QUALITY CONTROL

(110403442)
Dr. Akram AlSukker
 TEXT BOOKS

• Introduction to Statistical Quality

Control. Montgomery, D. C., John
Wiley & Sons, Sixth Edition,2013
 QUALITY ?

• Quality means fitness for use (Traditional)

• quality of design ( Material used, specification of
components, reliability of use and accessories)
• quality of conformance (conform to design
specification )
• Quality is inversely proportional to variability
(Modern).
 QUALITY IMPROVEMENT?
• Quality improvement is the reduction of variability
in processes and products
• Equivalent definition: Elimination of waste (service
industries)
• Statistical methods play central role in quality
improvement efforts
THE TRANSMISSION EXAMPLE
 DIMENSIONS OF QUALITY
• Performance • Features
• Reliability • Perceived Quality
• Durability • Conformance to
• Serviceability standards
• Appearance
• PERFORMANCE: Will the product perform its
intended job?
• Perform certain specific functions
• Determine how well it performs them
• Evaluate programming packages. One
outperform another with respect to the
execution speed
• C, Python,Java,MATLAB
• RELIABILITY : How often does the product fail?
• How often does this car require repair?
• If a car requires frequent repair, we say that it is
unreliable.
• DURABILITY: How long does the product last?
• The product should perform satisfactorily over a long
period of life
• Examples: automobile and major appliance industries
• SERVICEABILITY: How easy/quick is it to repair the
product?
• If amazon.com sends the wrong book, how hard is it to
get this error corrected?
• How long did it take a credit card company to correct an
error in your bill?
• FEATURES: What will the product do beyond the
basics?
• Added features
• Spreadsheet software package that has built in statistical
analysis features
• APPEARANCE : What does the product look like?
• Do you like the box in which Shoes are packaged?
• PERCEIVED QUALITY: What is the reputation of the
company selling this product?
• Prefer to use a particular airline in which the flight
almost always arrive on time and does not lose or
damage the luggage
• CONFORMANCE TO STANDARDS: Is the product
made exactly as the designer intended?
• How well does the hood fit on a new car?
 TERMINOLOGY
• Quality Characteristics : elements that customers use to
describe quality (critical-to-quality ,CTQ)
• Physical - length, weight, voltage, viscosity
• Sensory - taste, appearance, color
• Time Orientation - reliability, durability, serviceability
• Inherent variability: slight difference in materials,
operators, etc
• Attributes Data vs. Variable Data ( discrete vs. continuous)
• Role of Statistical methods? statistical process control,
design of
• experiments, and acceptance sampling
• Quality engineering is the set of operational, managerial,
and engineering activities that a company uses to ensure
that the quality characteristics of a product are at the
nominal or required levels.
 TERMINOLOGY
• Specifications
• Nominal or Target value
• Upper Specification Limit (USL) : The largest allowable
value for a quality characteristic
• Lower Specification Limit (LSL)
• One-sided
• The compression strength of a Coke bottle must be greater than a
given psi value
• Two-sided
• The weight of potato chips in the bag can be between 7.8 and 8.3
ounces

• Nonconforming product (fail to meet one or more

of their specifications)
 TERMINOLOGY
• Defective : one or more nonconformities that may
seriously affect the safe or effective use of the
product
• Not all products containing a defect are necessarily
defective
• Over-the-wall approach (specification limits are
usually determined by the design engineer)
• Concurrent Engineering :Team approach to design
(Design, Manufacturing, quality engineering and
other disciplines).
STATISTICAL METHODS FOR QUALITY
CONTROL AND IMPROVEMENT

• Controllable input:
temperatures,
pressures, and feed
rates
• Uncontrollable input :
environmental factors or
properties of raw
materials
 STATISTICAL METHODS
• Statistical process control (SPC)
• Control charts, plus other problem-solving tools
• Useful in monitoring processes, reducing variability
through elimination of assignable causes
• On-line technique
• Designed experiments (DOX)
• Discovering the key factors that influence process
performance
• Process optimization
• Off-line technique
• Acceptance Sampling
• the inspection and classification of a sample of the
product selected at random from a larger batch or lot
and the ultimate decision about disposition of the lot.
CONTROL CHART

• CL: Control Line

• UCL: Upper CL
• LCL: Lower CL
• CC is a process monitoring
technique
Chapter 1 17
 The objective
• Systematic reduction of variability
• First, by using acceptance sampling
• Then, by using SPC
• Finally, by using DOE
• We don’t stop when requirements are met
• Further reductions in variability lead to better
performance
Chapter 1 19
 Management Aspects of Quality
Improvement
Effective management of quality requires the
execution of three activities:
1. Quality Planning
2. Quality Assurance
3. Quality Control and Improvement

