ME-422 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

CHAPTER 3
DEVELOPMENT OF TRUSS EQUATIONS
Development of Truss Equations
(Displacement) Method/ Direct
Formulation
 Summary
• Stiffness matrix of a bar/truss element

• Coordinate transformation

• Stiffness matrix of a truss element in 2D space

• Problems in 2D truss analysis (including multipoint

constraints)

• 3D Truss element
 Trusses

Trusses: Engineering structures that are composed only

of two-force members. e.g., bridges, roof supports

A typical truss structure

 Trusses
Ideal trusses: Assumptions
• Ideal truss members are connected only at their ends.
• Ideal truss members are connected by frictionless pins (no
moments)
• The truss structure is loaded only at the pins
• Weights of the members are neglected

A typical truss structure

Frictionless pin
 Trusses
These assumptions allow us to idealize each truss
member as a two-force member (members loaded only at
their extremities by equal opposite and collinear forces)

member in
compression

member in
tension

Connecting pin
Trusses
 Trusses
FEM analysis scheme
Step 1: Divide the truss into bar/truss elements connected to
each other through special points (“nodes”)

Step 2: Describe the behavior of each bar element (i.e. derive its
stiffness matrix and load vector in local AND global coordinate
system)

Step 3: Describe the behavior of the entire truss by putting

together the behavior of each of the bar elements (by assembling
their stiffness matrices and load vectors)

Step 4: Apply appropriate boundary conditions and solve

 Stiffness matrix of bar element

E, A

© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

L: Length of bar
A: Cross sectional area of bar
E: Elastic (Young’s) modulus of bar
û(x̂) :displacement of bar as a function of local coordinate x̂ of bar
The strain in the bar at x̂ dû
ε(x̂) 
dx̂
The stress in the bar (Hooke’s law)
 (x̂)  E ε(x̂)
 Stiffness matrix of bar element d̂ 2x
Tension in the bar
T(x̂)  EAε  x̂  x̂
x̂ û(x̂)  1  d̂1x  d̂ 2x
x̂ d̂1x  L L
L
Assume that the displacement û(x̂) is varying linearly along the bar
 x̂  x̂
û(x̂)  1  d̂1x  d̂ 2x
 L L
dû d̂ 2x  d̂1x
Then, strain is constant along the bar: ε  dx̂  L
E

Stress is also constant along the bar:   Eε  d̂ 2x  d̂1x
L

Tension is constant along the bar: T  EAε 
EA
L

d̂ 2x  d̂1x 

k

The bar is acting like a spring with stiffness k  EA

L
 Stiffness matrix of bar element
E, A

© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Two nodes: 1, 2
Nodal displacements: d̂1x d̂ 2x
Recall the lecture on springs
Nodal forces: f̂1x f̂ 2x
EA
Spring constant: k
L
Element stiffness matrix in local coordinates
f̂1x   k - k  d̂1x 
f̂  k̂ d̂     
f̂ 2x  - k k  d̂ 2x 
Element force Element nodal      
Element displacement f̂ k̂ d̂
vector
stiffness vector
matrix
 Stiffness matrix of bar element
What if we have 2 bars?

E1, A1
E2, A2

L1 L2

This is equivalent to the following system of springs

E1A1 E 2A2
k1  k2 
L1 L2
x
Element 1 2 Element 23
1
d1x d2x d3x
 Stiffness matrix of bar element
Problem 1: Find the stresses in the two-bar assembly loaded as
shown below
E, 2A
E, A
1 P
2 3
L
L
Solution: This is equivalent to the following system of springs
2EA EA
k1  k2 
L L x
Element 1 2 Element 23
1
d1x d2x d3x

