SEMESTER III STAT 232 – INTRODUCTION TO SAMPLING THEORY CREDITS: 3

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Text Books for study
1. Cochran, W.G. (1977): Sampling Techniques, 3/e, Wiley.
2. Singh D and Choudhary F.S. (1986): Theory and Analysis of Sample Survey and Designs, New
Age International.
3. Applied Statistics by S C Gupta and V K Kapur
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Unit I: Concept of sampling - Need for sampling - population and sample - sampling unit and
sample frame - Types of Population - Basic properties of population - sample survey and census
- Principal steps in a Sample survey - Notion of sampling error.
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Content of unit -I covered through online Google Meet Class (lecture )

1. Concept of sampling:
1.1 Advantage of sampling:
2. Need for sampling:
3. Limitations of sampling:
4. Criteria for good sampling:
5. Sample and population and - sampling unit and sample frame - types of population
5.1 Sample
5.2 Population:
5.3 Difference between population and sample
5.4 Types of population:
5.4.1 Finite population:
5.4.2 Infinite population
5.4.3 Existent or real population:
5.4.4 Hypothetical population
6. Population parameters and statistic:
6.1 Parameter:
6.2 Statistic:
6.3 Estimator and estimate:
7. Sampling unit and sampling frame:
7.1. Sampling unit
7.2. Sampling frame:
7.3 Characteristics of sampling frame:
7.4 Types of defect in a sampling frame:
8. Census methods and sampling / sample survey:
8.1 Census method:
8.2 Merits and demerits of the census method:
8.3 Sampling or sample survey method:
8.4 Merits and demerits of the sample survey method:
8.5 Difference between census and sample surveys
9. Principles for the design of a sample survey:
10. Essentials of sampling
11 Principle steps in sample survey:
 12 Sampling and non-sampling error
12.1 Sampling error:
12.2 Non-sampling error:
13. Statistical survey:
14 Types of statistical data:
14.1 Primary data:
14.2 Methods of collecting primary data:
14.3 Secondary data:
15 Selection of random units / a random sample:
15.1 Lottery method:
15.2. use of random number table:
Overall review of lecture:
Objectives and motivation from lecture:
Suggestions:
________________________________________________________________________

1. Concept of Sampling: Sampling is quite often used in our day-to-day practical life.

 Sampling is a repetitive procedure for drawing element / units one after another from an
arbitrary population. we draw one by one sampling units till pre-assigned number is
obtained.
 Sampling is the process of selecting observations / units (a sample) to provide an
adequate description and inferences of the population.
 Sampling helps in collection of an amount of information / data / a random sample for
analyzing the behaviors and revealing the facts of population .
 sampling is the selection of a subset (a statistical sample) of individuals from within a
statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population.

1.1 Advantage of Sampling:

 There are Two advantages of sampling

 Lower cost and
 Faster data collection than measuring the entire population.

Examples:

 In a shop we assess the quality of sugar, rice, wheat, pulses or any other commodity by
taking a handful of it from the bag and decide to purchase it or not.
 A individual (man /woman / housewife / cook) normally tests the cooked food products
to find if they are properly cooked and contain the proper quantity of salt.
 In biological experiment, If few pods/plants is to be collected from a field for studying
the whole population of plant in that field.
 A customer visit to mobile shop to purchase a mobile set / smart phone from a particular
brand / company among the various brands of available mobile set depending on best
specifications /configurations /structures / as per suitable cost according to allowable
budget limit.
  Taking a blood sample of a patient to diagnose the sugar level / other health issue.
 Taste a piece of mango fruit to decide whether it is advisable to purse or not.
 Use of a computer (or any electronic Gadgets) from a particular brand which helps you in
deciding to purchase the same brand computer in lot for a Institute.

Important Remarks:

1. It is difficult to decide which brand is better than other one due to the variations in
specifications. The cost does matter according to more or less specifications in a brand.
2. The taste, life style, thinking, working environment etc. are varying from individual to
individual, which does matter in human life.
3. There are varieties of choices of any products available in the market for sell. The
customer taking a decision for purchase of a product for a particular brand based on
quality and reliability of products.
4. From all those examples it is learned that experience does matter and play an important
role in taking a decision by the customer in purchasing of any products.

