benefit to
tion in milk production in the first week(s) postpar- the newborn in the first few days after birth (Saint et
tum (Henderson et al., 2003). Further studies are al., 1984; Playford et al., 2000; Mitoulas et al.,
required to elucidate the degree of mammary devel- 2002; Saarela et al., 2005). It remains to be estab-
opment in term versus preterm women and investi- lished how the very low protein content of mature
gate potential avenues for improvement of lactation breastmilk meets the growth requirements of the
efficiency in preterm women. Importantly, the cellu- human term infant at a period when human growth
lar component of mammary secretions may be used rate is at its maximum across the lifespan. Indeed,
as a potential indicator of mammary development, when compared to bovine milk, human milk contains
thus providing a useful tool of assessment of lacta- at least three times less protein (Frank, 1988). This
tion potential. suggests that animal milk-based infant formulas
containing higher amounts of protein and different
Lactation ratios of protein types (e.g. caseins versus whey pro-
teins) may induce changes in infant development
Secretory activation allows a rapid up-regulation that may be associated with diseases in both the
of milk synthesis and typically occurs 48–72 hrs after short- and long-term. For example, it is well estab-
parturition triggered by a decrease in circulating pro- lished that the higher rate of curding of cow milk-
gesterone (after delivery of the placenta) and further based infant formulas in the baby’s stomach is asso-
increase in prolactin levels (Suzuki et al., 2000; ciated with slower gastric emptying and different col-
 A Review of the Anatomy of the Female Breast 33

onization of the gut compared to infants fed breast- The effect of nutrition on the development of the
milk (Meier et al., 2010). Additionally, formula-feed- mammary gland during the PLC has not been exten-
ing has been associated with higher risk of over- sively studied in women. However, recent studies
weight and obesity later in life (Stettler, 2011; Pirila have highlighted that overweight and obese women
et al., 2012). Future research addressing the superi- are less likely to initiate lactation (Hilson, 1997;
ority of human milk protein content and quality for Donath, 2000; Li, 2003; Kugyelka et al., 2004; Mok,
human infant growth may provide a basis for 2008; Liu, 2010), more likely to experience feeding
improvement of current recommendations for not difficulties due to problematic infant attachment
only infant nutrition, but also adult nutrition. (Mok, 2008), have shorter durations of lactation
The current understanding is that both the composi- (Hilson, 1997; Donath, 2000; Li, 2003; Kugyelka
tion of the mature breastmilk and the structure and et al., 2004; Baker, 2007; Mok, 2008; Liu, 2010),
composition of the breast do not change significantly and are twice as likely to fail at breastmilk expres-
during lactation until the reduction and/or cessation of sion as women of normal weight. Interestingly, over-
milk removal from the breast. Nevertheless, changes weight and obese women who do express breastmilk
in the fat and cell milk composition in response to tend to have longer breastfeeding durations than
feeding have been previously reported (Kent et al., those who do not express (Leonard, 2011). Animal
2006; Hassiotou et al., 2012b). It is not yet clear studies have shown similar results, drawing an
whether these short-term cellular changes observed in association between obesity and lactation failure
breastmilk reflect regional short-term changes in the (Lovelady, 2005; Rasmussen, 2007). It has been
alveolar micro-development and structure. At the shown that dietary intake in excess of energy
same time, a cross-sectional study examining cellular requirements impairs mammary development and
populations of breastmilk collected at different stages subsequent lactation performance (Sejrsen et al.,
during lactation demonstrated changes in biomarker 1982; Sejrsen and Purup, 1997; Kamikawa et al.,
expression at the protein and the mRNA levels with 2009), suggesting a strong link between nutrition
lactation, suggesting corresponding changes in the and normal mammary development and functional-
breast epithelium (Hassiotou et al., 2012e). This, to- ity. A 40% increase in energy intake in mice resulted
gether with the epidemiologic evidence documenting a in markedly abnormal alveolar development and
protective effect of long breastfeeding duration against subsequent delay in initiation of lactation (Flint et
breast cancer support the notion that the PLC induces al., 2005). Conversely, a 40% restriction of energy
permanent changes in the breast, which are at least intake in the first part of pregnancy in a rat model
partially effected during the course of lactation. resulted in 46% increase in mammary cell prolifera-
Although pregnancy and lactation in women are tion and a 14% increase in milk yield (Kim and Park,
generally studied as separate phenomena, it is not 2004). It is therefore evident that diet and nutri-
uncommon for women to breastfeed one child while tional intake can influence lactation initiation, effi-
being pregnant with the next. This is especially com- ciency, and performance. The effects of diet on lac-
mon in more traditional societies where women tation performance or efficiency are likely to be
breastfeed their children for long periods (Merchant mediated via modulation of hormonal action on the
et al., 1990). Pregnancy concurrent with lactation mammary gland (Ceriani, 1974). Given the numer-
has not been investigated in detail in women, but it ous beneficial effects of breastfeeding and breastmilk
usually results in reduction of milk supply and/or feeding for both infants and mothers, it is important
cessation of milk production, particularly in the sec- to further elucidate the impact of maternal nutrition
ond half of pregnancy, as it is also evident in dairy on breast development and lactation.
cows (Merchant et al., 1990). Merchant et al. (1990)
reported that among the women examined who were
pregnant and concurrently breastfeeding, 41.4% The Pregnancy/Lactation Cycle and
continued to breastfeed into the second trimester of Breast Cancer
pregnancy, with this value decreasing to 3.2% in the
third trimester. Milk composition and appearance Breast cancer is a devastating disease affecting an
also change during this period, with milk having a increasing population of women. It develops during
more yellowish colostrum-like color. The mecha- multiple alterations in the molecular signatures,
nisms involved in pregnancy-induced reduction/ces- function, and structure of the affected cells and is
sation of milk production are poorly understood. therefore characterized by various stages (Medina,
Some studies in cattle suggest an association with 1996). These include cellular immortality, hyperpla-
increasing levels of plasma estrogen (Robertson and sia, tumorigenicity, and invasiveness and are struc-
King, 1979; Bachman, 1982). It can be postulated turally evident as an initial epithelial hyperplasia,
that the increase in proliferation-induction factors which develops into cellular atypia and occlusion of
during the course of pregnancy may counteract milk the duct, intra-ductal carcinoma, and progression to
synthesis induction factors, since these two exert a locally invasive carcinoma, which can metastasize
antagonistic effects. Furthermore, a feedback signal- to various organs, such as the lung, bone, and liver
ing loop between the lactocytes and the stem/pro- (Medina, 1996; Lu et al., 2009; Oskarsson et al.,
genitor cells in the mammary epithelium may exist, 2011). Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease
resulting in down-regulation of lactocyte milk syn- with different subtypes that are characterized by a
thesis and/or differentiation during a period critical distinct molecular signature, have different
for MaSC expansion. The above merit further investi- responses to therapy, and show differences in
gation. patient survival (Perou et al., 2000). It has been
34 Hassiotou and Geddes