Chapter 1 20
 Quality planning
• strategic activity, and it is just as vital to an
organization’s long term business success
• involves identifying customers, both external
and those that operate internal to the business,
and identifying their needs [this is sometimes
called listening to the voice of the customer
• products or services that meet or exceed
customer expectations must be developed

Chapter 1 21
• Quality assurance is the set of activities that
ensures the quality levels of products and services
are properly maintained and that supplier and
customer quality issues are properly resolved.
• Documentation of the quality system is an
important component. Quality system
documentation involves four components
• Policy (what is to be done and why)
• Procedures (focus on the methods and personnel)
• Work instructions and specifications (product-,
department-, tool-, or machine-oriented)
• Records (documenting all above)

Chapter 1 22
 Quality control and improvement
• Involve the set of activities used to ensure that the
products and services meet requirements and are
improved on a continuous basis.
• Tools for improvement:
• Statistical techniques, including SPC
• Designed experiments

Chapter 1 23
Quality Philosophy and Management Strategies
Three Important Leaders

• W. Edwards Deming
- Emphasis on statistical methods in quality
improvement
• Joseph Juran
- Emphasis on managerial role in quality
implementation
• Armand V. Feigenbaum
- Emphasis on organizational structure
 Deming’s 14 Points
1. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement
2. Adopt a new philosophy, recognize that we are in a time of
change, a new economic age
3. Cease reliance on mass inspection to improve quality
4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price
alone
5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production
and service
6. Institute training
7. Improve leadership, recognize that the aim of supervision
is help people and equipment to do a better job

Chapter 1 25
 Deming’s 14 Points
8. Drive out fear
9. Break down barriers between departments
10. Eliminate slogans and targets for the workforce such as
zero defects
11. Eliminate work standards
12. Remove barriers that rob workers of the right to pride in
the quality of their work
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-
improvement
14. Put everyone to work to accomplish the transformation

Chapter 1 26
 1- Create a constancy of purpose
• Focus on the improvement of products and services
• Constantly improve product design and
performance
• Invest in R&D
• Innovate
2- Adopt a new philosophy
• Eliminate defective products
• It costs as much to produce a defective unit as a good
one
• Dealing with scrap and rework is very expensive
 3. Don’t rely on inspection
• Inspection only sorts out defectives
• Already have paid to produce them
• Inspection is too late in the process
• It’s also ineffective
• Prevent defectives through process improvement
4. Don’t award business on price alone
• Consider supplier quality as well
• Give preference to those suppliers that demonstrate
process control and process capability
 5. Focus on continuous improvement
• Involve the workforce
• Use statistical techniques
6. Invest in training
• Everyone should be trained in the technical aspects
of their job, QC, and process improvement
• Workers should be encouraged to put this training
to use
 7. Practice modern supervision methods
• Help the employees improve the system in which
they work
8. Drive out fear
• Create an environment where the workers will ask
questions, report problems, or point out conditions
that are barriers to quality
 9. Break down the barriers
• Break down the barriers between the functional
areas of the business
• Only through teamwork can quality and process
improvement take place
10. Eliminate targets and slogans
• Useless without a plan for the achievement of the
target or goal
• Instead, improve the system and provide
information on that
11. Eliminate quotas
• Numerical quotas and work standards often conflict
with quality control
 • 12. Encourage employees to do their job
• Remove the barriers
• Listen to the workers
• The person doing the job knows more about it than
anyone else
13. Have ongoing education and training
• Teach them simple yet powerful statistical
techniques
• Use the basic SPC tools, particularly the control
chart
14. Involve top management
• Management should be advocates for these points
Deming’s Deadly Diseases
1. Lack of constancy of purpose
2. Emphasis on short-term profits
3. Performance evaluation, merit rating, annual
reviews
4. Mobility of management
5. Running a company on visible figures alone
6. Excessive medical costs for employee health care
7. Excessive costs of warrantees