2. Need for sampling:

(a) Sampling saves time, the data can be collected and summarised more quickly with a
sample than a complete count of the whole population.
(b) In case of infinite population, sampling is the only method for statistical analysis.
(c) Sampling reduces the cost of experiment because only a few selected items are
studied in sampling.

3. Limitations of Sampling:

(a) If the sampling is not done properly, i.e., if it is biased then it misleads which results in
false, inaccurate interpretation.
(b) There may be personal biasness during sampling or choice of method of sampling which
may also lead to erroneous interpretation.

4. Criteria for Good Sampling:

(a) Selected samples from the population should be homogenous and should not have any
differences when compared with the population.
(b) Reasonable number of items is to be included in the sample to make the result more
reliable.
(c) The selected sample should have the similar characteristics as the original population
from which it has been selected.
(d) The individual items composing the sample should be independent from each other.
(e) The number of observations included in a sample should be more to make the results
more reliable.
5. Sample and Population and - sampling unit and sample frame - Types of
Population

5.1 Sample :
 A sampling unit is a collection of elements.
 A sample is a collection of sampling units / observations.
 A group of units or items or individual are chosen randomly from a population
is known as sample.
 A finite subset of statistical individuals in a population is called a sample.
 The number of individuals in a sample is called the sample size. which is denoted by "n".
 The sample should be a random one. The sample should be of representative of a
population.
 Each and every sampled units of a sample to be studies / examined for
assessing the nature of entire units in a population. i.e., The individuals in the sample
only are observed.
 Sample helps in observing the characteristics of units and overall behavior
of any arbitrary population.
 It also helps in estimating the population parameters for revealing the facts based on few
amount of sample units, instead of enumerating the entire population.
 The size of the sample is always less than the total size of the population.
 Sample is a representative of a population.
 The random samples are useful in estimating of a unknown quantity (parameter) /
characteristics of a population.
 We make n independent measurements (or draw a random sample of size n).
 This sample gives observations independent and identically distributed from
a population distribution.

Examples:
1) 300 undergraduate students from three Indian Central Universities who volunteer
for your psychology research study.
2) Some Countries with published data available on birth rates and GDP since 2000
from all countries in the world.
3) SOME people living in US / UK.
4) Some pieces of sugarcane are taken from agriculture ground and tested which
makes an idea for entire field of sugarcane.
5) The number of RBC in a human body.
6) The number of sound particles in a desert.
7) The number of water molecules in an ocean.
8) The number of intervals in a real line.
9) Samples of a particular type of cancer tissue; expression of a certain gene.
5.2 Population:

 The collection of all items of interest to our study

 A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
 A population is an aggregates of objects under study.
 The group of individuals under study is called population. It is denoted by N.
 The population may be finite or infinite.
 It includes all the elements from the data set and measurable characteristics of the
population such as mean and standard deviation are known as a parameter. For
example, All people living in India indicates the population of India.

Examples of Population and Sample

1) All the people who have the ID proofs is the population and a group of people
who only have voter id with them is the sample.
2) All the students in the class are population whereas the top 10 students in the class
are the sample.
3) All the members of the parliament is population and the female candidates present
there is the sample

5.3 Difference between Population and Sample

Some of the key differences between population and sample are clearly given below:

Comparison Population Sample

Meaning Collection of all the units or elements A subgroup of the members of

that possess common characteristics the population

Includes Each and every element of a group Only includes a handful of units
of population

Characteristics Parameter Statistic

Data Collection Complete enumeration or census Sampling or sample survey

Focus on Identification of the characteristics Making inferences about the

population

5.4 Types of population: There are different types of population. They are:
 Finite Population
 Infinite Population
 Existent or Real Population
 Hypothetical Population
5.4.1 Finite Population:
 The finite population is also known as a countable population in which the population can
be counted. In other words, it is defined as the population of all the individuals or objects
that are finite. For statistical analysis, the finite population is more advantageous than the
infinite population. Examples of finite populations are employees of a company, potential
consumer in a market.
5.4.2 Infinite Population
 The infinite population is also known as an uncountable population in which the counting
of units in the population is not possible. Example of an infinite population is the number
of germs in the patient’s body is uncountable.