We will first compute the displacement at node 2 and then the

stresses within each element
 Stiffness matrix of bar element
The global set of equations can be generated using the technique
developed for “springs”
 k1 k1 0   d1x   F1x 
 k k  k     
 1 1 2 k2  d 2 x    F2 x 
 0 k2 d   F 
k2   3x   3x 
here d1x  d3 x  0 and F2 x  P
Hence, the above set of equations may be written as
k1d 2 x  F1x (1)
(k1  k2 )d 2 x  P (2)
k2d 2 x  F3 x (3)
P PL
From equation (2) d 2 x  
k1  k2 3EA
 Stiffness matrix of bar element
To calculate the stresses:

For element #1 first compute the element strain

d 2 x  d1x d 2 x P
 (1)
  
L L 3EA
and then the stress as
P
 (1)
 E (1)
 (element in tension)
3A
Similarly, in element # 2
d3 x  d 2 x d2 x P
 
(2)
 
L L 3EA
P
  E  
(2) (2)
(element in compression)
3A
Selecting Approximation Functions for
Displacement

© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Inter-element continuity of a two-bar structure

Transformation of a vector in two dimensions

Bars in a truss have various orientations

member in
compression

member in
tension

Connecting pin
 Transformation of a vector in two dimensions
d 2y , f 2y
x̂
dˆ 2y , fˆ2y  0 d̂ 2x , f̂ 2x
y ŷ
d 2x , f 2x
d1y , f1y
dˆ 1y , fˆ1y  0 θ
d̂1x , f̂1x d1x , f1x
At node 2:
At node 1: x
d̂1y d̂ 2y

d1y d 2y
θ d̂1x θ d̂ 2x
d1x d 2x f̂ 2y  0
f̂1y  0

f1y f 2y
θ f̂1x θ f̂ 2x
f1x f 2x
Transformation of a vector in two dimensions
In the global coordinate system, the vector of nodal
displacements and loads
d1x  f1x 
d  f 
 1y   1y 
d   ; f  
d 2x f 2x
   
d 2y  f 2y 

Our objective is to obtain a relation of the form

f  k d
41 44 41

Where k is the 4x4 element stiffness matrix in global coordinate

system
 The key is to look at the local coordinates
x̂
y ŷ dˆ 2y , fˆ2y  0
d̂ 2x , f̂ 2x

f̂1x   k - kd̂1x 
θ     
dˆ 1y , fˆ1y  0

f̂ 2x 
 - k k  
d̂ 2x 

d̂1x , f̂1x
EA
x k
L
Rewrite as f̂ 
k 0 - k 0 d̂1x 
    
1x

f̂1y   0 0 0 0 d̂1y  f̂  k̂ d̂
   
f̂ 2x  - k 0 k 0 d̂ 2x 
f̂   0  
0 0 0 d̂
 2y   2y 
Assume that there is no stiffness in the local y direction.
 Transformation of a vector in two dimensions
In local coordinates we have f̂  k̂ d̂
41 44 41

But or goal is to obtain the following relationship

f  k d
41 44 41

Hence, need a relationship between d̂ and d

and between f̂ and f d̂1y

d1x  d̂1x  d1y

Need to understand
d    θ d̂1x
how the components
  d̂1y  of a vector change
d   1y  d̂    d1x
d̂ 2y with coordinate
d 2x
  d̂ 2x  transformation
d 2y  d̂  d 2y
 2y  θ d̂ 2x
d 2x
 Transformation of a vector in two dimensions

y vx v y cos θ Angle q is
ŷ x̂
v̂ x measured positive
v̂ y
θ in the counter
v v x sin θ clockwise direction
vy
from the +x axis)
θ
v y sin θ x
v x cos θ

The vector v has components (vx, vy) in the global coordinate system
and (v^x, v^y) in the local coordinate system. From geometry
v̂ x  v x cos θ  v y sin θ
v̂ y   v x sin θ  v y cos θ
Transformation of a vector in two dimensions
In matrix form

 v̂ x   cos θ sin θ   v x 
   v 
 y 
v̂  sin θ cos θ  y
Or Direction cosines
 v̂ x   l m   v x  l  cos q
     where
 y   m l   v y 
v̂ m  sin q