suggested that distinct cell types or transformation (May et al., 2011). This was recently confirmed in
of MaSCs with arrest at different developmental humans (Hassiotou et al., 2011), strongly suggest-
stages are behind each breast cancer subtype (Prat ing that at least some of the signaling pathways that
and Perou, 2009; Visvader, 2009). It is therefore im- support normal mammary morphogenesis during the
portant to elucidate what transforms a cell and under PLC are also involved in breast cancer initiation and
which conditions, with emphasis on protective fac- progression when they are aberrantly activated or
tors that may reduce risk. suppressed. There is a need to further examine
The protective effect of extended breastfeeding these pathways in the lactating breast and the can-
duration against development of breast cancer in the cer-infected breast with comparative studies to iden-
long term is well documented (Key et al., 2001). tify deregulation that might lead to cancer. Since it is
Indeed, a recent study demonstrated that breast- difficult to obtain human lactating breast tissue
feeding for at least one year significantly reduced specimens, breastmilk may offer a non-invasive and
the risk of breast cancer diagnosed under the age of plentiful alternative to access the cellular hierarchy
50 (Kotsopoulos et al., 2012). Currently, the mecha- of the mature mammary gland.
nisms through which these protective effects are Further research to elucidate how breastfeeding-
mediated are unknown. However, a number of theo- induced mammary differentiation confers protective
ries have been proposed. Initiation of breast cancer effects against breast cancer and to provide mecha-
is considered to be associated with the degree of nistic insights into the pathways associated with
maturity of the mammary gland (Pike et al., 1983; normal and aberrant mammary development is nec-
Russo and Russo, 1992). Early and complete differ- essary. In this respect, breastmilk is used as a useful
entiation of the mammary gland conferred via tool for accessing the normal cellular hierarchy of
breastfeeding has been suggested to confer protec- the fully differentiated gland and comparing it with
tion against the development of breast cancer (Key the cellular hierarchy of breast cancer subtypes
et al., 2001; Kotsopoulos et al., 2012). Typically, the (Hassiotou et al., 2012a). Indeed, self-renewal tran-
breast of nulliparous women (with or without breast scription factors have been shown to be shared
cancer) comprises predominantly Lob 1 structures, between normal breastmilk stem cells and certain
whereas parous women free of cancer display a types of aggressive breast tumors, suggesting that it
larger proportion of Lob 3 structures. By contrast, is the imbalance of certain gene regulatory networks
parous women with breast cancer have been shown that is at the origin of this disease (Hassiotou et al.,
to have a greater percentage of Lob 1 and a lower 2012a).
proportion of Lob 3 structures compared to parous Exposure to carcinogens through diet and other
women without breast cancer (Russo, 1994). media as well as imbalanced levels of hormones and
Increasing evidence is showing that different types growth factors during the PLC, despite its brevity,
of breast cancer originate from different mammary are thought to influence breast cancer development
epithelial subtypes, with the more aggressive breast via effects on gene expression, cell proliferation, and
cancers originating from mammary stem/progenitor invasiveness. The relationship between cause and
cell populations and the less aggressive from more effect is still unclear; however, the migration-related
differentiated mammary cells (Stingl and Caldas, increases in cancer incidence and the significantly
2007; Visvader, 2009). Indeed, more cancer stem reduced incidence of breast cancer in wild mice
cells are present in poorly differentiated tumors than versus experimental mice suggest that high breast
in well-differentiated tumors, and the former are cancer incidence is anomalous reflecting a dietary
associated with poor survival and high invasiveness origin of this disease, which may be preventable
(Pece et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2010). It is sug- (Medina, 1996; Grover and Martin, 2002). Indeed,
gested that longer breastfeeding duration allows for the American Cancer Society guidelines for cancer
better depletion of the mammary gland in the stem/ prevention highlight diet as a key factor in cancer
progenitor populations with proliferative capacity, development, stating that ‘‘most of the variation in
therefore reducing the risk of development of cancer risk across populations and among individuals
aggressive breast cancer. is due to factors that are not inherited’’ (Byers et al.,
A recent meta-analysis examined critical path- 2002). An increasing body of evidence suggests that
ways in breast development in the mouse using gene animal-based foods promote cancer whereas plant-
set enrichment analysis (Zhao et al., 2012). It was based foods prevent it (Michaud et al., 2001; Byers
found that during the PLC, pathways associated with et al., 2002; Kris-Etherton et al., 2002). This may
a number of different cancers are down-regulated in be associated with certain growth factors present in
the mammary gland. This was partly in agreement animal-based foods which promote cell proliferation
with an earlier study, which had shown that stromal as well as with the presence of carcinogens gener-
factors playing fundamental roles during mammary ated during cooking or digestion of these foods
development are also associated with breast carcino- (Grover and Martin, 2002). Certainly, long breast-
genesis, some protecting from and some promoting feeding durations can reduce breast cancer risk
breast cancer (Wiseman and Werb, 2002). Indeed, potentially via depletion of the mammary cell popu-
the mammary gland during the PLC displays tran- lation that is sensitive to factors inducing mutations
sient breast cancer-related characteristics, with a and/or aberrant proliferation. A logical question that
study in mice presenting evidence of Epithelial to follows is whether elimination of these factors from
Mesenchymal Transition (EMT), a breast cancer key our diet and lifestyle may reduce breast cancer risk
feature, in the terminal end buds during the PLC further.
 A Review of the Anatomy of the Female Breast 35