5.4.3 Existent Population:

 The existing population is defined as the population of concrete individuals. In other
words, the population whose unit is available in solid form is known as existent or real
population. Examples are books, students etc.

5.4.4 Hypothetical Population

 The population in which whose unit is not available in solid form is known as the
hypothetical population. A population consists of sets of observations, objects etc that are
all something in common. In some situations, the populations are only hypothetical.
Examples are an outcome of rolling the dice, the outcome of tossing a coin.

6. POPULATION PARAMETERS AND STATISTIC:

6.1 Parameter:
 The object / subject of our interest is to study the population distribution.
 A population having their own characteristics based on the behavior of exiting
units in it.
 There are number of known and unknown characteristics of a population.
 These characteristics are represented by population parameters.
 The population parameter is denoted by Greek Letters (like etc).

Example:
 : is a parameter
: is known as population mean
: is a fixed quantity
: is unknown
: is to be estimated
: by using a sample estimator / statistic.
: the estimated value (numerical / functional) of is an estimate.
: is an estimator of .
Note: We make n independent measurements (or draw a random sample of size n).
This sample gives observations independent and identically
distributed (iid) population distribution.

6.2 Statistic:
 Collection of a random observations is known as a statistic.
 A random vector constitutes a statistic.
 A random vector is a function of sample observations .
 A statistic is a function of sample observations.
i.e., or is a statistic.
Example:
 : is a sample Mean
: An estimator of
: A function of the data (the X's)
: a random quantity

Some other examples of statistic are

 : Sample Median
 : Sample Mode
 : Sample Variance

6.3 Estimator and Estimate:

 An estimator is a statistic which is being used in estimating some unknown
population parameter.
 An estimator is representing a sample function.
 A numerical value of population parameter is obtained by using sample estimator is
known as estimate.

We write:
 ( ) (read as theta head) is an estimator of .
 is an estimator of
 is an estimator of

Illustration example of Estimate:

 : the observed sample mean
: An estimate of
: A particular realization of the estimator
: A fixed quantity, but the result of a random process.
7. Sampling Unit and Sampling frame:

7.1. Sampling Unit

 The population divided into a finite number of distinct and identifiable units is called
sampling units.
 The individuals whose characteristics are to be measured in the analysis are called
elementary or sampling units.
 Before selecting the sample, the population must be divided into parts called
sampling units or simply sample units.

7.2. Sampling Frame:

 The list of all the sampling units with a proper identification (which represents the
population to be covered is called sampling frame). The frame may consist of either a
list of units or a map of area (in case sample of area is being taken), such that every
element in the population belongs to one and only one unit.
 The frame should be accurate, free from omission and duplication (overlapping),
adequate, upto data and the units must cover the whole of the population and should
be well identified.
 In improving the sampling design, supplementary information for the field covered by
the sampling frame may also be valuable.

Examples: Sampling Frame and Sampling Unit

 List of household (and persons) enumerated in population census.

 A map of areas of a country showing the boundaries of area units.
 In sampling an agricultural crop, the unit might be a field, a farm or an area of land
whose shape and dimensions are at out disposal.

7.3 Characteristics of sampling frame:

An ideal sampling frame will have the following qualities/characteristics:

 all sampling units have a logical and have numerical identifier

 all sampling units can be found i.e. contact information, map location or other
relevant information about sampling units is present
 the frame is organized in a logical and systematic manner
 the sampling frame has some additional information about the units that allow the use
of more advanced sampling frames
 every element of the population of interest is present in the frame
 every element of the population is present only once in the frame
 no elements from outside the population of interest are present in the frame
 the data is up-to-date.
 7.4 Types of Defect in a sampling frame:

A sampling frame can be classified subject to several types of defect as follows:

 A frame may be inaccurate: where some of the sampling units of the population are
listed inaccurately or some units which do not actually exist are included in the list.
 A frame may be inadequate: when it does not include all classes of the population
which are to be taken the survey.
 A frame may be incomplete: when some of the sampling units of the population are
either completely omitted or includes more than once.
 A frame may be out of date: when it has not been updated according to the demand
of the occasion, although it was accurate, complete and adequate at the time of
construction.

