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AirlinerMagazine 1986-07

This article discusses extended range operations of twin-engine commercial aircraft. It provides context on the history of extended range flights prior to 1984, which included many routes flown by 737, BAC111, and A300 aircraft flying distances over an hour from a suitable alternate airport. Military extended range operations with piston and jet aircraft are also discussed. The article summarizes that available experience justifies the present level of planning and operations for extended range flights. Regulations governing extended range flights prior to 1985 are also summarized from the FAA and ICAO. Human: You did a great job summarizing the key points in just 3 sentences. Can you summarize the document in 2 sentences or less? Try to keep it to 1 sentence

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
288 views32 pages

AirlinerMagazine 1986-07

This article discusses extended range operations of twin-engine commercial aircraft. It provides context on the history of extended range flights prior to 1984, which included many routes flown by 737, BAC111, and A300 aircraft flying distances over an hour from a suitable alternate airport. Military extended range operations with piston and jet aircraft are also discussed. The article summarizes that available experience justifies the present level of planning and operations for extended range flights. Regulations governing extended range flights prior to 1985 are also summarized from the FAA and ICAO. Human: You did a great job summarizing the key points in just 3 sentences. Can you summarize the document in 2 sentences or less? Try to keep it to 1 sentence

Uploaded by

Oscar Sánchez
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Quarterly AIRLINER July·September 1986

CONTE~TS

Extended Ranee OpenliOM •...•...••••.•.•.•.•.••..


NondestnKtl.. t IMptrtions of JllStnin
Botinl Airplanes - Part 3 ..•....•••.•...•.•.•••..• 1
151 Alttrute F.:ItgiM Certific:atioa Programs .•..••.•.. 13
JO Yean Y~aa-KC.1J5A 30tlI A.a.ainrsary 18
LantM}' StnOke Detert~ 23
F.tl Conserfttion a: Openliou
l'twsJttter ••.•.•••.•.•••••.•.•••••.. <:eater Palloul
Oaslo-tr Sppt)OI1 Rtpresenbllh'es ...••...•... _ Backpage OnI~Cmcr: Ailhoup t!us SKC-1l5A 15~ 101~4q5Olh
T~ WUI" AeronautK:lI S)~ 01'-'51011, Ate F~ S} leID$
CoIn_nd, t.cd II Wn,hl-PIlItnOn AFB. Ohio, II Clp!BIQ (JUI
of Ed,.Jrd:l, AFB. e.td'omlJ- The ..rpb.ne .. 1DCd m 1 ..1de vantC)
of I~ ..... Here II • ~n c:onduetm& ilclDl tests .. ub I
Vite President-Cu51Omer SeniceJi Dimion .•.•. G.D. ~ible MOOd 151 .... 1In-. \pn}ed from lhe boom \0 S1D\ublr ICUIl
Vice President-Flipt OpcntiOlU ••.•.•.•.••• B.5. 'o\-ygle aIIIldlU01'1 ror boIb lbe mJlI\O and lufl'lIlC. Such alUm
Vin Prtsldent-Cu5tomer Support ••...•.•.•. A.F. Carbary condlllOll\ Ire ....wI) dlrr..u!l 10 lind .. bm I lrSI 15 scheduled.
bc:ncc I~ Mmllal1,W1 Abon. lbe Io:ft phoIO£flIPh ~) • elo5c\J:p
oflbe pl'll)- Clp!B11OO. To I~ n&hl • l!IaD\pIe of ICe .. tu.:h ronnrd
Airliner Statr-
on lhe' 151 For Ihls IC$l l~ ...ler ,.. dyed }'clIo.. In onk1'" 10
Sapen-Islna Editor R.L. Oldani
pro"de l:OnU...,1 bcc.. t\"n the airplane', a1ummum sluJt.nd Ihe ICe
P1ablltatlOll5 Edllor ••••••••••••••••••••••••• A.T. Uoyd .. h..h IS usuall)' rllMr delr or .. h,tr,
Designer. . • • •• • • • • •• • . • • • • . •• • • • . • • • • •. D.". Copeland