Transformation matrix “T” for a single vector in 2D

 l m 
*
T  v̂ T v
*
 relates
 m l 
 v̂ x   v x  are components of the same
where v̂    and v   
 v̂ y   v y  vector in local and global
coordinates, respectively.
Relationship between d̂ and d for the truss element
d̂1y
At node 1 d̂1x  * d1x 
 T   d1y
d̂1y  d1y  θ d̂1x
d1x d̂ 2y
At node 2 d̂ 2x  * d 2x 
 T   d 2y
d̂ 2y  d 2y  θ d̂ 2x
Putting these together d̂  Td d 2x

d̂1x   l m 0 0  d1x 
  
d̂1y   m l 0 0  d1y  T 
T * 0
*
  d  44
0 T 
d̂ 2x   0 0 l 
m  2x 
d̂   0  d 
0  m l   2y 
  
2y
T d
d̂
 Relationship between f̂ and f for the truss element
At node 1 f̂1x  * f1x 
f̂1y
 T  
f̂1y  f1y  f1y
θ f̂1x
f̂ 2y
At node 2 f̂ 2x  * f 2x 
f1x
 T  
f̂ 2y  f 2y 
f 2y
θ f̂ 2x
Putting these together f̂  Tf f 2x

f̂1x   l m 0 0  f1x 
  
f̂1y   m l 0 0  f1y  T 
T * 0
*
  f  44
0 T 
f̂ 2x   0 0 l 
m  2x 
f̂   0  f 
0  m l   2y 
  
2y
T f
f̂
Transformation of a vector in two dimensions
Important property of the transformation matrix T

The transformation matrix is orthogonal, i.e. its inverse is its

transpose
1
T T
T

Use the property that l2+m2=1

 Global Stiffness Matrix
Putting all the pieces together
x̂ f̂  T f
y ŷ d̂ 2y , f̂ 2y
d̂ 2x , f̂ 2x d̂  T d
θ f̂  k̂ d̂
d̂1y , f̂1y
d̂1x , f̂1x
 Tf  k̂ Td
x

 f  T k̂ T d

 
1

The desired relationship is f  k d k
41 44 41

k  T k̂ T is the element stiffness matrix in the

T
Where
44 44 44 44 global coordinate system
 Global Stiffness Matrix
 l m 0 0  k 0 - k 0
 m l  0
0 0 0 0 0
T  k̂  
 0 0 l m  - k 0 k 0
   
 0 0 m l  0 0 0 0

 l2 lm  l 2  lm 
 
EA  lm m 2
 lm  m 2 
k  T k̂ T 
T

L   l 2  lm l2 lm 
 
 lm  m 
2
lm m2
 Global Stiffness Matrix
Computation of the direction cosines

2 (x2,y2)
x2  x1 L
l  cos q 
L
y2  y1 θ
m  sin q 
L 1 (x ,y )
1 1

What happens if we reverse the node numbers?

x1  x2 1 (x1,y1)
l '  cos q   l L
L
y y
m'  sin q  1 2  m θ
L 2 (x ,y )
2 2
 Example:
Bar element for stiffness matrix evaluation
© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

E  30 106 psi
A  2 in 2
L  60 in
q  30

 3 3 3 3  3
    l  cos 30 
 4 4 4 4  2
 3 1 3 1 
k

30 106 2  4  4

4

4  lb m  sin 30 
1
60  3 3 3 3  in 2
  
 4 4 4 4 
 3 1 3 1 
  
 4 4 4 4 
 Example:
Computation of element strains

Recall that the element strain is

© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

d̂ 1x 
 
d̂ 2x  d̂ 1x d̂ 1y 
  1 0 1 0 
1
ε
L L d̂ 2x 
d̂ 
 2y 
  1 0 1 0 d̂
1
L
  1 0 1 0 Td
1
L
Example:
Computation of element strains

 l m 0 0 
 m l 0 0 
ε   1 0 1 0 
1 d
L  0 0 l m 
 
 0 0  m l 
  l  m l md
1
L
d 1x 
d 
 1y 
  l  m l m 
1
L d
 2x 
d 2y 
Example:
Computation of element stresses and tension