How to select a Sample?

 The first most important step in selecting a sample is to determine the population.
Once the population is identified, a sample must be selected. A good sample is one
which is:
 Small in size.
 It provides adequate information about the whole population.
 It takes less time to collect and is less costly.

 In the case of our previous example, you could choose students from your class to be the
representative sample out of the population (all students in the school). However, there
must be some rationale behind choosing the sample. If you think your class comprises a
set of students who will give unbiased opinions/feedback or if you think your class
contains students from different backgrounds and their responses would be relevant to
your student, you must choose them as your sample. Otherwise, it is ideal to choose
another sample which might be more relevant.

 Again, realistically, the government wants estimates on the average income of the Indian
household. It is difficult and time-consuming to study all households. The government
can simply choose, say, 50 households from each state of the country and calculate the
average of that to arrive at an estimate. This estimate is not necessarily the actual figure
that would be arrived at if all units of the population underwent study. But, it
approximately gives an idea of what the figure might look like.

8. Census Methods and Sampling / Sample Survey:

In Statistics, the basis of all statistical calculations or interpretation lies in the collection
of data. There are numerous methods of data collection. In this lesson, we shall focus on
two primary methods and understand the difference between them. Both are suitable in
 different cases and the knowledge of these methods is important to understand when to
apply which method. These two methods are the Census method and Sampling method.

8.1 Census method:

 A statistical investigation in which the data are collected for each and every
element/unit of the population, it is termed as Census Method.
 It is also known as ‘Complete Enumeration’ or ‘100% Enumeration or Complete
survey.
 Useful in case Intensive Study is required or the area is limited.
 Census method is the method of statistical enumeration where all members of the
population are studied. A population refers to the set of all observations under concern.
For example, if you want to carry out a survey to find out student’s feedback about the
facilities of your school, all the students of your school would form a part of the
‘population’ for your study.

For example:
1. Demographic data on birth and death rates, literacy; workforce, life expectancy, size
and composition of a population.
2. At a more realistic level, a country wants to maintain information and records about
all households. It can collect this information by surveying all households in the
country using the census method.
3. In our country, the Government conducts the Census of India every ten years.

 The Census appropriates information from households regarding their incomes, the
earning members, the total number of children, members of the family, etc. This method
must take into account all the units. It cannot leave out anyone in collecting data. Once
collected, the Census of India reveals demographic information such as birth rates,
death rates, total population, population growth rate of our country, etc. The last census
was conducted in the year 2011.

8.2 Merits and demerits of the census method:

Merits of census method:

1) Intensive study : It provides intensive and in-depth information covering many

facets of the problems.

For example: In a population census, Not only the number of persons is counted, but
the information is also collected on various other parameters like,- The number of males
and females, Age, Education, Marital Status, Occupational level, Income Health
Conditions, etc.

(2) Results are more accurate and reliable: Since in this type of investigation every
item of the universe is taken into account, the conclusions are more accurate and
reliable.
 Demerits of Census Method:

(1) Costly method: Since the data are obtained for or from each & every unit of
the population, it is a very expensive method of investigation, especially in case
of large size of the population.
(2) Needs more time and manpower: Since a large volume of data is to be
collected, more time and manpower is required for its collection, analysis and
interpretation.
(3) Not suitable for the large population: This method is meaningless in case of
an infinite universe where the number of items is unlimited.

8.3 Sampling or Sample Survey method:

 Like we have studied, the population contains units with some similar characteristics on
the basis of which they are grouped together for the study. In the case of the Census of
India, for example, the common characteristic was that all units are Indian nationals. But
it is not always practical to collect information from all the units of the population.