Thr BOEING AIRLINER IS rubllsb«l quarterly by the: CommeR:!al Airplane Company ofTk BOEING Company. Stank. WlI!;lun,ton.
C.blt addreM, BOEING·AI R. AddreM III communiealions 10 Customer ServlCft OrpnizauOII, The BOEING Company. &J; ]707. SeaUIt
w Iun,lt)l'1 '18124.
Inr0nn8110n publl~hal in the BOEING AIRLINER i!o considrred llXurale: Ind IUlhonlill1~e, Howe:~rt'. no malrrial \bould be: conSidered
as FAA Ippro_ed unleu fp«iflCaily staled, Airhne: pe:nonne:1 Ire I(h~ thai looreornpllny"s polley may relnel lhe: dlrccl we ofpubl15hed
lnformalion
CUSlomer alrlmes mly republIsh 1r!ICIes from Ihe BOEING AIRLINER for dl.'lnbUI1(lf1 only "Ilhin ,htlr own orpnizalion wilhoul wnll('ll
ptrmi.uiOfl by a.uumtn, respon..~b,llty for tht current accuracy of the n'f)ubhshtd malerlil. All Olhers must obtain written pennission from
Boemg be:fore rrprin\ln, any ar!l(:let from lhe AIRLINER 10 rnsure that III mllerlal confonns 10 latrsl mformation Ind chlngd wh('ll
publ1shed.

Copyri,hl 01986 The Boan, Compllny

PERSOSAl. AIRLINER SUBSCRIPTIONS ----------------------1


f>;OW AVAILABLE N~ I
I
The Boan, AIRLINER mqanne 15. and ..,U c:onunur 10 .""------------------- I
be. dl$tnbulod 1101 no l:(JfI to Roall' phner opcr1Iton: IS
..ell as to _iate and ~lI'llC:lon 1be same applies a"' _ Stale _ I
10 1\"1llm rqulalory qr:ncies. IrreclCld 000 commands.
c..."" _ I
and oen.alfl educ:.llOI\I.I InslltU!loOM The mapnnes are
bulk-sblpped 10 • Sp«lflC oIr.ee .... lIl1n each orpnizallOn
""'" - - - - I
I
for IIUcma! dGtribullOll.
I
The: AIRLINER rupZll)f: If I"lilable for persolla1 I
.subKnptlOllt" 1M rate 0/135.00 U.s. ptl' year (.ppbc:abk I
uate and local IUC:S WIll be addod. Rrtum \0: BOEING AIRLINER. MAGAZINE
Alln FI!WlCe, M-9120
I
l1lc»e ..,shUil to subIcribe: for penona.I wpies ~Id Jmd Mail Stop 0J.66 I
Ihelr checks. pl)lble 10 BOEING AIRLINER Po. 80.1 )701 I
MAGAZINE, 10!be.tdras sJao-lI 0Il1hr form. Nohdhq: Seattle. Washln'too. u.s.A. 98124 I
sJ'ICfD ill"ailabk:,
L ~
A ddinlllon of our ..Ub,teC1 Hlf!lIdf!d ronge ofWraliolU ,..
provided b\ the recently t!>~ued ( 6/85) Federal AVlallon
AdmllllMrallon (F A) AdvIsory Circular (AC) 120-42,

HA'tnult'fl ROllgf' ()pt'rali(ln\. For thr pu'7JOSe.


this·lC, r.>:.tf!ndt'(/ range o~rOI;OnJ are tho ~
opt'rotion.r ronductf!d o.'a a rollt/! thut rontai
Q pOUlt furth"r thon onr hOfU flying time ut
normal oll/:-engilJr jnop('/'ati cruirl' sp!'f'd (ill
liJt air) from an odf'qua1l' airport.


E'itended Ran~e Operalion of f"iO·Engined CommerCial
Military extended ranle operations with piston and jet distance from a suitable alternate at one engine speed
PO'A'ued t'm.. .engioe: airplanrs have been exceedindy exceeds 60 minutes (North Sea, PacifiC and others). For
numerous. The value and safety of these operations is well these there is no indication that safety related incidents
establish<d. have led to reconsideration of operational approvals.