Post-Lactational and Post-Menopausal Mature Non-Lactating Breast

Involution Current descriptions of breast anatomy are based
Cessation or significant reduction (weaning) of on Cooper’s dissections of lactating breasts (Cooper,
milk removal from the breast results in post-lacta- 1840). However, there is renewed interest in investi-
tional involution, during which the mammary gland gating breast anatomy, particularly that of the ductal
transitions to a resting non-lactating state (Hurley, system, with the motive of better understanding the
1989). Although in animals such as mice involution origins of breast cancer and the potential of localized
occurs within a few days after cessation of milk re- intra-ductal therapies (Going and Mohun, 2006). The
moval, in women it is a more gradual prolonged pro- breast is composed of glandular (secretory) and adi-
cess, even at abrupt weaning (Hartmann and Kulski, pose (fatty) tissue supported by a loose framework
1978). During involution, clearing of the mammary of fibrous connective tissue called Cooper’s liga-
alveolar cells occurs, to allow the regression of the ments. The secretory tissue is drained by a ductal
breast into a non-functional organ until the next PLC. system that stores and transports milk to the nipple
during lactation.
How cessation of milking or suckling and milk stasis
Nipple. The nipple is composed of longitudinal
trigger involution is still unclear, although some evi-
and horizontal smooth muscle fibers relating to the
dence suggests an inflammatory response associated
nipple base. These muscles either remain separate
with alveolar cell apoptosis (Hughes, 2012). Milk
or are intermixed with longitudinal fibers often asso-
components such as a-lactalbumin have been sug- ciated with the nipple ducts (Tezer et al., 2011). The
gested as potential apoptotic triggers (Hakansson et nipple ducts are crenulated and approximately 0.5
al., 1995; Hakansson et al., 1999). Undoubtedly, mm in diameter (Taneri et al., 2006; Rusby et al.,
this is an orchestrated process that involves regula- 2007), with horizontally orientated muscles located
tion of both systemic and local mammary-derived distally and which provide a sphincter-like function
factors that control lactation and is associated with (Tezer et al., 2011). A median of 23–27 ducts at the
milk stasis. In addition to post-lactational involution, base of the nipple has been consistently documented
the breast undergoes a second phase of involution in histological sections of mastectomy specimens
during menopause. Post-menopausal mammary (Going and Moffat, 2004; Taneri et al., 2006; Rusby
involution is associated with ovarian functional decay et al., 2007). These results are in conflict with other
and is characterized by reduction of the glandular methods of investigation such that some ducts can
breast tissue and increase in the adipose surround- be cannulated, but do not appear to enter the
ing tissue (Hutson et al., 1985). It is not well estab- breast, and much fewer ducts (five to nine) appear
lished whether post-menopausal breast remodeling to yield milk (Love and Barsky, 2004). Ductal
eliminates the potential for the breast to become branching within the nipple does not account for this
functional again, for example, upon hormonal discrepancy (Going and Mohun, 2006), making pat-
stimulation. ency of the ducts a more likely explanation. Indeed,
some ducts within the nipple cannot be traced to the
nipple tip (Going and Moffat, 2004; Going and
ANATOMY OF THE BREAST Mohun, 2006; Rusby et al., 2007). Rusby (Rusby et
al., 2007) has further described the morphology of
An understanding of the gross anatomy of the
the nipple ducts in that they narrow substantially
breast and its variations has many clinical applica-
before exiting the nipple through pores on the sur-
tions ranging from breastfeeding/lactation support to
face of the nipple.
the detection, diagnosis, and removal of benign and Breast ductal system. Standard textbook
malignant lesions. In this context, the epithelial cells descriptions depict the ductal system as numerous
lining the duct walls are at the origin of the majority small ductules that drain the alveoli merging to cul-
of breast malignancies (Li et al., 2003), underscoring minate in one main duct that dilates slightly to form
the importance of a thorough understanding of the a lactiferous sinus (2–4.5 mm) (Venta et al., 1994).
anatomy of the breast. The main duct then narrows at a ‘waist’ before it
The incidence of pathologies of the lactating passes through the nipple and opens onto the nipple
breast is rising due to the increased age at which surface (Rusby et al., 2007). Generally, dilated ducts
women are having their first child (Ventura, 1989; in the non-lactating breast identified by ultrasound
Stensheim et al., 2009). While lesions of the breast imaging are associated with pathologies such as
are less common during lactation, it is possible that ductal ectasia, fibrocystic disease, intra-ductal ade-
a mass, either benign or malignant, may obstruct noma, or malignancy (Stavros, 2004).
milk flow. Depending on the location of the mass, Lobes. In women, the glandular tissue is
this can lead to a cascade of events where milk composed of lobes that comprise lobules containing
stasis causes blockage of ducts/lobes and often, 10–100 alveoli that are approximately 0.12 mm in
mastitis. If not successfully managed, the above diameter (Hartmann, 1991). Each breast lobe is gen-
may result in reduction of milk synthesis and even- erally considered to exist as a single entity (Cooper,
tual involution of the glandular tissue proximal to 1840; Going and Moffat, 2004; Love and Barsky,
the obstruction. Therefore, a fundamental knowl- 2004). However, serial sections (100-lm thick) of a
edge of the anatomy of the breast enables better mastectomized breast of a 69-year old woman in
diagnosis and treatment of women whether or not one study identified two connections between differ-
lactating. ent lobes (16 lobes identified in total) (Ohtake et al.,
36 Hassiotou and Geddes