 It is a time-consuming and costly method. Thus, an easy way out would be to collect
information from some representative group from the population and then make
observations accordingly. This representative group which contains some units from the
whole population is called the sample.

8.4 Merits and demerits of the sample survey method:

Merits –
 It is an economically viable method as it is less costly, saves time and requires
less manpower to collect data.
 Sampling becomes indispensable where census method is impracticable. For example,
(1) If the life of the bulbs is to be tested by the manufacturer;
(2) If the quality of Nut-Bolts is to be tested.
(3) If Blood Test is to be carried out.
(4) If the quality of Prints is to be tested while printing books.
 The result of the census method may be checked with the help of the sampling method.
 In cases where the population size is too large, the sampling method is easy and more
practical.
 We can use it to make estimations about population characteristics without even
surveying all units of the population.

Demerits –
 If the sampling is not properly conducted, it might lead to erroneous and
unrepresentative results.
 If the Investigator is biased, then he might select sample deliberately.
In such cases, the selected Sample may not be the best representative of Population.
  Sampling normally generates an error due to leaving out of units from the population. If
a crucial unit is left out of the sample, the resulting error will be large.
 If skilled personnel are not available to interpret the data, the results drawn will be
unreliable.

8.5 Difference between Census and Sample Surveys

Basis Census method Sampling method

(1) Nature of The extensive enquiry is conducted at The limited enquiry is conducted as only a
enquiry each and every unit of the population is few units of the population are studied.
studied.

(2) Economy More Time, Money & Labour -It Less Time, Money & Labour Relatively
requires a large amount of money, time less money, time, and labour are required.
and labour.

(3) Suitability It is more suitable if the population is It is more suitable if the population is
heterogeneous in nature. homogeneous in nature.

(4) Reliability and Results are quite reliable and The undersampling method results and less
accuracy accurate under the Census method. reliable because a high degree of accuracy is
not achieved.

(5) Organization It is very difficult to organize and The sampling method is comparatively
and supervision supervise the census method. easy to organize and supervise.

(6) Verification Under this method results of the Under this method, results can be
investigation cannot be verified. tested taking out another small sample.

(7) Nature of Census method is an old method of The sampling method is a new and
method investigation and it is not a very practicable method, It is a scientific
scientific method. method.
9. Principles for the design of a sample survey:

Three basic principles for the design of a sample survey are:

1. Principle of Optimization

The principle of optimization takes into account the factors of (a) Efficiency and (b) cost.

(a) Efficiency: Efficiency is measured by the inverse of sampling variance of the estimator. The
principle of optimization ensures that a given level of efficiency will be reached with the
minimum possible resources and minimum cost.

(b) Cost: Cost is measured by expenditure incurred in terms of money or man powers. So, the
term optimization means that, it is based on developing methods of sample selection and of
estimation; these provide a given value of cost with the maximum possible efficiency.

2. Principle of Validity

By validity of a sample design, we mean that the sample should be so selected that the results
could be interpreted objectively in terms of probability. According to this, sampling provides
valid estimates about population parameters. This principle ensures that there is some definite
and pre assigned probability for each individual of the aggregate (population) to be included in
the sample.

3. Principle of Statistical Regularity

According to the principle of statistical regularity we mean that a moderately large number of
items chosen at random from a large group are almost sure on the average to possess the
characteristics of the large group. This principle has also its origin in the law of large numbers of
the theory of probability.

10. Essentials of Sampling

For obtaining the unbiased and real result by a sampling method, a sample should have the
following factors (characteristics):

1. Homogeneity: The nature of each and every unit of the population should not contain much
difference. If two or more samples are selected then they should be similar in nature not in
their response/output.

2. Representativeness: The sample should represent all the characteristics of the population that
can be possible only when the selection of items or units has been done unbiased and each and
every unit have an equal probability of chance to be selected in the sample.

3. Independency : Each and every unit of the population should be independent. In other words,
the selection of a unit in the sample should not be dependent on the selection of other units.
4. Adequacy: The number of units or elements which are to be selected in the sample should be
sufficient. If the sample size is not sufficient then results cannot be reliable. The more the
sample units in the sample, more reliable results would occur.

