AirlinerMagazine 1986-07
AirlinerMagazine 1986-07
CONTE~TS
Thr BOEING AIRLINER IS rubllsb«l quarterly by the: CommeR:!al Airplane Company ofTk BOEING Company. Stank. WlI!;lun,ton.
C.blt addreM, BOEING·AI R. AddreM III communiealions 10 Customer ServlCft OrpnizauOII, The BOEING Company. &J; ]707. SeaUIt
w Iun,lt)l'1 '18124.
Inr0nn8110n publl~hal in the BOEING AIRLINER i!o considrred llXurale: Ind IUlhonlill1~e, Howe:~rt'. no malrrial \bould be: conSidered
as FAA Ippro_ed unleu fp«iflCaily staled, Airhne: pe:nonne:1 Ire I(h~ thai looreornpllny"s polley may relnel lhe: dlrccl we ofpubl15hed
lnformalion
CUSlomer alrlmes mly republIsh 1r!ICIes from Ihe BOEING AIRLINER for dl.'lnbUI1(lf1 only "Ilhin ,htlr own orpnizalion wilhoul wnll('ll
ptrmi.uiOfl by a.uumtn, respon..~b,llty for tht current accuracy of the n'f)ubhshtd malerlil. All Olhers must obtain written pennission from
Boemg be:fore rrprin\ln, any ar!l(:let from lhe AIRLINER 10 rnsure that III mllerlal confonns 10 latrsl mformation Ind chlngd wh('ll
publ1shed.
•
E'itended Ran~e Operalion of f"iO·Engined CommerCial
Military extended ranle operations with piston and jet distance from a suitable alternate at one engine speed
PO'A'ued t'm.. .engioe: airplanrs have been exceedindy exceeds 60 minutes (North Sea, PacifiC and others). For
numerous. The value and safety of these operations is well these there is no indication that safety related incidents
establish<d. have led to reconsideration of operational approvals.
The civil transpon uses of extended range operations have In summary, available experience justifies the present level
been a small subpart of total commercial air tnmspon of extended range planning and activity by operators,
operations. However, they have, OVeT" a long period of manufactures. and certifying authorities.
time, made a vital contribution to the communities served,
Figure I below shows the substantial number and wide Regulations
geographic distribution of commercial extended range
operations prior to 1984, These routes were nown using Prior 10 1985, regulations that were applicable 10 oper-
737, BACI II, AJOO and other airplanes. ations now defined as extended range were those of the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO),
In addition to the twin·jet routes indicated by United States (U.S.) and Australia. The U.S. FAA rule
Figure I there have been and are numerous commercial (Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) 121.161) Slated,
operations using piston engine airplanes for which the
Figtlte 1. World-wide extended range operations prior to 1984 are shown on this map.
2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AlRLlNER.r.JUL-SEP 1986
(a) Unl~s.soutJronztd bp tMAdministlTltor. based substantially limiting but nOI t:liminating significant
on the character of the turain. th~ kind of national differt:nces.
operation. or the perjonnOllce 0/ th~ ai'Plall~ to
be used, no ut1ificate holder map operate two- A summary allowing comparison of various Standards is
~lIgine or th~engin~ airplanes (exapt a thrn· provided by Figure 2.
engine tluhiJle powered airplan~) over a route that
eXJntaiJls a point/archer thalf J hour flying lime Boeing Extended Ran~ Proposal
(in stiff air at normal cruising 5p«d with one
engine inoperoti~'€) from an od~quate ailpOrt.} A program to achieve exlended rangt: airworthiness status
for the 767·200 airplane was initiated in eady 1983. The
Tht: administrator did approvt: two operations bl:yond the general fonn of tht: program followed is outlined below:
60 minute threshold; both were Caribbean operations to
approximately 75 minutes from an adequate altematt:. Propulsion System Reliability
Tht: ICAO standard of Annex 6. Part I, Example 3, 4.1.1 • All in-flight shutdowns (lFSDs)orolher t:vt:nlS related
stated, 10 the reliability of the propulsion system were
identified.
AI no point along Ihe intended track, the aero-
plane is to be more than ~ minutes 01 normal • The cause of each t:venl was determined. Follow-up
cruising speed aK'Oyfrom an aerodrome at which action was taken for all t:venl causes thai could be
the distanc~ specifications for alternate aero- removed or substantially reduced by design changes
dromes are complied with and where it is expected or revised operational or maintenance procedures.
that a sofe landing can be mQd~ ...