2001). Cooper (Cooper, 1840) had only ever- subtypes, some investigations have shown that small
encountered one anastomosis during all of his dis- numbers of CK19/CK14 or CK18/CK14 double posi-
sections. Textbooks have also long described the tive cells are also present in the mammary epithe-
lobes to be of equal size and arranged in a radial lium, potentially reflecting transitioning cells, as
fashion, despite Cooper describing the intertwined CK14 is also thought to be a marker for MaSCs or
nature of the lobes consistent with the inability to myoepithelial progenitors (Gusterson et al., 2005;
surgically excise a solitary lobe from the breast. Villadsen et al., 2007). This further reinforces the
Since then, the arrangement and volume of tissue presence of a hierarchical continuum within the
associated with each lobe within the breast has mammary epithelium and signifies the need for bet-
been confirmed to be highly variable, showing up to ter markers specific to the different cellular develop-
20–30-fold differences in lobe volume (Moffat and mental stages along this continuum.
Going, 1996). A group of ductal structures can be associated in a
Histology. The resting breast consists of ductal single lobule, with the central lobule ducts often
epithelial tissue embedded within a fibrous stroma. being somewhat ‘‘squeezed’’ compared with the
Each duct wall is lined by two layers of epithelial outer lobule ducts. The mammary stroma is highly fi-
cells: an inner layer that encapsulates the ductal brous compared with other species such as mice,
lumen, and which contains cuboidal epithelial cells, consisting of dense fibrous connective tissue, which
some of which (typically those of the terminal duct) embeds adipose tissue (inter-lobular stroma).
have the potential to further differentiate into milk- Enclosing the lobules, the intra-lobular stroma con-
secretory cells (lactocytes) during lactation; and a sists of mesenchymal cells that are highly responsive
basal/outer layer of contractile myoepithelial cells to hormonal micro-environmental cues and have
that tightly surround the luminal layer and have been associated with initiation and progression of
properties of smooth muscle cells (Figs. 1A–1D). The various stages of mammary development via cross-
basal layer lies on the basement membrane and talk with the mammary epithelium (Bissell et al.,
is thought to contain bi-potent MaSC populations 1999; Wiseman and Werb, 2002). Little is known
(Visvader, 2009). about the signaling cascades between the stroma
The presence of stem cells in this organ was first and the epithelium that fuel mammary development
postulated based on its ability to expand and regress as well as of the histological changes within the
in a repeated fashion throughout adult life (Taylor- stroma and the epithelium during the PLC and
Papadimitriou et al., 1977). Passaging and mainte- markers that identify specific cell types in the resting
nance of mammary luminal and myoepithelial cells in and the fully mature gland. We have recently shown
2D cultures supported this argument. Elegant 3D that the cellular hierarchy of the lactating breast is
mammosphere assays proved the presence of self- represented in breastmilk, including early-stage
renewing bi-potent MaSCs and uni-potent progeni- stem cells, progenitor cells, and more differentiated
tors in the resting epithelium (Dontu et al., 2003). myoepithelial and milk-secretory cells as key cellular
The reconstitution of a cleared mammary fat pad by types in a mammary developmental continuum
a single sorted MaSC, which formed a fully functional (Hassiotou et al., 2012d).
mammary gland in a mouse model (Shackleton
et al., 2006) revolutionized the field of mammary
stem cells. Nevertheless, most studies have been Lactating Breast
conducted in mice, and the human gland has mostly Few studies have focused on the anatomy of the
been studied in its resting state, which is not repre- lactating breast since Cooper’s (1840) extensive dis-
sentative of the mature functional organ. Thus, the sections of the breast of women that had died during
scarcity and quiescent state of MaSCs in the resting lactation. Interestingly, Cooper used lactating cadav-
breast may partially explain the slow progression in ers because the structures of the breast of non-
the identification of markers specific to MaSCs. lactating women were too technically challenging to
Increasing evidence is suggesting that the profile provide adequate information.
CD49fhigh/CD29+/CD24low characterizes a bi-potent Nipple. Nipples differ widely in size and appear-
stem cell population in the resting breast, able to dif- ance between women. Nipple size typically increases
ferentiate into both the luminal and the myoepithelial during pregnancy and is related to plasma prolactin
cells of the mammary epithelium (Visvader, 2009; levels (Cox et al., 1996). Documented nipple diame-
Asselin-Labat et al., 2010; Joshi et al., 2010). MaSCs ters range from 9 to more than 23 mm (Cox et al.,
are also thought to be marked by expression of Cy- 1996; Ramsay et al., 2005; Wilson-Clay and Hoover,
tokeratin 5 (CK5), which seems to be highly specific 2005) and large nipples have been implicated in
to the basal layer both in the resting and the lactat- breastfeeding difficulties, potentially due to problem-
ing breast (Fig. 1E). atic infant attachment.
Differentiation between cell types further along Breast ductal system. While texts describe
the mammary hierarchy is generally done using Cy- 15-20 ducts and lobes in the breast, Cooper identi-
tokeratin 19 (CK19) for ductal luminal cells, Cytoker- fied up to 22 ducts but found that only 7–12 were
atin 18 (CK18) for alveolar luminal cells, and Cyto- generally patent (Cooper, 1840). Studies have since
keratin 14 (CK14) for the myoepithelial cells, which confirmed this number. Love et al. (2004) and Love
are also positive for smooth muscle actin (SMA). and Barsky (2004) observed five patent nipple open-
Although cytokeratin expression is widely used ings (range 1–17) in lactating women and five to
to differentiate between these mammary epithelial nine nipple orifices in 10 non-lactating mastectomy
 A Review of the Anatomy of the Female Breast 37

Fig. 1. Anatomy and histology of the human lactating breast. A, B: IHC of the human lactating breast showing
A: a duct and B: a group of alveoli, embedded within the fibrous stroma. C–F: IF staining of human lactating
breast tissue. C: Alveolar myoepithelial cells shown in green via staining of smooth muscle actin. D: Alveolar lacto-
cytes shown in green via staining of alpha-lactalbumin. E: Mammary stem cells identified by Cytokeratin 5 staining
(green) in the basal layer of a group of alveoli. F: Polarized luminal alveolar cells stained for EpCAM (green). Nuclei
are shown in blue (DAPI staining). Actin is shown in red (phalloidin staining). Scale bars: 20 lm.

nipples. Ramsay et al. (2005) resolved an average of The sizes of the ducts in the lactating breast are
nine main milk ducts (range 4–18) at the base of the often assumed to be larger than that of the non-lac-
nipple of the lactating breast with 2D ultrasound, tating breast despite lack of supporting evidence.
while Going and Moffat (2004) found that only four Ramsay et al. (2005) and Gooding et al. (2010)
nipple ducts were connected to functional lobes in a found the main ducts to be relatively small (2 mm,
lactating mastectomy. This supports the notion of range: 1.0–4.4 mm), which is not dissimilar to that
localized activity and/or differential maturation/ of non-lactating women (2–4.5 mm) (Venta et al.,
differentiation of different lobules within the same 1994), and which was further supported by ductog-
breast, suggesting that not all ductal systems need raphy. This suggests that enlargement of the ducts
to be simultaneously functional to meet the demands does not necessarily occur. Variation in duct diame-
of the infant (Gooding et al., 2010). ter within women is likely to be due to the amount of
38 Hassiotou and Geddes