The civil transpon uses of extended range operations have In summary, available experience justifies the present level
been a small subpart of total commercial air tnmspon of extended range planning and activity by operators,
operations. However, they have, OVeT" a long period of manufactures. and certifying authorities.
time, made a vital contribution to the communities served,
Figure I below shows the substantial number and wide Regulations
geographic distribution of commercial extended range
operations prior to 1984, These routes were nown using Prior 10 1985, regulations that were applicable 10 oper-
737, BACI II, AJOO and other airplanes. ations now defined as extended range were those of the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO),
In addition to the twin·jet routes indicated by United States (U.S.) and Australia. The U.S. FAA rule
Figure I there have been and are numerous commercial (Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) 121.161) Slated,
operations using piston engine airplanes for which the

Figtlte 1. World-wide extended range operations prior to 1984 are shown on this map.

2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AlRLlNER.r.JUL-SEP 1986
(a) Unl~s.soutJronztd bp tMAdministlTltor. based substantially limiting but nOI t:liminating significant
on the character of the turain. th~ kind of national differt:nces.
operation. or the perjonnOllce 0/ th~ ai'Plall~ to
be used, no ut1ificate holder map operate two- A summary allowing comparison of various Standards is
~lIgine or th~engin~ airplanes (exapt a thrn· provided by Figure 2.
engine tluhiJle powered airplan~) over a route that
eXJntaiJls a point/archer thalf J hour flying lime Boeing Extended Ran~ Proposal
(in stiff air at normal cruising 5p«d with one
engine inoperoti~'€) from an od~quate ailpOrt.} A program to achieve exlended rangt: airworthiness status
for the 767·200 airplane was initiated in eady 1983. The
Tht: administrator did approvt: two operations bl:yond the general fonn of tht: program followed is outlined below:
60 minute threshold; both were Caribbean operations to
approximately 75 minutes from an adequate altematt:. Propulsion System Reliability

Tht: ICAO standard of Annex 6. Part I, Example 3, 4.1.1 • All in-flight shutdowns (lFSDs)orolher t:vt:nlS related
stated, 10 the reliability of the propulsion system were
identified.
AI no point along Ihe intended track, the aero-
plane is to be more than ~ minutes 01 normal • The cause of each t:venl was determined. Follow-up
cruising speed aK'Oyfrom an aerodrome at which action was taken for all t:venl causes thai could be
the distanc~ specifications for alternate aero- removed or substantially reduced by design changes
dromes are complied with and where it is expected or revised operational or maintenance procedures.
that a sofe landing can be mQd~ ...
• Tht: effectiveness of design changes or revised proce--
Most of tM: Western Pacific and Asian operations (see dures was established by analysis and in-service
Figure I) weu approved based on this ICAO standard. tracking.
The Austrahan Department of Aviation included the
ICAO limit concept in their national standard (Air • The propulsion syslt:m reliability and the overall
a\'igation Order (ANO) 20.7.18) and using this, pro-- etTectivmcss of aClions takt:n was vt:rified by showing
vide<! approval for some domestic and regional operations thai IFSD rales were sufficiently low and siable.
that w~ mOil: than 60 minules at one engine speed from
suitable alternates. Airplane System Reliability