• Tht: effectiveness of design changes or revised proce--
Most of tM: Western Pacific and Asian operations (see dures was established by analysis and in-service
Figure I) weu approved based on this ICAO standard. tracking.
The Austrahan Department of Aviation included the
ICAO limit concept in their national standard (Air • The propulsion syslt:m reliability and the overall
a\'igation Order (ANO) 20.7.18) and using this, pro-- etTectivmcss of aClions takt:n was vt:rified by showing
vide<! approval for some domestic and regional operations thai IFSD rales were sufficiently low and siable.
that w~ mOil: than 60 minules at one engine speed from
suitable alternates. Airplane System Reliability
1983 to 1985 were transition years for regulations and • The design of each principal airplane system was
standards related to extended range operations. The reviewed to verify that, in a reliability sense, each
technical focal point for the needed discussion of concepts system was equivalenl to those of Olher ER airplanes
for new rt:gulations was the ICAO Extended Twin (747,727, LID) I, DeIO).
Opt:rations (ETOPS) Study Group. This group had
rt:presentatives from many oftht: major certifying author· • In·flight records were revit:wed to identify system
ilies and allowed the participation of industry groups (Air problems that have resulted in diversions or air
Transport Associations., airplane manufaclurers. engine tumbacks.
manufacturers) and of pilol and passenger associations.
All issues were considered and discussed. and the resulting • Based on infonnation from tht: above reviews, needed
work. refined by Ibe ICAO Directorate and tht: Air changes were dt:vised to assure compliance with
avigation Commission, has lead 10 the currently pro- extt:nded range requiremt:nlS.
posed rt:Visions to tht: ICAO Standards and Guidance (see
ICAO Working Paper C-WP/8178 of 1212/85). It is Airplane Performance Information
exp«:ttd that Ibe statements of this working paper will
become new ICAO Standards and Guidance applicable in Available performance information "as reviewed and
o\'ember 1986. additional data "as provided to verify compliance "ilb the
fuel and oil and Ihe singl~ engini! drift down and cruise
In parallel wilb this ICAO worle. individual agencies criteria for extended range operation.
(U.S.• Britain. France. Ausualia, Canada. ew Zealand
and othen) ,,'ere working to devt:lop nt:w nalional ConfigW1lltion Control
standards. In general these were mort: detailed than the
ICAO standards but were compatible with it. There was A document was issued dt:fining all airplant: requirements
also a great deal of communication between individual (configuration. maintt:nance and operations) for extended
nations as the work proceeded. and Ibis has led 10 range operation.
AIRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3
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4 AIRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986
Master Minimum Equipment List (1\-lMEL) The completion of programs now being pursued is
expected during the second quarter of 1986.
Working with the FAA and other certifying authorities
a review of the MMEL was accomplished, and this process For the 767.200, Figure 3 summarizes principal changes
provided revisions appropri.ate to extended range that have been made to achieve extended range air·
operations. worthiness suitability.
AIRLINER/JUL·SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5
Figure 4A. 767 extended range operations in the North Atlantic. and Caribbean.
Figure 48. 767 operations in the eastern hemisphere (not all routes shown are extended range).
737-200 airplane required no modification as its Class 0 range qualified airplanes can be met. Progress to date has
compartment meets all suppression requirements without allowed extensive use of 767s as indicated by the maps
the use of an active system. shown above (Figures 4A and 48). The 737-200 which has
recently been certified by the FAA for extended range
Details of all changes to systems and changes to the operations is being flown on Pacific routes. Extended
MMEL are available on request range operational experience of Boeing airplanes is being
carefully tracked. The tracking process gives in-service
Conclusions infonnation for verification of the premises employed in
the development of extended range capability, and it
The Boeing family of two-engine airplanes is being provides a data base Ihat allows Boeing to effectively assist
enhanced so that operator requirements for extended operators planning for or using this capability.
6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AlRLINERIJUL-SEP 1986
Learning NDI techniques is the key to success.
Non uclive
Inspections
NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECfION OF INSERVICE BOEING AIRPLANES - PART 3
By
C F. Raatz
Research and Development Quality Control
AfRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7
SUPPLEMENTAL INSPECTION OF OLDER
AlRPLANES
An example of an optional NDI is thai for 727 551 W-18. analysis also shows that a second crack could eventually
This inspection is of the wing rear spar upper chord and initiate in the wing skin at the same fastener hole location.
skin between wing station 220 and 400 (Figure I). To detect a potenlial chord or skin crack, supplemental
Through engineering analysis it has been determined that structural inspection W-18 lists three visual and one low
a fatigue crack that initiate in a fastener hole in the upper frequency eddy current (LFEC) inspection options. These
chord's hori:wntal nange as shown in Figure I, would lead options are related to the configuration of the wing upper
to the most critical cracking pattern. Crack growth rear spar as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Inspection
options available for
the wing upper rear
spar area.