Chapter 1 33
 Model to guide improvement

Chapter 1 34
 Deming’s Obstacles to Success
1. The belief that automation, computers, and new machinery will solve
problems.
2. Searching for examples—trying to copy existing solutions.
3. The “our problems are different” excuse and not realizing that the
principles that will solve them are universal.
4. Obsolete schools, particularly business schools, where graduates have
not been taught how to successfully run businesses.
5. Poor teaching of statistical methods in industry: Teaching tools
without a framework for using them is going to be unsuccessful.
6. Reliance on inspection to produce quality.
7. Reliance on the “quality control department” to take care of all quality
problems.
Chapter 1 35
 Deming’s Obstacles to Success
8. Blaming the workforce for problems.
9. False starts, such as broad teaching of statistical methods without a
plan as to how to use them, quality circles, employee suggestion systems,
and other forms of “instant pudding.”
10. The fallacy of zero defects: Companies fail even though they produce
products and services without defects. Meeting the specifications isn’t
the complete story in any business.
11. Inadequate testing of prototypes: A prototype may be a one-off
article, with artificially good dimensions, but without knowledge of
variability, testing a prototype tells very little. This is a symptom of
inadequate understanding of product design, development, and the
overall activity of technology commercialization.
12. “Anyone that comes to help us must understand all about our
business.”
Chapter 1 36
 Dr. Joseph Juran Trilogy
• Planning : Involves identifying external customers
and determining their needs
• Control: Ensure that the product or service meets
the requirements. SPC is one of the primary tools
of control)
• Improvement : Achieving higher quality levels than
current ones.

Chapter 1 37
 Armand Feigenbaum
• Author of Total Quality Control, promoted overall
organizational involvement in quality,

• Three-step approach emphasized quality leadership, quality

technology, and organizational commitment

• Says that QC should be concentrated in a specialized

department
• Conflicts with Deming on this point

Chapter 1 38
 Quality Philosophy and Management
Strategies
• Total Quality Management (TQM)
• Quality Standards and Registration
• ISO 9000
• Six Sigma
• Just-In-Time, Lean Manufacturing, Poka-Yoke,
etc.
 TQM
• It is a strategy for implementing and managing
quality improvement activities on an organization
wide basis
• Began in the early 80s based on the philosophies of
Deming and Juran
• Evolved into wide spectrum of ideas
• Participation in quality groups
• Work culture
• Customer focus
• Supplier quality improvement
• Cross-functional teams concerned with quality
Quality Systems and Standards

Chapter 1 41
 • The ISO certification process focuses heavily on quality assurance,
without sufficient weight given to quality planning and quality control
and improvement
Chapter 1 42
ISO 9000
• Quality system oriented
• Say what you do, do what you say
• Much effort devoted to paperwork and bookkeeping
• Not much to reducing variability and improving
processes
Chapter 1 44
ISO 9000
• US$40 billion annual business worldwide
• Registrars, auditors, consultants
• Plus, 1000s of hours of internal costs
• Effective?
• Does it reduce variability?
 Six Sigma
• Developed by Motorola in the late 80s
• Consider that + 3σ provides 0.00135 in each tail, or
0.00270 in the two tales
• So, in 1 million parts, 2700 would be defective
47
Six Sigma
• Consider an assembly of 100 parts that must all
function for the assembly to function
• .9973 x .9973 x …..9973 = (.9973)100 = .7631
• Thus, about 23.7% of the products under 3σ will
fail
• Not usually an acceptable situation
• But, + 6σ results in 0.999999998 inside specs
• (0.999999998)100 = .9999998
• Or, 0.2 parts/billion defective
• i.e., 0.2 ppm
• Much better than + 3σ
 Why “Quality Improvement” is Important:
A Simple Example
• A visit to a fast-food store: Hamburger (bun, meat, special sauce, cheese,
pickle, onion, lettuce, tomato), fries, and drink.
• This product has 10 components - is 99% good okay?

P{Single meal= =
good} (0.99)10
0.9044
=
Family of four, once a month: P{All meals =
good} (0.9044) 4
0.6690
=
P{All visits during the year =
good} (0.6690)12
0.0080

P{single meal = =
good} (0.999)10
0.9900, P{Monthly visit = =
good} (0.99) 4
0.9607
=
P{All visits in the year =
good} (0.9607)12
0.6186

Chapter 1 49
 Six sigma
• Companies involved in a six sigma effort utilize
specially trained individuals, called Green Belts
(GBs), Black Belts (BBs), and Master Black Belts
(MBBs)

• The “belts” have specialized training and education

on statistical method and the quality and process
improvement tools.

Chapter 1 50
 Six Sigma

• Specialized roles for people; Champions, Master Black belts, Black Belts, Green
Belts

• Top-down driven (Champions from each business)

• BBs and MBBs have responsibility (project definition, leadership,

training/mentoring, team facilitation)

Chapter 1 51
Chapter 1 52
• The leadership team is the executive responsible for that
business unit and appropriate members of his /her staff and
direct reports.
• Each project has a champion, a business leader whose job is
to facilitate project identification and selection, identify
Black Belts and other team members, remove barrier, make
sure that the resources are available, and conduct regular
meeting with the team or Black Belt.
• Black Belts are team leaders that are involved in the actual
project completion activities.

Chapter 1 53
• Green Belts have less training and experience.