Recall that the element stress is

  Eε 
E
L
 
d̂ 2x  d̂1x   l  m l md
E
L
Recall that the element tension is

EA
T  EAε   l m l m d
L
Steps in solving a truss problem

Step 1: Write down the node-element connectivity table

linking local and global nodes; also form the table of
direction cosines (l, m)
Step 2: Write down the stiffness matrix of each element in
global coordinate system with global numbering

Step 3: Assemble the element stiffness matrices to form the

global stiffness matrix for the entire structure using the
node element connectivity table

Step 4: Incorporate appropriate boundary conditions

Step 5: Solve resulting set of reduced equations for the unknown

displacements
Step 6: Compute the unknown nodal forces
Node element connectivity table

ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2

1 1 2
2 2 3

3 3 1

1 2 (x2,y2)
L
El 1 60 El 3
θ
2 60 60 3 1 (x ,y )
1 1
El 2
Stiffness matrix of element 1 Stiffness matrix of element 2
d1x d1y d2x d2y d2x d2y d3x d3y
  d1x   d2x
   
  d1y   d2y
(1) ( 2)
k k
  d2x   d3x
   
  d2y   d3y

Stiffness matrix of element 3

There are 4 degrees of
d3x d3y d1x d1y
freedom (dof) per
  d3x element (2 per node)
 
  d3y
( 3)
k
  d1x
 
  d1y
Global stiffness matrix
d1x d1y d2x d2y d3x d3y
  d1x
 
  d1y
  d2x
K  d2y
 
  d3x
  d3y
  66
 Example
The length of bars 12 and 23 are equal (L)
y E: Young’s modulus
3 A: Cross sectional area of each bar
El#2 P2
Solve for
P1 (1) d and d
2x 2y

El#1 (2) Stresses in each bar

2
45o
x
1 Solution

Step 1: Node element connectivity table

ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2

1 1 2
2 2 3
Table of nodal coordinates
Node x y
1 0 0
2 Lcos45 Lsin45

3 0 2Lsin45

Table of direction cosines

ELEMENT Length x2  x1 y y
l m 2 1
length length
1 L cos45 sin45
2 L -cos45 sin45
 Step 2: Stiffness matrix of each element in global coordinates
with global numbering
Stiffness matrix of element 1 d1x d1y d2x d2y
  d1x
 l2
l 2
 lm 

lm
  
EA  lm m2  lm  m 2    d1y
(1)
k  T k̂ T  k
T

L   l 2  lm l2 lm    d2x
   
 lm  m 
2
lm m2
  d2y
d1x d1y d2x d2y
 1 1 1 1  d1x
 1 1 1 1 
EA   d1y

2L  1 1 1 1  d2x
 
 1 1 1 1  d2y
 Stiffness matrix of element 2

Table of direction cosines

 l2 lm  l 2  lm  x2  x1 y2  y1
  ELEMENT Length l m
EA  lm m2  lm  m 2  length length
k  T k̂ T 
T

L   l 2  lm l2 lm  1 L cos45 sin45
 
 lm  m  2 L -cos45 sin45
2
lm m2

d2x d2y d3x d3y

 1 1 1 1  d2x
 1 1 1 1 
EA   d2y

(2)
k
2L  1 1 1 1  d3x
 
 1 1 1 1  d3y
Step 3: Assemble the global stiffness matrix
d1x d1y d2x d2y d3x d3y
 1 1 1 1 0 0  d1x
 1 1 1 1 0 0 
  d1y
EA  1 1 2 0 1 1  d2x
K  
2L  1 1 0 2 1 1 d2y
 0 0 1 1 1 1 d3x
 