8 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AIRLlNER/JUL-SEP 1986
The upper rear spar structural configuration (Figure 2·C), LIMITATIONS OF AJRPLANE STRUcrURAL NDJ
does not permit a visual inspection ofthe chord. The upper
wing ddn and main landing gear trunnion support fitting Much has been presented in this and preceding articles on
prevent external visual inspection of the chord and the advantages of airplane structural NOI. To put NOI
internal :support :structure prevents visual inspection of the of airplane structure into perspective, it is also necessary
chord from inside the wing. As the siu ora chord crack to consider its limitations.
increases, it is assumed that a second crack initiates in the
wing skin at the same fastener hole. This skin crack can The ability of nondestructive inspection to detect a small
be detected visually. To comply with damage tolerance crack relates to the sensitivity of the test method to the
safety assurance, visual inspection for a wing skin crack physical change produced by a crack. A crack which is
is required on all of a select group of candidate high time .001 inch wide by 0.5 inch long and 0.1 inch deep occupies
airplanes e\'ery 5e\'era! hundred nights. Such a frequent .CXX>S square inch of surface area and has a volume of
inspection inlen'a! is nOl compatible with normal airplane .lXXJOS cubic inch. A nondestructiv~ test which is sensithe
maintenan~ and inspection schedules. An optional low to such a small physical change is also sensitive to other
Fmtuency Eddy Currmt (LFEC) inspection provides a changes or variations in a test structure; for example;
m~ arttptable inspection inten'aJ. The LFEC inspection alloy type or heal treatm~nt; material thickness or shape;
detects a chord crack through the wing skin as shown in fastener type, material, and size; hole size, spacing, and
Figure 3. The mall chord crack detectable by LFEC edge margin; and, crack location and orientation. The
pennits the operator to perform a inspection of a sample response of a nondestructive test to structural variables
of his candidate high time airplanes at a regular D-Check can mask the desired response. Alternatives such as
maintenana: interval ofapproximatdy 15.CXX> flights. The increasing d~tectabl~ crack size to obtain a larger response
end result is that the number of required inspections is and improve its detection over background noise can take
signifICantly reduced by using the LFEC inspection away the crack detection advantag~ of an 01. In some
oplion. With the potential for such reduction in inspection situations, accounting for the effects of structural
requirements it could be asked Why is not more /HI! made variations can improve crack detection.
of NDI? The answer to this lies in some significant
limitations in the NOI of airplane structure. A detailed NOt procedure that accounts for interferen~
signals encountered during an inspection can improve
crack detection. Preparation of such a procedure requires
that conditions which have a significant effect on the
outcome of an inspection be identified and accounted for.
This is accomplished through drawing and on airplane
review of test struclUre to identify configurations which
may alter the results of an NO!. From this review selected
test pieces representative of inspection conditions are
assembled with nalural or simulated cracks and the effects
of structural variations on crack detection detennined,
From these evaluations test system calibration, detectable
crack size, and inspection guidelines are established. A
step by step inspection procedure incorporating these
details is prepared and verified on actual airplane
structure. Both development and application of a detailed
inspection procedure requires a high level of NDI skill,
AJRLlNERIJUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
Erfect- Inspection Reference Probe Iden- Instrumenl Calibration
ivilY Code IJ> Swndard '0. tificalion Frequenc) liz Detail ..... 0.
NOTES (J.:::> All 727-100 Airplanes and 727-200 Cum Line Nos. 433 thru 880 and 884 Cum Line Nos. 881.
IJ>- 882, 883. 885 and on.