milk contained or synthesized at any time within the

breast (Ramsay et al., 2006), with increased milk
associated with increased duct diameter. In addition,
PLC-associated changes in duct diameter may be
either linked to or controlled by ductal cell prolifera-
tion and expansion, which may differ among women,
being regulated by gene expression and factors
influencing it. Transient increases in duct diameter
are also associated with milk ejection (Ramsay et al.,
2004).
Cooper (1840) originally described the proximal
ducts to be large ‘sac-like’ structures that contained
significant amounts of milk. However, since then
recent ultrasound studies have shown that these
areas did not appear as typically described. Ramsay
et al. (2005) found that the main milk ducts were
relatively small with expanded areas coinciding with
merging of ducts. This has since been confirmed by a
small pilot study using 3D ultrasound imaging dem-
onstrating enlarged ducts deep in the breast, with
narrower ducts often visualized between the larger
ducts (Gooding et al., 2010). The ducts beneath the
areola are superficial (Ramsay et al., 2005) and are
easily compressed. In this context, compression of Fig. 2. Transitioning luminal cells with milk-secre-
ducts has been suggested as one factor that may to tory features in the ductal area close to the alveoli. A:
contribute to milk stasis and consequently blocked Cytokeratin 18 (green) and lactoferrin (red) in a duct.
ducts (Geddes, 2009). Single and double positive transitioning cells can be
Lobes. Despite vast improvements in imaging seen. B: Alpha-lactalbumin (red) in a duct. Nuclei are
techniques, the volume of glandular tissue in the shown in blue (DAPI staining). Scale bars: 5 lm.
breast has not been quantified. This is due to the
intermingling of glandular and adipose tissue
throughout the breast. Semi-quantitative measure- At the duct termini, alveoli are formed which con-
ment of both glandular and adipose tissue in ultra- tain the lactocytes in the luminal layer, surrounded
sound images obtained from 21 Caucasian mothers by the myoepithelial cell layer (Fig. 1A–1D) (Stern-
reported that the ratio of glandular to adipose tissue licht, 2006; Watson and Khaled, 2008). The lacto-
is approximately 2:1 (Ramsay et al., 2005). Enor- cyte is a cuboidal highly polarized cell (Fig. 1F), and
mous variability in proportions of tissue are observed this polarization ensures the movement of milk com-
among women, similarly with the non-lactating ponents toward the lumen (Lavialle et al., 2000).
breast, with up to half the breast comprising glandu- Although lactocytes are typically restricted to the al-
lar tissue to almost the whole breast consisting of veolar compartment, some transitioning luminal cells
glandular tissue. This provides further evidence that with milk-secretory features can also be seen in the
breast size is not indicative of lactation potential. ductal area close to the alveoli (Fig. 2). Under the
Furthermore, the amount of fat situated amongst the effect of oxytocin, the SMA+ myoepithelial cells con-
glandular tissues is also highly variable and can vary tract resulting in milk secretion from the CK18+ lac-
not only between women, but also in a woman tocytes into the alveolar lumen. Milk is then pushed
throughout adult life. through the duct lumen toward the nipple during
Histology. The breast reaches its full develop- breastfeeding, containing not only the biochemical
ment only during pregnancy and lactation, when a factors secreted by lactocytes, but also a number of
complete remodeling of the different breast tissue cells from the epithelium.
types occurs. Under the effect of the lactogenic hor- Recent advances in our laboratory have identified
mone complex and via cross-talk between the various cell types present in breastmilk ex vivo, from
stroma and the epithelium, a massive expansion of early-stage stem cells (termed human breastmilk
the epithelium is observed, which results in reversal stem cells, hBSCs) with embryonic-like features and
of the resting stromal/epithelial ratio. By the end of multi-lineage differentiation potential, to the previ-
pregnancy, the breast is mainly composed of lobular ously known CD49f+ MaSC population described in
highly branched epithelial tissue separated by some the resting breast, to cells with progenitor character-
fibrous stroma. Toward the third trimester of preg- istics, to the mature myoepithelial and milk-secre-
nancy, secretory differentiation occurs in some lumi- tory cells (Fig. 3) (Hassiotou et al., 2012d; Hassiotou
nal cells of the alveoli, resulting in formation of fat et al., 2012e), revealing a cellular hierarchy along a
globules that are visible within the cells. Often, some complex developmental continuum characteristic to
colostrum can be expressed before birth, but it is the the fully mature organ. We have examined the local-
withdrawal of progesterone after birth that stimu- ization of these different breastmilk cell populations
lates a cascade of signals associated with secretory in the lactating breast using rare human normal lac-
activation and copious milk synthesis. tating breast tissue specimens (Fig. 1) and compared
 A Review of the Anatomy of the Female Breast 39

Fig. 3. Breastmilk contains a cellular hierarchy. A variety of cell types can be found in breastmilk, including
cells positive for the luminal epithelial marker Cytokeratin 18 (CK18), the lactocyte marker b-casein, the myoepi-
thelial cell marker smooth muscle actin (SMA), the stem cell marker OCT4, and the epithelial progenitor marker
p63. Nuclei are shown in blue. Scale bars: 5 lm.

marker expression with the resting breast. In con- cal, non-invasive, and plentiful source of stem cells
trast to the lactating breast, minimal or no represen- for regenerative medicine.
tation of hBSCs was found in the resting breast, The cellular component of breastmilk is thought to
suggesting the absence or quiescent state of these represent the lactating breast as a whole, but a more
cells outside the PLC (Hassiotou et al., 2012d). It is correct interpretation would include only those ducts
not known whether and to what extent in different that ejected milk at the time of collection. It is difficult
women the menstrual cycle influences gene expres- therefore to draw conclusions as to the histological
sion in the resting breast outside the PLC and characteristics and maturation stage of different alve-
whether it transiently activates the embryonic gene olar batches within the same breast. Indeed, the
network characteristic of hBSCs to induce transient breast of a lactating woman is not histologically homo-
cell proliferation. Indeed, this is probable given geneous. Differences have been reported in the matu-
activation of the previously described CD49f+ MaSC ration of different groups of alveoli (lobules) within the
population upon the effect of progesterone increase same breast (Molenaar et al., 1992). More recent
during the luteal dioestrus phase of the menstrual studies in our laboratory have suggested that not all
cycle in mice (Joshi et al., 2010) and merits further alveoli are at the same developmental stage in a
investigation. Importantly, we have now shown that breast, based on expression of stem cell, progenitor,
cells with stem cell phenotypes are found not only in and functional differentiation markers (milk proteins)
the basal myoepithelial layer but also in the luminal (Fig. 5). This is in agreement with the presence of
layer in the lactating breast (Hassiotou et al., 2012d; some ‘‘non-functioning’’ ducts at any given time point
Hassiotou et al., 2012e). These cells can be accessed in the lactating breast (Going and Moffat, 2004). Fur-
via breastmilk and are capable of forming spherical ther work is needed to illuminate the signaling cas-
alveolar- and ductal-like structures in 3D culture cades that influence alveolar development and differ-
(Thomas et al., 2011; Hassiotou et al., 2012d) entiation and factors that allow/effect differing devel-
(Fig. 4), offering a non-invasive alternative to biop- opmental patterns between different lobules.
sies of human lactating breast tissue, which are Vascularization of individual lobules may be implicated
extremely rare. Therefore, breastmilk rises as an in the functional heterogeneity of the lactating breast.
extremely useful source of cells to study the interplay
between different cell types in the breast during nor- Post-lactational Involution
mal lactation and factors associated with lactation dif-
ficulties, as well as the potential role(s) of these cells Breastmilk production continues until weaning and
for the breastfed infant. It also offers a potential ethi- cessation of lactation, when a rapid reduction in

Fig. 4. Stem cells isolated from human breastmilk form functional alveolar- and ductal-like structures in 3D
culture. Scale bars: 20 lm.
40 Hassiotou and Geddes

Fig. 5. Developmental heterogeneity in the human lactating breast at the alveolar and cellular levels. A group
of alveoli stained for the mature lactocyte marker b-casein (green). Nuclei are shown in blue. Scale bar: 10 lm.