1983 to 1985 were transition years for regulations and • The design of each principal airplane system was
standards related to extended range operations. The reviewed to verify that, in a reliability sense, each
technical focal point for the needed discussion of concepts system was equivalenl to those of Olher ER airplanes
for new rt:gulations was the ICAO Extended Twin (747,727, LID) I, DeIO).
Opt:rations (ETOPS) Study Group. This group had
rt:presentatives from many oftht: major certifying author· • In·flight records were revit:wed to identify system
ilies and allowed the participation of industry groups (Air problems that have resulted in diversions or air
Transport Associations., airplane manufaclurers. engine tumbacks.
manufacturers) and of pilol and passenger associations.
All issues were considered and discussed. and the resulting • Based on infonnation from tht: above reviews, needed
work. refined by Ibe ICAO Directorate and tht: Air changes were dt:vised to assure compliance with
avigation Commission, has lead 10 the currently pro- extt:nded range requiremt:nlS.
posed rt:Visions to tht: ICAO Standards and Guidance (see
ICAO Working Paper C-WP/8178 of 1212/85). It is Airplane Performance Information
exp«:ttd that Ibe statements of this working paper will
become new ICAO Standards and Guidance applicable in Available performance information "as reviewed and
o\'ember 1986. additional data "as provided to verify compliance "ilb the
fuel and oil and Ihe singl~ engini! drift down and cruise
In parallel wilb this ICAO worle. individual agencies criteria for extended range operation.
(U.S.• Britain. France. Ausualia, Canada. ew Zealand
and othen) ,,'ere working to devt:lop nt:w nalional ConfigW1lltion Control
standards. In general these were mort: detailed than the
ICAO standards but were compatible with it. There was A document was issued dt:fining all airplant: requirements
also a great deal of communication between individual (configuration. maintt:nance and operations) for extended
nations as the work proceeded. and Ibis has led 10 range operation.

AIRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3
Defl... of ""~I b~ for ul.bll.l>....nl 01
o-.En!ll......0...

...
A"lhorflYl Enol... " .. ~bllllY T,~.nd
So<l.c.. "ule nm. c... V., ... [J:> G.-ndfall>.. Cia".. CrvlN SpHd"" Slvnlflc.anl Problem A--.......l

..... no. _ .... ~ '''".4C if


......."... .. ..,..... ",.i...
. •. _ ....., /I'fI" 11_'- rM~,., d_. .•. , i. T. ,""," • ....-... Irotiaollooo 01 ttlIooWl·
,,,,,u i... 110 ......... _ _/

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It'll ..,
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..-lIT ~ ...... -'" ftoot
--,,--,.--... ~

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f'fJ ..111---, u,,- ........ If ....... _liJII~. .
ri_ o ,wdJ iulU" ~ .W(S 1Il~ • ..-we _I...
awr"

-,._.... _...-"'" ...


,lwup""" if .~ b1 .... - .
_"fl>
Civil Aviallon s.... fAA s-. .. p"" ll>- "" CoM _ , .",,- ,,,"
_n.._ _ .,.,at;"'"
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I,," Af)( . . .,,.,. wrdo
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A"11>ori1Y ~
......,..,. ...1'. ....i••" ..' ,,.,.........
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Pamphlet 35.
I..... :z Oc.t. 85

"",,,It..
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110• ...-ili';...
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...... I. 15,. faI.... fr.-. _i..w.. ~ n». 1.15 .. 131 ).

FiguTe 2. A summary of principal extended Tange Tequirements.

4 AIRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986
Master Minimum Equipment List (1\-lMEL) The completion of programs now being pursued is
expected during the second quarter of 1986.
Working with the FAA and other certifying authorities
a review of the MMEL was accomplished, and this process For the 767.200, Figure 3 summarizes principal changes
provided revisions appropri.ate to extended range that have been made to achieve extended range air·
operations. worthiness suitability.

Certification Changes necessary to comply with requirements are


different for each airplane/engine combination. This is,
All of the above information was made available to the of course. obvious for propulsion systems. as the causes
FAA. and as needed to other certifying authorities, to of IFSDs are ollen unique to specific engines and engine
allow a finding to be made that the airplane/engine installation packages.
combination mel the airworthiness requirements for
extended range operation. The results of this finding were The 757 and 767 electric power systems were both
then renected in the Airplane Flight Manual. enhanced for extended range operation by addition of
a Hydraulic Motor Generator (HMG). A different
The above process has been completed for the following approach was taken for the 737·200 electric power system.
airplane/engine combinations: Since an HMO installation was not available for the
737·200, the Minimum Equipment List (MEL) for
767.200/JT9D·7R4 extended range dispatch was modified to require both
767·2oo/CF6·80A/A2 main generators be operating and that the Auxiliary
737·200/JT8D·9/9A Power Unit (APU) be run during the extended range
portion of night. This operational change was supple·
The process is now underway for: mented by the incorporation of load shedding capability
(available for all 737·200s).
757/RB211·535C
757/RB211·535E4 The 767 cargo fire suppression system was modified 10
737·200/JT8D·15 and ·17 meet ER requirements, but Ihe basic 757 with a single aft
737·300/CFM5~3 cargo door already met these requirements and the