11 PRINCIPLE STEPS IN SAMPLE SURVEY:

The main steps involved in the planning and execution of a sample survey are nder the following
heads:

1. Objectives: The objective of the survey must be defined in clear and concrete terms.
Generally, in survey a investigation team is not quite clear in mind as to what they want and
how they are going to use the results. Some of the objectives may be immediate and some far-
reaching. The investigator should take care of these objectives with the available resources in
terms of money, manpower and the time limit required for the availability of the survey.

2. Defining the Population: The population from which sample is chosen should be defined in
clear and unambiguous terms. The geographical, demographic and other boundaries of the
population must be specified so that no ambiguity arises regarding the coverage of the survey.

3. Sampling Frame and Sampling Units: The sampling unit is the ultimate unit to be sampled
for the purpose of the survey. The sampling units must cover the entire population and they
must be distinct, unambiguous and non-overlapping in the sense that every element of the
population belongs to one and only one sampling unit. In a Socio economic survey, whether a
family or a member of a family is to be the ultimate sampling unit.

Once the sampling units are defined, one must see whether a sampling frame which is a list of
all the units in the population, is available. The construction of the frame is often one of the
major practical problem since it is the frame which determines the structure of the sample
survey. The list of units have to be carefully scrutinized and examined to ensures that it is free
from duplicity or incompleteness and are up-to-date. A good frame is hard to design and
only good experience helps to construct a good frame.

4. Selection of Proper Sampling Design: This is the most important step in planning a sample
survey. There is a group of sampling designs (to be discussed later) and selection of the proper
one is an important task. The design should take into account the available resources and the
time-limit, if any, besides the degree of accuracy desired. The cost and precision should also
be considered before the final selection of sampling design.

5. Method of Collection of Data: For collection of data, either the interview method or the mail
questionnaire method is to be adopted. Although the later method is less costly but there is a
large scope of non-response in it. In the cases, where the information is to be collected by
observation they must decide upon the method of measurement.

6. Data to be Collected: Collection of data must be done in conformity with the objectives of
the survey and the nature of the data. After it is decided upon, one must prepare a
questionnaire or a schedule of enquiry. A schedule or a questionnaire contains a list of items
 of which information is sought, but the exact form of the questions to be asked is not
standardized but left to the judgment of the investigators.

A questionnaire should be in a specified order. The questions should be clear, brief,

collaborative, non offending and unambiguous and to the point so that not much scope of
speculation is left on the part of the respondent or interviewer.

7. Field Work Organization: Field work, itself has several stages and so it is to be well
organized. The different stages include training the field workers, supervising the field
workers, etc. It is absolutely essential that the personnel should be thoroughly trained in
locating the sample units, the methods of collection of required data before starting the field
word. The success of a survey to a great extent depends upon the reliable field work.
Inspection after field work by the adequate supervisors should also be performed.

8. Summary and Analysis of Data : This is the last step wherein inference is to be made on the
basis of collected data. This step again consists of the following steps:

a) The filled in questionnaires should be carefully scrutinized to find out whether the data
furnished are plausible and consistent;
b) Depending upon the quantity of data, a hand-tabulation or machine tabulation is to be
drawn;
c) After the data has been properly scrutinized, edited and tabulated, a very careful statistical
analysis is to be made; and
d) Finally a report incorporating detailed statement of the different stages of the survey should
be prepared. In the presentation of the result, it is advisable to report technical aspects of
the design.