breastmilk production is followed by cessation of lumen and gradually cleared. It is not known
breastmilk synthesis and mammary involution. whether all alveolar batches enter Phase I and II of
Breastmilk accumulation and stasis in the ducts ini- involution simultaneously or whether differences
tiates involution, though the mechanisms and factors exist between different epithelial compartments
involved are not well understood. Whether it be a within a breast.
physical phenomenon of milk accumulation and sta- At the conclusion of involution, the breast returns
sis in the ducts and/or be effected by one or more to a resting (non-lactating) state. However, the
biochemical factors in the milk and/or blood (Pang structure and morphology of the gland is not identi-
and Hartmann, 2007; Sutherland et al., 2007), invo- cal to the pre-pregnancy state (nulliparous stage)
lution comprises two distinct phases. (Russo et al., 2001; McDaniel et al., 2006; Watson,
The first phase is characterized by activation of 2006). Considerably more Lob 2 and Lob 3 struc-
programmed cell death and regression of both the tures are present in the parous gland, and less often,
epithelial and stromal tissues in the breast (Monks even Lob 4 structures compared to the nulliparous
and Henson, 2009). Clearing of residual milk compo- gland, accompanied by changes at the cellular level.
nents is thought to be aided by an increase in hydro- Wagner et al. (2002) proposed that some partially
lytic and other enzymes (Hurley, 1989). Phase I may differentiated epithelial cells escape clearing during
last up to two weeks and is reversible, i.e., frequent involution and act as ‘‘memory precursor cells’’ in
removal of milk from the breast can re-establish milk subsequent pregnancies. This was recently sup-
supply. Phase II of involution is irreversible and is ported by Van Keymeulen et al. (2011) in a murine
characterized by luminal cell loss and extensive stro- model of mammary development, which demon-
mal remodeling. The latter is thought to be affected strated the presence of unipotent epithelial progeni-
by epithelial-stromal signaling that stimulates tor cells that persist after involution and fuel mam-
expression of matrix remodeling factors in stromal mary remodeling in subsequent pregnancies. Further
fibroblasts (Wiseman and Werb, 2002; Monks and work is needed to establish the properties of these
Henson, 2009). Luminal epithelial cells that have ini- cells and position in the mammary developmental hi-
tiated an apoptotic process are shed into the alveolar erarchy, how they are regulated, and whether they
 A Review of the Anatomy of the Female Breast 41

may act as targets of malignant transformation influ- ume (Tavassoli, 1992), although the ratio of adipose
encing breast cancer risk. The milk secretion from to glandular tissue varies among women during
the involuting gland may provide significant insights this period. Nevertheless, a decrease in this ratio
into the developmental changes occurring in the together with reduced elasticity of the supporting
gland during involution in women. connective tissue is generally seen (Hutson et al.,
Most of our knowledge on the mechanisms and 1985). The parallel decrease in the volume of adi-
process of involution as well as the composition of pose tissue starts at the periphery of the breast and
the secretion from the involuting gland is based on progressing inward toward the nipple (Vorherr,
animal models, particularly the dairy cow and the 1974; Williams, 1995). The menopausal effect on
mouse, due to the commercial interest in the first breast anatomy can be altered by hormone replace-
and the availability of study animals in the second. ment therapy (HRT). The increased mammographic
The limited research in women has demonstrated density (glandular tissue) observed in women pre-
marked changes in milk biochemical composition scribed HRT is due to hormonally induced epithelial
during involution, including increased concentrations and/or stromal proliferation (Greendale et al., 2005).
of sodium, potassium, and protein, and decreased However, HRT significantly increases breast cancer
concentrations of lactose and potassium, with the risk and is not considered safe (NH&MRC, 2005). The
secretion of the involuting gland being more similar molecular switches that stimulate epithelial and/or
to that of colostrum rather than mature breastmilk stromal expansion during HRT may be similar to
(Hartmann and Kulski, 1978). Levels of lactoferrin, those involved in the normal PLC-induced breast
hydrolytic enzymes, and immunoglobulins increase remodeling and the aberrant mammary cell transfor-
consistent with a pro-inflammatory response that is mation in breast cancer. What differentiates between
thought to take place in the breast, reflecting a the two is of substantial scientific interest for the
changing biochemical and cellular environment understanding of both normal mammary biology and
mediated by marked changes in gene expression aberrant conditions of the breast.
(Hurley, 1989; Humphreys et al., 2002; Kreuzaler
et al., 2011; Watson and Kreuzaler, 2011; Hughes,
2012). BLOOD SUPPLY
A number of studies in the dairy cow have sug-
gested that macrophages populate the mammary Few extensive descriptions of the blood supply to
gland during involution, aiding the phagocytosis of the breast exist and are based mainly on the classic
apoptotic epithelial cells (Hurley, 1989). However, dissections of lactating cadavers made by Cooper
studies in the mouse supported the notion that a (Cooper, 1840). Investigative methods of mammary
subpopulation of mammary epithelial cells may be vasculature include injection of either colored wax or
capable of phagocytosis (Monks et al., 2002). More mercury into the blood vessels (Cooper, 1840), sur-
recently, a murine model of involution showed that a gical dissection (Anson, 1939) of specimens, injec-
population of viable epithelial cells engulfs intact ap- tion of a suspension of fine lead, and radiography of
optotic epithelial cells effecting clearing of the glan- the blood supply in a non-lactating woman (Salmon,
dular tissue within four days (Monks et al., 2008). 1939). More recently injections of latex into the
Immune inflammatory cells such as macrophages mammary vessels of cadavers prior to dissection has
seemed to contribute neither to the epithelial clear- been carried out (van Deventer, 2004).
ance nor to residual milk clearance, and both proc- The majority of the blood supply is derived from
esses were found to be associated with the epithe- the anterior and posterior medial branches of the in-
lium itself (Monks et al., 2008). This is in agreement ternal mammary artery (60%) and the lateral mam-
with other recently described events of ‘‘phagocyto- mary branch of the lateral thoracic artery (30%)
sis’’ of apoptotic cells by neighboring nonhemato- (Vorherr, 1974; Cunningham, 1977; Doughty et al.,
poietic cells (Henson, 2005; Gardai et al., 2006). 1996). Blood vessels and capillaries are housed
Further research is warranted to elucidate the cell within the mammary stromal matrix delivering bio-
types involved in/activated during the involution pro- chemical and cellular components essential for the
cess in the human breast, their properties and gene function of the gland and milk synthesis (Hennigh-
regulatory networks involved, and the mechanisms ausen and Robinson, 2005). Blood supply is variable
through which involution is initiated and successfully between women and studies are often conflicting.
completed to allow subsequent activation of the Cooper (Cooper, 1840) showed that the four anterior
mammary gland in the next PLC. perforating branches of the IMA were of similar size,
yet Maliniak (1934) showed the branch at the level
of the second intercostal space to be much larger
Post-menopausal Involution and supply the majority of blood. Anson et al.
(Anson, 1939) showed two main branches. Recently,
Post-menopausal involution is triggered by a Aljazaf (2005) demonstrated that most frequently
declining ovarian function and thus circulatory levels one dominant artery is present with multiple arteries
of sex-steroid hormones (estrogen, progesterone). occurring less often. The lateral thoracic artery is
This results in further regression and atrophy of the considered to supply up to a third of the blood to the
glandular tissue of the breast and in a concurrent breast, yet the LTA is absent in up to a third of
increase in the adipose tissue (Vorherr, 1974; Wil- women (Doughty et al., 1996). There is wide varia-
liams, 1995). The reduction of the glandular tissue tion in the proportion of blood supplied by each
can be up to approximately a third of its original vol- artery (Doughty et al., 1996; Geddes et al., 2012).
42 Hassiotou and Geddes