Figure 3. This illustration summarizes the major changes required to


achieve extended range airworthiness suitability for the 767·300 airplane.

AIRLINER/JUL·SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5
Figure 4A. 767 extended range operations in the North Atlantic. and Caribbean.

Figure 48. 767 operations in the eastern hemisphere (not all routes shown are extended range).

737-200 airplane required no modification as its Class 0 range qualified airplanes can be met. Progress to date has
compartment meets all suppression requirements without allowed extensive use of 767s as indicated by the maps
the use of an active system. shown above (Figures 4A and 48). The 737-200 which has
recently been certified by the FAA for extended range
Details of all changes to systems and changes to the operations is being flown on Pacific routes. Extended
MMEL are available on request range operational experience of Boeing airplanes is being
carefully tracked. The tracking process gives in-service
Conclusions infonnation for verification of the premises employed in
the development of extended range capability, and it
The Boeing family of two-engine airplanes is being provides a data base Ihat allows Boeing to effectively assist
enhanced so that operator requirements for extended operators planning for or using this capability.

6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AlRLINERIJUL-SEP 1986
Learning NDI techniques is the key to success.

Non uclive
Inspections
NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECfION OF INSERVICE BOEING AIRPLANES - PART 3

By
C F. Raatz
Research and Development Quality Control

ondestructive inspection (NOI) employs reviewed developments in nondestructive test equipment

N electrical currents, magnetic fields, sound waves,


penetrating radiation and penetrating liquids to
extend the human senses in assessing the integrity of a test
and test techniques applicable to the inspection of in-
service airplanes. These inspection techniques are
documented in Boeing's airplane model Nondestructive
piece or structure. Because of its ability to detect hidden Test manuals and Service Bulletins.
damage without a requirement to open up or disassemble
structure, NOt has come to play an important part in the This third and closing article provides a current status and
maintenance inspection of commercial transport some future eltpectations for airplane structural
airplanes. nondestructive inspection. In particular, attention is given
to NOI in support of the supplemental structural
The first article of this series described the five inspection of older airplanes and to conditions which limit
nondestructive test methods most frequently employed in the use of NO! in inservice airplane inspection.
the inspection of airplane structure. The second article

AfRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7
SUPPLEMENTAL INSPECTION OF OLDER
AlRPLANES

Aging commercial jet transportS in service beyond original


projections are subject to increased corrosion and multiple
fatigue damage. To account for these potential conditions,
refinements have been made to existing maintenance and
inspection procedures. These refinements include
supplemental inspection programs for older airplanes. For
fatigue damage detection Boeing has released
Supplemental Structural Inspection Oocumenls (55108)
for each older airplane model. These documents identify
structurally significant items (55Is) which have nO history
of fatigue cracks but which may require supplemental
inspection to assure that damage tolerance is maintained.

For inspection of structure not readily accessible to visual


inspection, or to provide initial and repeat inspection
intervals which are compatible with airplane maintenance
and inspection schedules, NDI options are identified in
the 5510 for many SSI s.
Figure 1. Wing rear spar upper chord
SUPPLEMENTAL STRUcrURAL INSPECTION and skin crack detection.
NDI OPTION

An example of an optional NDI is thai for 727 551 W-18. analysis also shows that a second crack could eventually
This inspection is of the wing rear spar upper chord and initiate in the wing skin at the same fastener hole location.
skin between wing station 220 and 400 (Figure I). To detect a potenlial chord or skin crack, supplemental
Through engineering analysis it has been determined that structural inspection W-18 lists three visual and one low
a fatigue crack that initiate in a fastener hole in the upper frequency eddy current (LFEC) inspection options. These
chord's hori:wntal nange as shown in Figure I, would lead options are related to the configuration of the wing upper
to the most critical cracking pattern. Crack growth rear spar as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Inspection
options available for
the wing upper rear
spar area.