[J::> Code for specific inspection areas identified on detail VII to which the calibration requirements
apply.
as shown in Figure 5. The NOI procedure brings together Even with the most carefully prepared procedure a
these various requirements through a detailed step by step combination ofstmctural variations may occur which can
process of calibration and inspection. prOOuce results that are outside of guidelines provided in
It is said that a knowledge of history can provide some With a continuing emphasis on the NDI of airplane
insight of future events. The history of airplane NOI has structure, such as the supplemental structural inspection
shown that significant technical advances have been slow of older airplanes, added emphasis is being placed on
to evolve. While inspection employing X-ray, magnetic operator training. Regulations in a number of countries
particle and penetrant existed in the 19405, significant currently require that commercial airplane NOI operators
ultrasonic inspection of airplane structure did not occur be certified by examination. Boeing supports NDltraining
unti! the 1950s and eddy current inspection not until the of its airplane operators with courses in eddy current and
1960s. graphite composite NOt Course emphasis is on in-service
airplane structural inspection. The increased
Improvement in each of these methods has occurred over understandingofNDI brought about through training and
the years. However, there has been no significant new NOI experience will lead to greater use and to development of
method for commercial airplane structural inspection new inspection applications.
since eddy current. Such nondestructive test methods as
acoustic emission, neutron radiography, holography, For the near future the current emphasis on eddy current
liquid crystal and infrared have not found significant inspection of metal structure will continue, and the
application in commercial airplane structural inspection. increased use of composite structure will put greater
There is no dramatic new nondestructive test for the emphasis on ultrasonic inspection.
inspection of airplane structure just over the horizon.
AlRLlNER/JUL-SEP 1986 11
t=E~ ..
SUMMARY
the complexity and variation of modern airplane structure:.
This third and closing article brings us up to date with Employing a detailed inspection procedure to account for
NOI of large commercial jet transport structure. Tc>day's structural variations is a partial solution. However, this
knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of NOI requires a high degree of nondestructive test skill, both for
provides for development of detailed procedures for the procedure preparation and application. Complex structure
controlled NDI of airplane structure. Nondestructive test will continue to be a limiting factor in the NDI of
equipment necessary to the implementation of detailed in-service airplanes.
inservice airplane inspections is oommercially available.
The nondestructive test skills required to prepare and The near future will see a continued broadening in the
perfonn detailed inspections are defined and identified in understanding of nondestructive test principles and a
current certification procedures and practices. strengthening of skills necessary for the development and
application of complex NOI procedures. This, together
Considering the progress which has been made in the field with the availability of suitable nondestructive test
ofNDI during the past twenty years, a greater fulfillment equipment for airplane structural inspection, will result
of its early promise to detect small hidden cracks and in greater acceptance of in-service airplane NO I, based on
reduce airplane inspection costs might have been expected. its ability to provide definable and reproducible inspection
A significant obstacle to the fulfillment of this promise is results.
12 AIRLLNER/JUL-SEP 1986
---------------
CONTENI'S which will reference any FOR activity poning flight operations personnel on
Introduction ......•.....• I since the previous issue of the News- topics of a technical nature. Many
Flight Operations Redew .• 1 leU~r. This will make an operator airlines produce publications that re-
RU211 Operation and aware that an issue has not been port and comment on flight oper-
Maintenance in a Sand received, or, because of model effec- ations related issues based on their
and Dust Environment .. _ 2 tivity. was not applicable. own, or other operators, operational
Cost index ..•.•..•.••.. _ 3 or training el'(periences. On various
In this issue we also complete our occasions il has been suggesled lhal
discussion on engine operation and Boeing provide operators with feed·
INTRODUCfION maintenance in a sand and dust back and useful general information
environment by adding information on operational related items. We are
ith th~ January-March for the Rolls Royce RB2 I 1 engines. therefore pleased to announce a new
_. '<_<1"1' _
~
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tcUt ac
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_
:;
0( _
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.-1
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«>u<"'" _ _ ." ,_u
the operator's Flight Operations and rror .u _\tlIi .,~ • _<I., -=t.cl . - t l IOU'"", . . . , _ .,.
_~ ~ I , .... -.toaJ. • •- . . .
..........11_ • • -.otft. .... tiatad .t 'I1l
-........
Engin«ring organizations. In each _ ~ _ taOQK p,td>
at.... - . !but'.- ....... typ>eaUy J'l ~<_ po< ... --"..-
issue of the NewsleU~r w~ will also
include a paragraph on FOR Activity, ....
- . l 4 .... ... par -.:nt. 1\1 _ .
',_ , .. .. .......,
be 757-200 airplane was initially certified with (Figure 2). These engines take advantage of the latest
AJRLlNER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 3
Figure 1. Details of the P&W PW2037 engine innovations.
14 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - A I R L I N E R / J U L - S E P 1986
modules resulting in build and strip man hours During reverse thrust operation the integrated nozzle
substantially lower than required for comparable engines olTers another advantage over the separate nozzle
without modular construction. Advantages of modular configuration. When the bypass flow is deflected forwards
construction are: by the dosed blocker doors, the residual core exhaust jet
expands into the large inttgrated noule area. reducing its
• Decreased turnaround time for repairs vdocity and improving the overatl reverse thrust.