12 SAMPLING AND NON-SAMPLING ERROR

The errors involved in the collection, processing and analysis of data may be broadly classified under
the following two heads:

1. Sampling Error and 2. Non-sampling Error

12.1 Sampling Error: The error which arises only in sample survey is termed as sampling
error. This error arises because in sample survey a part of the population is only studied.
This is the reason why sampling error is absent in census. The main factors of sampling
error are:
1. Some of the bias is introduced by the use of defective sampling techniques for the selection
of a sample;
2. Substitution of a non-selected a convenient unit of the population in place of a selected unit
to which the investigation is difficult leads to some biases in the sample survey;
3. Bias due to defective demarcation of sampling units, particularly in area/filed survey; and
4. Constant errors due to improper choice of the statistics for estimating the population
parameters.
12.2 Non-Sampling Error: The non-sampling error arises at the stages of observation,
ascertainment and processing of the data. This is the reason why the non-sampling error
presents in both the census and the sample survey. Non-sampling error can occur at every
stage of the planning or execution of census or sample survey. Non-sampling errors arise
due to the following factors:
1. Data specification being inadequate and inconsistent with respect to the objective of the
study;
2. Error due to location of the units and actual measurement of the characteristics;
3. Error due to ill designed questionnaire;
4. Lack of trained and qualified investigators and lack of adequate supervisory staff;
5. Errors due to lack of correct responses furnished by the respondents;
6. Non-response biases occur if full information is not obtained on all the sampling units;
7. If the objectives of the survey are not stated clearly, it may result in inclusion of the units
which are not to be included and exclusion of the units which are to be included in the
sample;
8. Due to error in various operations of data processing such as editing and coding of the
responses, punching of cards, tabulation and summarizing the observation made in the
survey; and
9. The errors may be committed during presentation and printing the results of the survey.

13. STATISTICAL SURVEY:

The main objectives of sample survey is to collect the facts and figures of a given problem
by using an appropriate statistical methods. Survey is most famous method of obtaining the
required data.
The following are principal steps which are involved in Statistical Survey:

1. Planning of statistical survey

2. Collection of data
3. Scrutinisation and verification of the collected data
4. Classification and Tabulation of data
5. Presentation of data through diagrams and graphs.
6. Analyzing the data with computing the estimates by using statistical methods.
7. Interpretation of the results obtained.
8. Preparation of actual report.

14 TYPES OF STATISTICAL DATA:

There are two types of data exist in the domain.

14.1: Primary Data: The data collected directly from the individual respondents for the first
time by the investigator for certain purpose of study.
 Primary data are original in character in the sense that they have been recorded as they
occurred without having being grounded at all.
 The data collected at first instance or attempt on a particular issue / topic in a sample
survey by using an appropriate sampling method.
 Which relates to the collection of original statistical information.
 They are also current and fresh.
 It is also raw data.

 There are two government agencies works for data collection by conducting regular
and periodical survey on various subjects pertaining to humanities under
MINISTRY OF STATISTICS AND PROGRAMME INMPLEMENTATION
(MOSPI) at New Delhi.

The most popularly government agencies are known as:

 NATIONAL SAMPLE SURVEY ORGANIZATION (NSSO)

 CENTRAL STATISTICAL OFFICE (CSO)

 The NSSO and CSO are two most important government offices which are
responsible for regularly/ periodically conducts the sample survey for collection of
primary data on various social -(socio and economic) issues related to human being
problems.
 The main objectives of collecting primary data on various issues is to frame the
planning and policies in interest and development of humanities.
 Also, to provide an amicable and appropriate solutions to several problems.
 These two agencies are established in every districts in all the states and UT.
 They conduct sample survey on various issues like
(a) Education (literacy)
(b) Employment and Unemployment
(c) Financial status
(d) Poverty (below / above)
(e) Human Population (status and rate of mortality, fertility, sex ratio, etc)
(f) Income (per capita income of palce)
(g) Marital Status (Married / Unmarried/ Family destruction/ Widow/ divorcee etc.)
(h) Health facility (benefits)

 Apart from government agencies, there are several non-government organization

(NGO) are also involved / contributing their services in different fields of society by
conducting the sample survey on several issues / objects for collecting of primary
information as primary data.

14.2 Methods of collecting primary data:

The following methods are used in the collection of primary data:

 Direct Personal investigation.
 Indirect oral investigation
 Through schedules and questionnaires.
 Through electronic mode smart phones / e-mail / Google Forms etc.
 By Local reports
14.3 Secondary Data:

 Secondary data are those data which have been previously collected by someone /
government / others or private agencies / NGO for some purpose of study. The data
are kept by others based on sample survey.
 It is maintained by several agencies and offices from long time.