8 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AIRLlNER/JUL-SEP 1986
The upper rear spar structural configuration (Figure 2·C), LIMITATIONS OF AJRPLANE STRUcrURAL NDJ
does not permit a visual inspection ofthe chord. The upper
wing ddn and main landing gear trunnion support fitting Much has been presented in this and preceding articles on
prevent external visual inspection of the chord and the advantages of airplane structural NOI. To put NOI
internal :support :structure prevents visual inspection of the of airplane structure into perspective, it is also necessary
chord from inside the wing. As the siu ora chord crack to consider its limitations.
increases, it is assumed that a second crack initiates in the
wing skin at the same fastener hole. This skin crack can The ability of nondestructive inspection to detect a small
be detected visually. To comply with damage tolerance crack relates to the sensitivity of the test method to the
safety assurance, visual inspection for a wing skin crack physical change produced by a crack. A crack which is
is required on all of a select group of candidate high time .001 inch wide by 0.5 inch long and 0.1 inch deep occupies
airplanes e\'ery 5e\'era! hundred nights. Such a frequent .CXX>S square inch of surface area and has a volume of
inspection inlen'a! is nOl compatible with normal airplane .lXXJOS cubic inch. A nondestructiv~ test which is sensithe
maintenan~ and inspection schedules. An optional low to such a small physical change is also sensitive to other
Fmtuency Eddy Currmt (LFEC) inspection provides a changes or variations in a test structure; for example;
m~ arttptable inspection inten'aJ. The LFEC inspection alloy type or heal treatm~nt; material thickness or shape;
detects a chord crack through the wing skin as shown in fastener type, material, and size; hole size, spacing, and
Figure 3. The mall chord crack detectable by LFEC edge margin; and, crack location and orientation. The
pennits the operator to perform a inspection of a sample response of a nondestructive test to structural variables
of his candidate high time airplanes at a regular D-Check can mask the desired response. Alternatives such as
maintenana: interval ofapproximatdy 15.CXX> flights. The increasing d~tectabl~ crack size to obtain a larger response
end result is that the number of required inspections is and improve its detection over background noise can take
signifICantly reduced by using the LFEC inspection away the crack detection advantag~ of an 01. In some
oplion. With the potential for such reduction in inspection situations, accounting for the effects of structural
requirements it could be asked Why is not more /HI! made variations can improve crack detection.
of NDI? The answer to this lies in some significant
limitations in the NOI of airplane structure. A detailed NOt procedure that accounts for interferen~
signals encountered during an inspection can improve
crack detection. Preparation of such a procedure requires
that conditions which have a significant effect on the
outcome of an inspection be identified and accounted for.
This is accomplished through drawing and on airplane
review of test struclUre to identify configurations which
may alter the results of an NO!. From this review selected
test pieces representative of inspection conditions are
assembled with nalural or simulated cracks and the effects
of structural variations on crack detection detennined,
From these evaluations test system calibration, detectable
crack size, and inspection guidelines are established. A
step by step inspection procedure incorporating these
details is prepared and verified on actual airplane
structure. Both development and application of a detailed
inspection procedure requires a high level of NDI skill,

An example of a detailed NOI procedure is the LFEC


inspection option for 727 551 W·18. The Calibration Table
reproduced from this procedure is shown in Figure 4. The
Effectivity column identifies two groups of 727 airplanes.
standard and high gross weight, which have basic
structural differences in the inspection area. Within each
of these two basic configurations there are three additional
conditions which affect the LFEC inspection process.
Fastener size. material, and location and the number and
thickness of structural members are accounted for.
Related test structure configurations are grouped under
an Inspecrion Code, A, Band C. For each inspection code
the Calibration Table identifies a separate Reference
Figure 3. LFEC inspection for chord craclt through the Standard. Colibration Detail. inspection Probe. and
wiDg sliD. Instrument Frequency setting. A number of test variables
are accounted for through a single calibration standard

AJRLlNERIJUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
Erfect- Inspection Reference Probe Iden- Instrumenl Calibration
ivilY Code IJ> Swndard '0. tificalion Frequenc) liz Detail ..... 0.