• Low OVenill maintenance costs
• Reduced spare engine inventory Improvements throughout the core engine include
• Muimum life achieved from each module changes to the IP and HP compressor and turbine blades
• Savings in transponation costs by the use of advanced computer aerodynamic analysis
techniques. The HP compressor features the introduction
The engine installations are designed such that the leit and oi end bend blading to improve efficiency in the boundary
right positions are fully interchangeable. layer. Directionally - solidified cast turbine blades are
used and thermal barrier coatings have been incorporated
The accessory drive gearbox is supponed beneath tbe fan on the H P nozzle guide vanes for improved life and
exit case on both engines and incorporates provisions for performance characteristics.
airframe accessories.. This location provides a cool
environment and easy access. The external location also The -535E4 engine utilizes a Kevlarfan blade containment
allows gearbox removal without disturbance to other system. Multiple layers of lightweight Kevlar are wrapped
modules. around the fan case to contain the unlikely release of a
fan blade. This system results in a significant reduction
RB211·535E4 Features in weight compared to the conventional containment
systems.
The RB211·535E4 (Roll~Royce) engine is an advanced
derivative of the RB211-535C but incorporates significam PW2031 Features
configuration improvements (Stt Figure 3). Like the
-535C, the -535E4 is a three-spool engine and. there- The PW2037 is an all new engine using advanced
fore. requires no variable compressor stator geometry. technology aerodynamics and materials (Stt Figure 4).
Improvements in engine performance have been achieved The PW2037 engine evolved from the JTIOD program
through the incorporalion of I) a wide chord fan which had been in development since 1972. A major
blade, 2) increased efficiency core and 3) integrated feature of the PW2037 is a full-authority digital electronic
nozzle assembly. engine control system which results in the PW2037
powered 757 being the first fly·by·wire digital electronic
The -535E4 wide chord fan is based on over 10 years of engine controlled aircraft in commercial service.
research which demonstrated advantages in performance,
mechanical integrity and foreign-object-damage (FOD) Pratt & Whitney's extensive knowledge in materials
resistance. A large deterrent in the production of this technology bas been applied in the PW2037. The PW2037
configuration has been the inability to manufacture the incorporates the latest material processes in turbine blades
blades strong enough for FOD resistance while keeping and compressor and turbine discs. A new nickel-based
the weight in control. Rolls-Royce have developed a steel alloy, manufactured by the powdered metal process
manufacturing process that results in a construction of having 15% mort strength than conventional alloys is
activated diffusion bonded titanium outer skins on a used in the rear stage of the HP compressor where tbe
titanium honeycomb sandwich. combination of mechanical and thermal stresses is highesL
It is also used in the HP turbine where the higher strength
The ntw fan has fewer, stifTer blades, which do not noed means that thinner discs are possible, leading to a slightly
mid-span shrouds for mutual suppon. The benefits of this shorter design. Single-crystal alloy has been utilized in the
fan are improved efficiency with the corresponding HP turbine providing strongtr turbine blades that can
improvement in fuel consumption and a reduced weight work at higher temperatures. Prau & Whitney have opted
from the fabricated construction. This is the first time a 10 not operate at higher temperatures bul reduce the
wide-<:hord shroudless fan design has been incorporated amount of turbine blade cooling air extracted from the
on a large turbofan engine and the first fan of Ihis type compressor and increase wheel speed, thereby, improving
in commercial servlce. performance. Tht use of advanced materials in the engine
core has aJl~·ed improvements in aerodynamic efficiency
In tht ·535E4 integrated nonk the hot exhaust gases are without a corresponding increase in weight.
mixed with the bypass airstream inside the final txhaust
annulus. This mixing provides an improvement in fuel An active clearance control (ACe) system has been
consumption and a decrease in jet noise. Additionally incorporated on the PW2037 to improve engine
more area is available for acoustic lining. performance. This system comprises a series of pipes
AIRLlNERlJUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 5
around the rear HP compressor casing and all turbine Flight Test Planning
casings and carries cool air from the fan and direets it on
to the cases to reduce blade tip clearances during cruise. The extent of electronics in the airplane avionics and
The ACC system is modulated by the eleetronic control engine control systems causes the test sequencing to
to tailor the cooling requirements to the thermal operating become highly critical in the night test planning process.