Minor sources of arterial blood also include the pos- primarily include immune cell (leukocyte) popula-
terior intercostal arteries and the pectoral branch of tions, which are thought to diapedese through the
the thoracoacromial artery (Freeman et al., 1981; basement membrane via the paracellular pathway
Williams, 1995). Interestingly, the course of the and enter the milk (Seelig and Beer, 1981; Lin et al.,
arteries does not follow the ductal breast system 1995). Maternal milk immune cells have been
(Cooper, 1840), and there is little evidence of arte- hypothesized to confer active immunity to the infant,
rial symmetry between breasts (Anson, 1939; Alja- but also to be involved in the protection of the mam-
zaf, 2005). mary gland from/during infection (Zhou et al., 2000;
The rapid growth phase in pregnancy is reflected by Vidal et al., 2001; Lonnerdal, 2003). They can com-
a doubling in mammary blood flow (MBF) 24 weeks prise granulocytes, B and T lymphocytes, monocytes
gestation after which it remains constant during lacta- and macrophages, and have been thought to consti-
tion (Vorherr, 1974; Thoresen and Wesche, 1988; tute an important part of the cellular portion of co-
Geddes et al., 2012). The increase in blood flow is also lostrum, decreasing in mature breastmilk. Literature
accompanied by an increase in the size of the superfi- on the content of milk in immune cells has focused
cial veins of the breast, making them more visible dur- on colostrum, with few publications on mature
ing pregnancy and lactation. It has long been thought breastmilk. And although a highly variable milk
that mammary blood flow drives (in part) milk synthe- immune cell content is reported among women dur-
sis in that an increase in blood flow produces a recipro- ing the course of lactation, few of these studies have
cal increase in milk production. An alternative theory appropriately considered the health status of the
based on recent evidence proposes the reverse, in mother-infant dyad. Moreover, the response to and
that the metabolic activity of the mammary gland reg- effect of breast or systemic infections of the mother
ulates MBF (Prosser et al., 1996) and milk yield varies or the breastfed infant on milk immune cell popula-
independently of MBF. This process is illustrated in tions and content have not been examined. We have
goats where increasing MBF to only one mammary recently demonstrated a close association between
gland did not result in increased milk production com- the mature breastmilk immune cell content and
pared with the control gland (Lacasse and Prosser, mother or infant infections across the course of lac-
2003) and that hourly milking increased milk secretion tation (Hassiotou et al., 2012c). The specific
without an accompanied increase in MBF (Maltz et al., responses and role(s) of recruited milk immune cells
1984). It is likely however that a minimum threshold for the breastfed infant and in the breast merit fur-
of MBF necessary for adequate milk production exists ther investigation, particularly in the diagnosis of
in both animals (Prosser et al., 1996) and women mastitis and other medical conditions of the lactating
(Geddes et al., 2012). breast. An important study by Zhou et al. (2000) in
The ratio of blood flow to milk yield is approxi- a murine model demonstrated that maternal milk
mately 500:1 (Linzell, 1960; Christensen et al., immune cells pass unharmed through the digestive
1989) in lactating animals and women (Geddes tract of the infant into the systemic circulation and
et al., 2012), with high variability demonstrated in engraft in various tissues. Maternal milk immune cell
women and other species such as the sow (Renau- engraftment in tissues of the pup has also been
deau et al., 2002) and goat (Lacasse and Prosser, shown for other species, such as lambs and baboons
2003). Transient changes in MBF have been docu- (Michie, 1998), but it remains to be investigated in
mented in women at milk ejection with a reduction in the human.
flow of 40–50% prior to milk ejection followed by an
increase 1–2 minutes later (duration of one milk
ejection). These changes in MBF are replicated with LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE
intravenous injections of oxytocin (Janbu et al.,
1985). Significant decreases in MBF at milk ejection Until 1840, Gasparo’s (1662, 1962) theory per-
have also been observed in other species (Pearl et sisted that chyle was transported to the breast via
al., 1973; Davis et al., 1995; Eriksson et al., 1996). the lymphatic vessels for the synthesis of milk.
More recently, color Doppler ultrasound has been Cooper (1840) dissected and injected the lym-
used to study the lactating breast with the aim to phatic vessels of the lactating breast and con-
produce reference values in women that will allow cluded that fluid in the vessels flowed away from
comparison of lactation pathologies (Geddes et al., the breast rather than toward it. The lymphatic
2012). This noninvasive method of investigating MBF drainage of the breast has been extensively inves-
provides an opportunity to determine the role of MBF tigated due to its implication in the spread of
in milk synthesis such that factors thought to influ- breast carcinoma.
ence milk production could be monitored. Reference Lymph is drained by two main pathways; to the
parameters will also be useful when investigating axillary nodes (Turner-Warwick, 1955) and to the in-
conditions in which a disruption in MBF may be sus- ternal mammary nodes (Hultborn et al., 1955;
pected such as delayed secretory activation Turner-Warwick, 1955; Vendrell-Torne et al., 1972).
(McClellan, 2008), lactation failure, and maternal The axillary nodes receive more than 75% of the
medications that are believed to decrease milk sup- lymph from both the medial and lateral portions of
ply (Aljazaf et al., 2003) or conversely an increase in the breast (Turner-Warwick, 1959; Borgstein et al.,
MBF that would be expected with mastitis. 2000). The internal mammary nodes receive lymph
Blood supply to the breast as well as lymphatic mainly from the deep portion of the breast (Aukland
vessels are thought to be the source of viable and Reed, 1993). The pattern of drainage is highly
hematopoietic cells present in the milk. These cells variable however and less common pathways have
 A Review of the Anatomy of the Female Breast 43