 0 0 1 1 1 1  d3y

The final set of equations is Kd  F

Step 4: Incorporate boundary conditions
 0 
 0 
 
d2 x 
d  
d 2 y 
 0 
 
 0 

Hence reduced set of equations to solve for unknown

displacements at node 2

EA  2 0   d 2 x   P1 
  
2L 
0

2  d 2 y   P2 
Step 5: Solve for unknown displacements

 P1L 
d2 x    EA  
 
  
d
 2 y   P2 L 

 EA  
Step 6: Obtain stresses in the elements

  Eε 
E
L
 
d̂ 2x  d̂1x   l  m l md
E
L 0

For element #1:  d1x  0

d 
E 1 1 1 1   1y 
 (1)       
L 2 2 2 2  d2 x 
d 2 y 
E P1  P2
 (d 2 x  d 2 y ) 
2L A 2
For element #2:
Table of direction cosines
ELEMENT Length x2  x1 y2  y1
l m
length length
1 L cos45 sin45
2 L -cos45 sin45

E
L
 E
L

  Eε  d̂ 3x  d̂ 2x  l  m  l md

d2 x 
d 
E 1 1 1 1   2y 
 (2)
       0
L 2 2 2 2   d3 x  0
 d3 y 
E P P
 (d 2 x  d 2 y )  1 2
2L A 2
 Multi-point constraints

© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure Plane truss with inclined boundary conditions at node 3

Problem :
P=1000 kN,
y L=length of elements 1 and 2 = 1m
P El#2 3 E=210 GPa
A = 6×10-4m2 for elements 1 and 2
2 = 6 2 ×10-4 m2 for element 3
El#1
El#3
Determine the unknown displacements
45o and reaction forces.
x
1
Solution
Step 1: Node element connectivity table
ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2
1 1 2
2 2 3
3 1 3
Table of nodal coordinates
y
Node x y
P El#2 3
1 0 0
2
2 0 L El#1
El#3
3 L L 45o
1 x
Table of direction cosines ?
Table of nodal coordinates
y
Node x y
P El#2 3
1 0 0
2
2 0 L El#1
El#3
3 L L 45o
1 x
Table of direction cosines
ELEMENT Length x2  x1 y y
l m 2 1
length length
1 L
2 L

3 L 2
Table of nodal coordinates
y
Node x y
P El#2 3
1 0 0
2
2 0 L El#1
El#3
3 L L 45o
1 x
Table of direction cosines
ELEMENT Length x2  x1 y y
l m 2 1
length length
1 L 0 1
2 L 1 0

3 L 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
Step 2: Stiffness matrix of each element in global coordinates
with global numbering
Stiffness matrix of element 1
 l2 lm l 2lm 
 2 
EA  lm m2 lm m 

(1)
k
L  l 2 lm l2 lm 
 
 lm  m 2
lm m 2

d1x d1y d2x d2y

0 0 0 0  d1x
-4 
(210 10 )(6 10 ) 0 1
9
0 1  d1y

1 0 0 0 0  d2x
 
0 1 0 1  d2y
Stiffness matrix of element 2 d2x d2y d3x d3y
1 0 1 0  d2x
-4 
(210 10 )(6 10 )  0
9
0 0 0 
 d2y
(2)
k
1  1 0 1 0  d3x
 
0 0 0 0  d3y
Stiffness matrix of element 3
d1x d1y d3x d3y
 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5  d1x
 
(210 109 )(6 2 10-4 )  0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5  d1y

(3)
k
2  0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5  d3x
 
 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5  d3y
Step 3: Assemble the global stiffness matrix

 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5

 0.5 1.5 0 1 0.5 0.5
 
 0 0 1 0 1 0 
K  1260 10 
5
 N/m
 0 1 0 1 0 0 
 0.5 0.5 1 0 1.5 0.5 
 
 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5 

The final set of equations is Kd  F Eq(1)