characteristics of the engine. Engine characteristics and operation are closely
interrelated with the avionics systems and the liming when
The fulJ-authoritydigital engine control system introduces engine test data is available to support the various software
a high level of sophistication in propulsion control freezes becomes very significant.
systems. The airplane level system, Eleetronic Propulsion
Control System (EPCS), improves the pilot interface with During the initial planning stages the data timing required
the engine and can handle many more inputs than previous to achieve software design freezes that support airplane
controls. The ability of digital eleetronics to rapidly deliveries is established. Data timing required to support
disseminate large quantities of information allows a more the Airplane Flight Manual and Operation Manual is also
precise control of parameters such as acceleration, idle, identified. From this information a program critical path
ACC, variable stators and surge bleed valves and with a assessment is developed and used to establish test priorities
high degree of intelligence. The Eleetronic Engine Control and deeision gates. A considerable amount ofother testing
(EEC) on each engine is an integral part of EPCS. The required for configuration decisions or certification may
EEC on an engine is divided into two channels, each not be on the critical path but must be integrated with the
capable of controlling the system on that engine when the critical path testing in a timely manner.
other has failed. The system will readjust to ahernative
engine control modes if normal inputs fail. The EPCS has Testing Requirements
self-test and fault isolation, and is able to trace faults to
at least line-replaceable unit level. Each EEC computer In fulfilling the overall propulsion certification
has two back-up operating modes which allow continuing requirements satisfactory operation in several areas has 10
operation with the deteeted and isolated faults. EPCS be demonstrated during the night test program. A major
eliminates the need to trim the engine. saving considerable test done relatively early in the night test program is
time after maintenance. generating the engine performance data bose consisting of
thrust, fuel now and other engine characteristics for
Certification Flight Test Programs takeoff, climb and cruise conditions. For specific
conditions up to four engines worth of data is required to
The flight test certification program is a complex establish overage engine performance. Following receipt
interaction of multiple disciplines. The test, of these data an analysis period is required where the data
instrumentation and data requirements are established to is generalized and can be extrapolated throughout the
support certification requirements. Test requirements are night envelope.
used in compiling the Right Test Specification which
provides the definition of demonstrations for submittal to Additional tests are conducted to demonstrate that
the FAA. The various tests are packaged, sequenced and operational characteristics are within applicable Federal
scheduled to provide for efficient test exeeution. Work on Aviation Regulations (FAR). Engine handling is
the planning of a major night test certification program demonstrated for extreme throttle manipulations to assure
begins a year before the first night of that configuration. surge-free operation throughout the night envelope.
Engine acceleration, engine starting, nacelle component
Satisfactoryoperation throughout the night envelope must and oil system temperatures and the prevention oftrappecl
be demonstrated to fulfill certification requirements. This Ouids within the nacelle and strut muSt be demonstrated
requires demonstration of operation in corner conditions to be within certification limits. Faull accommodation of
not normally encountered in service and can require the electronic systems is demonstrated by deliberately
testing in extreme adverse conditions to establish margins. inserting faults inlo the system. In addition to the above
propulsion lesting other airplane systems require
In fu.lfilling these requirements, operations at airports with evaluation with a new engine configuration. Aerodynamic
higher elevations and more extreme ambient temperatures performance testing is conducted to evaluate fuel mileage
than found locally are necessary and the airplane often with a new engine configuration. Siability and control
goes remote. Operation at remote sites is also conducted testing is required to confirm satisfactory airplane
because testing can be accomplished much more handling characteristics. Airplane systems where
efTeciently due to better weather and air traffic conditions. operation or performance are engine dependenl require
The logistics of remote operation involves establishing a demonstraling the system still fulfills its inlended function.
ground facility with three-shift operation to support the Interior noise measurements are obtained to demonstrate
airplane plus acquiring accommodations for typically 70 compliance with airplane requirements. Community noise
support personnel who travel with the airplane.
16 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AIRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986
Figure 3. This was the certification program for the two new engines.
levels are determined for ailernate engines by using engine Number) 757 airplane was converted from a RB21 )·535C
ground test data to adjust the community noise data base to a PW2037 engine configuration and performed the bulk
for the corresponding engines. The initial community of the test work. A Delta Air Lines production airplane
noise data base for the 757 was denloped during the basic was used for airplane perfonnance measurement. A third
flight test program with ·535C engines. airplane was used for interior noise measurements where
a full-up interior was required (see Figure 3). The PW2037
Alte.rnate Engine flight Testing was a 7 In month airplane test program that commenced
with first Oight on March 14, 1984. A total of 3070 test
The E4 certification flight test program was planned using conditions were run and 2000 instrumentation
a single airplane (see Figure 3). In order to develop the measurement were utilized. The PW2037 powered 757
four engine performance data base this plan required an was certified as planned in October 1984.