been demonstrated. Lymph may pass through either the breast, areola, and nipple using the two-point
the interpectoral nodes (Williams, 1995) or the intra- discrimination method in women with established
parenchymal lymph (Tanis et al., 2001), and drain lactation (one to six months), which is consistent
into the posterior (Turner-Warwick, 1959) and ante- with reports of reduced sensitivity of the nipple
rior intercostal nodes (Tanis et al., 2001). Direct epidermis (Vorherr, 1974). Clinical evidence sup-
drainage to the supraclavicular nodes (Tanis et al., ports the limited distribution of mammary nerve
2001) and retrosternal passage of the lymph into the fibers, based on observations of women experienc-
contralateral internal mammary nodes may also ing pain associated with a distended breast, who
occur. Since Coopers (1840) work there has been no are often unable to accurately localize their sensa-
investigation of the lymphatic drainage of the lactat- tion (Cowie et al., 1980). Furthermore, often the
ing breast despite its importance in clinical conditions first signs of mastitis in women are influenza-like
such as breast engorgement and mastitis. symptoms despite tenderness and/or localized
changes in their breasts.

INNERVATION
CONCLUSIONS
The second to sixth intercostal nerves innervate
the breast and they are located superficially in the There still remain many questions about the phys-
gland (Cooper, 1840) dividing into superficial and iology and pathology of the breast, and ongoing
deep branches. The nipple and glandular tissue are investigation will improve knowledge of its normal
supplied by the deep branches, and the nipple and anatomy and histology, assisting in addressing these
areola by superficial branches with a complex and questions. Among those, the orchestration of local
variable distribution. However, the anterior and lat- and systemic interactions regulating the functional
eral cutaneous branches of the second to fifth inter- maturation of the breast and milk synthesis should
costal nerves follow the ducts and always supply the be a research priority. The complexity of the breast,
nipple and areola (Craig and Sykes, 1970; Sarhadi its normal function involving the breastfed infant,
et al., 1996; Schlenz et al., 2000). The lateral supply and its pathologies call for collaborations between
of the nipple and areola is less variable than the different disciplines, including the anatomist, the cell
medial supply. The lateral supply is provided by the biologist, the biochemist, the epidemiologist, the
fourth lateral cutaneous nerve (Farina et al., 1980; cancer biologist, the nutritionist, the lactation con-
Schlenz et al., 2000), and it most often takes a sub- sultant, and the physician. Such collaborations will
glandular course within the pectoral fascia to the assist in addressing key questions involving the
posterior aspect of the nipple (Craig and Sykes, mother and the infant, such as, for example, the
1970; Schlenz et al., 2000). Less commonly it takes very low proportion of the infant’s protein-derived
a superficial course (Cooper, 1840; Farina et al., energy intake during exclusive breastfeeding and
1980; Sarhadi et al., 1996). Detailed descriptions of how it allows the infant to optimally grow in a period
the course of the anterior cutaneous branches are when the human growth rate is the maximum across
scant and conflicting. A deep course is described by life. Unraveling the mechanisms behind the changes
Craig and Sykes (Craig and Sykes, 1970), whereas in milk biochemical and cellular composition in the
Sarhadi et al. (1996) and Schlenz et al. (2000) short- and long-term (diurnally and across lactation)
describe a superficial course. will also be instrumental in better understanding the
Nerves have been demonstrated along the major function of the breast, its pathologies and the role of
duct system with none identified near the smaller the different milk components for the optimal devel-
ducts (Linzell and Peaker, 1971). Distribution of the opment of the infant. Further studies on breastmilk
nerves of the areola and nipple is sparse with all con- cellular composition and its regulators are much
centrated at the base of the nipple, few at the side of needed if we are to better understand how these
the nipple, and virtually none in the areola (Mon- cells contribute to successful lactation as well as the
tagna and Macpherson, 1974). These nerves are role of milk in providing optimal nourishment, pro-
sensory in nature and together with the lack of tection, and development to the infant. To this end,
motor innervation of both the lactocytes or myoepi- the cellular hierarchy of breastmilk together with lac-
thelial cells suggest that both the synthesis and tating tissue specimen analysis may aid understand-
secretion of milk is independent of neural stimula- ing of the cellular inter- and intra-alveolar and lobu-
tion. However, motor innervation of the smooth lar heterogeneity and factors regulating milk synthe-
muscle of the areola and nipple (Courtiss and Gold- sis and mammary cell cycle. The above may prove
wyn, 1976) and the mammary arteries (Cowie, instrumental in managing low milk supply and other
1974) is apparent. conditions of the breast. Furthermore, the potential
Investigation of the innervation and sensitivity of breastmilk stem cells to form mammary structures
of the breast has focused on the effect of breast in vitro offers a new promising opportunity for in
surgery such as reduction mammoplasty. Only one vitro studies of mammary gland biology and its regu-
study investigated the sensitivity of the breast lators without the need for biopsy. Importantly, the
during lactation. Areola and nipple sensitivity is presence of viable stem cells with multi-lineage
markedly heightened 24 hrs postpartum (Robinson potential in breastmilk poses the question of the
and Short, 1977) decreasing in the following days. potential integration within the infant’s tissues and
In addition Kent et al. (personal communication) differentiation, contributing to optimal tissue devel-
found limited sensory discrimination of the skin of opment and regeneration early in life.
44 Hassiotou and Geddes

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Christensen K, Nielsen MO, Bauer R, Hilden K. 1989. Evaluation of

mammary blood flow measurements in lactating goats using the
The authors were supported by an unrestricted ultrasound Doppler principle. Comp Biochem Physiol A Comp
research grant from Medela AG and a Women and Physiol 92:385–392.
Infants Research Foundation Scholarship to F.H. The Cooper AP. 1840. The Anatomy of the Breast. London: Longman,
Orme, Green, Brown and Longmans.
authors acknowledge the facilities, scientific and tech-
Courtiss EH, Goldwyn RM. 1976. Breast sensation before and after
nical assistance of the Australian Microscopy & Micro- plastic surgery. Plast Reconstr Surg 58:1–13.
analysis Research Facility at the Centre for Micros- Cowie AT. 1974. Proceedings: Overview of the mammary gland.
copy, Characterization & Analysis, The University of J Invest Dermatol 63:2–9.
Western Australia. We are also grateful for editorial Cowie AT, Forsyth IA, Hart IC. 1980. Hormonal control of lactation.
input to the manuscript by Professor Peter Hartmann. Monogr Endocrinol 15:I–XIV, 1–275.
Cox DB, Kent JC, Casey TM, Owens RA, Hartmann PE. 1999. Breast
growth and the urinary excretion of lactose during human preg-
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