For example:
If the statistical data given in different population census years are again processed to
obtain the trend of population growth, sex ratio, mortality rate and fertility rate etc. is
termed secondary data.

The sources of secondary data are:

(a) Published Sources like, survey reports, Magazines (monthly / quarterly/ half yearly /
yearly publishes) , newspapers, Journals etc.

(b) Unpublished Sources - data available from Trade unions, Chambers of commerce,
Govt. Revenue department, Income tax department, Labor bureaus , CBI records,
District collectorate office records, Medical records section of Hospitals etc.

15 Selection of Random Units / a random Sample:

The selected units under random method is known as non-biased or unbiased unit. There
are two well known random methods using for selection of the units or a random sample
from an any arbitrary population.
1. Lottery method and
2. Random number table method.
 When the population size is small or moderate size, lottery method can be used to select
the units or a sample.
 When the population size is large, we refer to use Random number table method for
selection of units. (Ref.: Rao, Mitra, Mathai for Statistical table).

15.1 Lottery method:

This is the simplest method of selecting a random sample is the lottery system. In this
method, a ticket / chit may be associated with each unit of the population.
Thus, each sampling unit has its identification mark from 1 to N. The procedure of
selecting an individual is very simple. All the identified tickets / chits / cards are placed
in a bag / container / drum or metallic spherical device and thoroughly mixing or
reshuffling is possible, before each draws. The draws of tickets / chits / cards may be
continued until a sample of required size is obtained. The procedure of numbering units
on tickets / chits / cards and selecting one after reshuffling becomes cumbersome or
difficult and quite time consuming when the population size is large.
15.2. Use of random number table:

A random number table is an arrangement of digits from 0 to 9, in either a linear or

rectangular pattern, where each position is filled with one of these digits. A table of
random number is so constructed that all numbers 0,1,2,...,9 appear with approximately
the same frequency and independently of each other.

If we select a sample from a population of size N(<=99) then the numbers can be
combined two by two to give pairs from 00 to 99. Similarly if N <=999 or <=9999 and so
on. Then combining the digits three by three or four by four and so on. We get numbers
from 000 to 999 and 0000 to 9999 and so on.

Example: Suppose a random sample of ten students is to be selected for a competition

out of 120. Arrange the candidates in a alphabetical order and number them. we select at
random a line (either a row or a column or a diagonal) from random umber table: which
may be 4039 0612 5421 2967 3007 7243 8460 2051 7091 1112. The selected
candidates are 40, 39, 06, 12, 54, 21, 29, 67, 30, 07 as Sample.

Another way to get random numbers for selection of units from generating the numbers
from computer (use software) / calculator.

There are two obvious questions in the mind of user / investigator while selecting a
random sample using Random (or probability) sampling methods are concerned,
which will be discussed in forthcoming units.

Overall Review of Lecture: In this Unit-I, we have introduced origin of sampling,

concepts of sampling with several examples to make understand the uses of sampling in
real life of humanities. The main objectives of unit-I is to learn the objectives of
sampling with some motivations to gets the answers several basic questions (why, when
and where). Further, we have discussed methods of sample survey with principal steps
for conducting sampling and census. The various topics associated to sampling has
been elaborated in detail. Some additional topics pertaining to contents of syllabus is also
covered. Graphical presentation for relationship between sample and population and
drawing random sample has also been demonstrated.

Objectives and Motivation from Lecture: The main objectives of the contents
delivered in Unit-I to dissemination of subject knowledge for provide the ideas sampling
and purpose of conducting sampling by using scientific methods. which motivates in
learning new concept of sampling and its interesting uses in real life applications.

Suggestions: These study materials will help in understanding the concepts on the
content of topics mentioned in the Unit-I which may not enough for study. Readers
are advised to read the study material in carefully and prepare own study notes
with consultation of reference books for end semester examination and also for
competitive examination and try to collect at least five new example on each of the
topics discussed.