engine swap relatively early in the program to provide
timely data for avionics and manual development. The E4 SUMMARY
program was conducted over 8 months commencing with
first Oight on February 3. 1984. A total of 2430 test Aircraft delivery to airline customers of both engme
conditions were run and 1200 instrumentation configurations commenced in October and ovember
measurements were utilized. The E4 powered 757 was 1984 for the ·535E4 and PW2037. respectively. By
cenified on October 4. 1985, the day scheduled some thorough planning of the extensive Oight test programs
2 1/2 years prior. these latest t«hnolegy engines were mtroduced on time
and with a high assurance of satisfactory service.
The PW2037 certification flight test program was
conceived as a two-airplane program. The Boeing owned
AIRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 7
•
"
Progeny and progenitor. The Model 367-76 (KC·97) and its offspring, the Model 361·80.
30
THE KC·135 CELEBRAITS 30 YEARS OF FLIGHT
By
A. T. Lloyd
!:.ailor. Boeing AIRLINER Magazine
UgUst 31. 1986, marks the 30th anniversary of the for speed of execution, size, cost-effectiveness and
1 8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AIRLlNER/JUL-SEP 1986
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~- T.ble 1, The -135 production summary.
This family tree depicts the originally produced airplanes and their derivations.
the need for an all-jet lanker .... as evident. Boeing 148 inches. This major difference precluded I he use of
conducted a number of design studies based on the KC·97 much of the tooling from the KC-I3S program. A mOSl
(Boeing Model 367). eventually leading to the Model noticeable difference between the commercial airliner and
367-80 - a four-jet, swept·wing airplane. The Dash 80 the KC-l3S is the absence of cabin windows on the later
first new 011 July 15. 1954. concurrent with Boeing's 38th airplane. A boom operators pod was installed on all
anniversary. By October or that year the USAF had placed variants of the -135.
an order for29 airplanes based on The Dash 80even before
the design had been finalized or the in night refueling Fuselage length~ also vary between the airplanes. The
capabilities of the airplane had been demonstrated. The body length of the KC-l3S is 128' 10" whIle the
first KC-JJ5A Stratotanker rolled out of the Remon 707·100/-200 length is 138' 10". The 707-300/-400
factory in less thall two years and made irs maiden night Interconlinental airplanes have a body length of 145' 6".
on August 31, 1956.
AIRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 9
The wing spans on the KC-135 and 101-100/-200 are Strategic Air Command. In 1964 an additional 12 tankers
130' 10". For the lnterconunenlal jetliners this dimension (C-135Fs) were delivered to the French Armee de rAir.
was increased to 145' 9".
MATS began receiving C-!35As in 1961 to serve as
Utilization rates between commercial and military long-range logistic transports. These airplanes were
airplanes have a relative order of magnitude difference of powered by Prall & Whitney J57 turbojets. Next came the
ten to one. While a KC135 achieves 315 night hours per TF33 turbofan-powered C-135Bs. The C-135s were
year, a commercial 101 would accrue about 3500 hours operated by the 161lth and 150lst Air Transport Wings,
in the air. Because of this difference in operation two located at McGuire AFO, New Jersey, and Travis MO,
dilTerent design philosophies were employed in the California, respectively.
development of the two airplanes. DilTerent materials were
selected. To achieve the the higher strength-to-weight Turbofan-powered KC-135Bs were produced for the
ratio desired by the Air Force, the -135 structure was USAF in 1961. These airplanes were redesignated as
designed to a safe-life philosophy; whereas the Model 707 EC-135Cs and serve as airborne command posts. Under
was designed to the/aU-sofe requirements of the Federal the Looking Glass program, one of these type airplanes has
Aviation Administration. been on a continuous airborne alert since February 3, 1961.
ORIGINALLY DELIVERED -1355 Another production version was the RC-135B with
turbofan engines. These airplanes were immediately sent
The first KC-135A was delivered to the USAF on to the Martin Aircrart Company. Baltimore. Maryland,
April 30, 1957. Less than twO years laIC:r the Stratotankers for conversion into RC-135Cs with the large side-looking
were in service with the 93rd Air Refueling Squadron at radar (SLAR) cheeks.