• A Master Black Belt is a technical leader and may

work with the champion and the leader team in
project identification and selection, project
reviews, consulting with Black Belts on technical
issues, and training of Green Belts and Black Belts

Chapter 1 54
 Six Sigma

• A disciplined and analytical approach to

process and product improvement
• Involves a five-step process (DMAIC) :
• Define
• Measure
• Analyze
• Improve
• Control

Chapter 1 55
 DMAIC Solves Problems by Using
Six Sigma Tools

• DMAIC is a problem solving methodology

• Closely related to the Shewhart Cycle
• Use this method to solve problems:
• Define problems in processes
• Measure performance
• Analyze causes of problems
• Improve processes − remove variations and non-value-
added activities
• Control processes so problems do not recur

Chapter 1 56
 Six Sigma Three Generations
• Generation I: focused on defect elimination and basic variability reduction (such
as Motorola)
• Generation II: tie variability and defect reduction to projects and activities that
improved business performance through cost reduction (such as General
Electric)
• Generation III: additional focus of creation value throughout the organization
and for its stakeholders (such as Caterpillar and Bank of America).
• Creating value can take many forms: increasing stock prices, job retention or expansion,
expanding markets for company products/ services, developing new products/ services
that reach new and broader market, and increasing the customer satisfaction.

Chapter 1 57
 The Link Between Quality and Productivity

• Effective quality improvement can be

instrumental in increasing productivity and
reducing cost.
• The cost of achieving quality improvements and
increased productivity is often negligible.
• Example:
• 100 parts/day are manufactured
• 75% are conforming
• 60% of the nonconforming can be reworked for a
cost of $4
• Remainder are scrapped
• Direct manufacturing cost is $20/part
 Example
• Cost/conforming part
• [$20 (100) + $4 (15)]/90 = $22.89
• Note that the yield is 90 conforming/day
• New process introduced
• Fallout is 5%
• 60% can be reworked
• Cost/conforming part
• [$20 (100) + $4 (3)]/98 = $20.53
• Note that the yield is 98 conforming/day
• Up from 90/day
• And, costs are reduced by 10.3%
 Quality Costs
Quality Costs are those categories of costs that are
associated with producing, identifying, avoiding, or
repairing products that do not meet requirements.
These costs are:
• Prevention Costs
• Appraisal Costs
• Internal Failure Costs
• External Failure Costs
 Prevention costs
• Those costs associated with effort in design and
manufacturing that are directed toward the
prevention of nonconformance
• “ make it right the first time”
• Quality planning and engineering
• New products review
• Product/process design
• Process control
• Burn-in
• Training
• Quality data acquisition and analysis
 Appraisal costs
• Costs associated with measuring, evaluating, or
auditing products, components, and purchased
materials to insure conformance to the standards
that have been imposed
• Costs of activities designed to ensure quality or
discover defects
• Inspection and test of incoming material
• Product inspection and test
• Materials and services consumed
• Maintaining accuracy of test equipment
 Internal failure costs
Costs incurred to fix problems that are detected
before the product/service is delivered to the
customer
• Scrap
• Rework
• Retest
• Failure analysis
• Downtime
• Yield losses
• Downgrading
 External failure costs
• All costs incurred to fix problems that are
detected after the product/service is
delivered to the customer.
• Complaint adjustment
• Returned product/material
• Warranty charges
• Liability costs
• Indirect costs
Chapter 1 65
 Leverage effect
• Dollars invested in prevention and appraisal have a
payoff in reducing dollars incurred in internal and
external failures that exceeds the original
investment

Chapter 1 66
 Appraisal or prevention
• Many firms spend far too much of their quality
management budget on appraisal and not enough
on prevention
• Money spent on prevention has a much better payoff
than money spent on appraisal
 Legal Aspects of Quality

The re-emergence of quality assurance as an important

business strategy is in part a result of
1. Consumerism

2. Product Liability
 Consumerism
• Virtually every product line of today is superior to
that of yesterday
• But, many consumers see it otherwise
• Consumer tolerance for minor defects & aesthetic
problems has decreased considerably
• Blemishes, surface-finish defects, noises, appearance
problems
• Many manufacturers introduce new designs before
they are fully evaluated and tested
• To remain competitive
• Unproved designs
 Product liability
• Manufacturers and sellers are likely to incur a
liability when they have been unreasonably
careless or negligent in what they have designed, or
produced, or how they have produced it
 More stringent: Strict liability
• There is a strong responsibility for both
manufacturer and merchandiser requiring
immediate responsiveness to unsatisfactory quality
through product service, repair, or replacement of
defective product
• Extends into the period of use by the consumer
• By producing the product, manufacturer and seller must
accept responsibility for use
• All advertising statements must be supportable by
valid company quality or certification data