Step 4: Incorporate boundary conditions y
x
 0  y
 0  3
  P El#2

d 2 x 

d   2
 0  El#1
 d3 x  El#3
  o

 3y 
d  45
x
1

Also, d 3y  0 in the local coordinate system of element 3

We need to convert this to a boundary condition in the global (x,y)

coordinates
 y
x
 F1 x  y
F  3
 1y  P El#2

 P  
F   2
F
 2y  El#1
 F3 x  El#3
 

 F3 y 
 45o
x
1

Also, F 3x  0 in the local coordinate system of element 3

How do we convert this to a boundary condition in the global (x,y)

coordinates?
 Using coordinate transformations

d 3x   l m   d3 x  1
   m    lm

d 3 y 
  l  d3 y  2

 1 1   1 

d 3x   2 2   d  
 2
 d 3x  d 3 y 

     3x    
   1
d 3 y  1  d3 y   1
 d  d  

 2 2  2

3 y 3 x



d 3y  0 (Multi-point constraint)

 d 3y 
1
2
 d3 y  d3 x   0

 d3 y  d3 x  0 Eq (2)
 Similarly for the forces at node 3

 F 3x 
  l m   F3 x  1
   m    lm

F 3 y 
  n   F3 y  2

 1 1   1 
  
 F 3x  2 2   F  
 2
 F3x  F3 y 

     3x    
 
1   F3 y 

F 3 y 

1

 1
 2
 F3 y  F3 x  

 2 2  

F 3x  0
 F 3x 
1
2
 F3 y  F3 x   0

 F3 y  F3 x  0 Eq (3)
Therefore we need to solve the following equations simultaneously
Kd  F Eq(1)  0   F1 x 
 0  F 
d3 y  d3 x  0 Eq(2)    1y 
F3 y  F3 x  0 Eq(3) 
d 2 x 
 
 P  
d   F  
 0  F
 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5  2y 
 0.5 1.5 0 1 0.5 0.5  d3 x   F3 x 
     
 0
K  1260 105 
0 1 0 1 0 


 3y 
d  
 F3 y 

 0  1 0 1 0 0 
 0.5 0.5 1 0 1.5 0.5 
 
 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5 
Incorporate boundary conditions and reduce Eq(1) to

1 1 0  d 2 x   P 
   
1260 105 
 1 1.5 0.5
  3x  
d  3x 
F
 0.5 d  F 
0 0.5   3y   3y 
 Write these equations out explicitly

1260 105 ( d 2 x  d 3 x )  P Eq(4)

1260 105 ( d 2 x  1.5d3 x  0.5d 3 y )  F3 x Eq(5)
1260 105 (0.5d3 x  0.5d3 y )  F3 y Eq(6)

Add Eq (5) and (6)

1260 105 (d2 x  2d3 x  d3 y )  F3 x  F3 y  0 using Eq(3)

 1260 105 (d2 x  3d3 x )  0 using Eq(2)

 d 2 x  3d3 x Eq(7)
 1260 105 (3d3 x  d3 x )  P
Plug this into Eq(4)
 2520 105 d3 x  106
  d3 x  0.003968m Now by using Eq(3) , 5
d 2 x  3d3 x  0.0119m and 6 , we can
determine d3y, F3x, F3y

Compute the reaction forces

 F1x  0 0.5 0.5
F  0
 1y 
 0.5 0.5 d 
  2x 
 
 F2 y   1260  10  0 0   d3 x 
5
0
F   
 1 1.5 0.5   d
 3y 

 3x


 F3 y 
 
0 0.5 0.5 

 500   0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5
 500   0.5 1.5 0 1 0.5 0.5
 

 
  0 0 1 0 1 0 
K  1260 105 
  0  kN  0  1 0 1 0 0


 500   0.5 0.5 1 0 1.5 0.5 
  
 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5



 500 