Castle AFB, California. On January 12. 1965, the last
KC-135A was delivered to the 380th Air Refueling The last four airplanes in the family were the RC-135As
Squadron at Plattsburgh AFB, New York. At the end of which were delivered in 1965-1966. These photomapping
the production program, 132 KC-135A tankers had been and geodetic survey airplanes were assigned to the 1370th
delivered. These airplanes not only ronn the backbone of Photo Mapping Wing, Air Photographic and Charting
America's strategic aerial refueling force, but also service Service, based at Turner AFB, Georgia.
airplanes nown by our Allies' air forces. In the summer
of 1975 a number ofKC-135As were transferred to USAF A summary of the seven delivery configurations of the
Reserve and Air National Guard units, marking the first -135 family are shown on Table I.
time the non-regular forces perfonned a mission for
MODIFICATIONS
2 0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AtRLlNERlJUL·SEP 1986
For NASA, an NKC-13SA senes as
a weightlesslless trainer for the
astronauts.
•
- This EC·135N is used as a communications relay
airplane to support NASA Space Shuttle missions.
AIRLlNER/JtJL.SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 1
FORCE MULTIPLIERS regimes. The horizontal stabilizer were retrofitted to
provide the pitch control margins required by the larger
A pair of re-engining programs for the -135 neet began engines.
in 1982. These programs center around the new General
Electric/SNECMA CFM56-2 and salvaged Prall & Next came the CFM56 program for Strategic Air
Whitney JTJD turbofans. Each of these engines offers Command's neet of KC·135As and the French Annee
significant state·of-the-an improvements over the de ('Air's C-135Fs. The first KC·135R was delivered 10
earlier 19SO's·vintage P&W J57 turbojets which are rated the 384th Air Refueling Wing based at McConnell AFB,
at 13,500 pounds of thrus!. The CFM56 is in Ihe Kansas, on July 2, 1984. The first C·135FR was
20,OOO-pound static thrusl class, while the JT3D is rated redelivered to the Armee de I'Air in August, 1985.
at 18,000 pounds. Improved engine perfonnance allows Conversion to the KC-135R model results in a 50%
a greater payload/range capability and enhanced engine· increase in fuel ofT-load capability.
out performance. From an economic standpoint, these
new engines significantly reduce fuel consumption, The KC-135 was the only airplane in the world specifically
thereby resulling in a direct payback; also they make the designed for the aerial tanker mission. During the paSt
airplanes better neighbors from the point of view of noise. 20 years the refueling requirement of the anned forces
KC·135As retrofitted with the CFM56 or the JT3D have more than doubled, thereby making the KC·135 an
engines are redesignated as KC-135Rs or KC-135Es. extremely valuable national asset. Approximately 650 of
respectively. these tankers are in service currently and upgrading them
to meet these demands is economically prudent.
During the first seven months of 1982, a total of 18 special
purpose -135s were retrofined from the J57 to the TF33 SUMMARY
(militarized JT3D). Next in line were the KC·135As
assigned to the Air National GUlIJ"d and the Reserves. The The basic -13.5 airplane size. range and structure has
TF 33 engines came from retired high-time commercial proven 10 be extremely adaplable for meeting specific
Model 707jelliners. Conversion to the KC-135E mission requirements, hence the large variety identified on
configuration has resulted in an 18% increase in fuel the family tree. Yeoman service is perfonned on a daily
off-load capability. Parts taken from the retired 707s basis by the large neet of lankers whether they support
included the turbofan engines (including struts, cowls, and airplanes transiting their area or provide fuel for mass
thrust reversers). stabLilizers. Use of the series yaw damper deployments. It is expected that these airplanes will be in
pennitted operation of the autopilot system in all night service to tbe year 2010 or beyond.
22 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - A I R L I N E R / J U L · S E P 1986
DETECTORS
... .- .-
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An exposed surface 1'iew of the smoke detector A hidden surface view of the smoke detector
showing the face plate and sensor. showing the case and bracket.
by
Brent Hamer, Engineer
Payloads Design, Centrol Engineen"ng
Boeing Commercial Airplane Company
he Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) installed. The lavatories arc unattended, closed from view
AIRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23
As a result of these studies, the FAA has issued a new rule
requiring that each lavatory be equipped with a smoke
detection system. The final rule, Amendment 121-185 to
14 CFR Pan 121, has a compliance date of October 29,
1986. The new system must either provide a warning in
the Oight deck or a visual/aural warning to the passenger
cabin crew. The rule is intended to provide a means to
enhance the detection of lavatory fire by passengers or
flight attendants. The design concept for the lavatory
smoke detection system is summarized in this article.
AJRLlNER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 5