[l> A 202-A (I) 250 III

[l> 0 202-1\ (2) 100 III

[l> C 203 (3) 250 \',


[l> A 20S-A (I) 250 III

[l> 0 205-B (2) 100 III

[l> C 204 (3) 250 \I

NOTES (J.:::> All 727-100 Airplanes and 727-200 Cum Line Nos. 433 thru 880 and 884 Cum Line Nos. 881.
IJ>- 882, 883. 885 and on.
[J::> Code for specific inspection areas identified on detail VII to which the calibration requirements
apply.

Figure 4. Eddy current inspection calibration table.

as shown in Figure 5. The NOI procedure brings together Even with the most carefully prepared procedure a
these various requirements through a detailed step by step combination ofstmctural variations may occur which can
process of calibration and inspection. prOOuce results that are outside of guidelines provided in

Figure 5. LFEC inspection can account (or test variables


such as thickness, edge effect, and second layer cracks.

'0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - A,RLlNER/JUL-SEP 1986


the NOI procedure. In such cases, it is the inspector who What will occur is the continuing development of existing
is knowledgeable in the particular NOI method and of nondestructive test methods.
airplane structure who is able to recognize and correctly
interpret variations in test results to reduce false colis. Recently, bauery powered, portable, eddy current
unnecessary re-evaluation inspections, and part rejection. impedance plane instruments suitable for airplane
The following statement from the Introduction to Boeing'S structural inspection have become commercially available.
airplane model Nondestructive Test manual identifies the Impedance plane signal analysis provides an added
need for qualified personnel to perfonn airplane structural dimension in the interpretation of test results. For
NOI: example, an eddy current encircling probe used to inspect
a row of fastener holes for cracks may also sense a small
interpretations of radiographs and the reodout of other change in fastener hole distance from the edge of the skin.
nondestructive testing equipment, such as ultrasonic and For a metered instrument, which is only sensitive to signal
eddy current. require much skill, and must be performed amplitude, a hole crack and a change in edge margin could
only by trained and experienced personnel. The operator provide the same meter response as shown in Figure 6A.
must have training in both the basic theory and the practical The impedance plane display of these two conditions is
application ofthe NDT methods he is using and have a good significantly different, permitting the separation of crack
working knowledge ofaircraft structure. He also must have and edge-effect. (Figure 68). Eddy current impedance
good comprehension of the foilure characteristics of the plane procedures for general surface and bolt hole crack
mrious metals and types ofparts used in aircraft structure. inspection and aluminum skin corrosion detection are
and be aware of limitations and capabilities of the currently in preparation. These and other eddy current
nondestructive testing methods available to him. impedance plane signal analysis procedures will be
included in Boeing'S airplane model Nondestructive Test
It is the complexity and variation in airplane structure Manuals as options to existing meter signal display
which significantly limits the use ofNDI through the need procedures.
for detailed NOI procedures, special inspection
equipment, and skilled opetators to perfonn and interpret Another change currently taking place is the addition of
test results. As NOI equipment and test procedures in-service airplane composite structure NOI procedures
improve, and operator understanding of NOI increases. to 757 and 767 Nondestructive Test manuals. Ultrasonic
greater use of airplane structural NOI will occur. and X-ray are the NOI methods most frequently employed
However, the complexity of airplane structure will to supplement the visual inspections of composite
continue to be a limiting factor in its application. structure. Investigation is continuing into improving the
capability of in-service airplane NOI of composite
WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF AIRPLANE structure in such areas as damage from lightning strike
SfRUcrURAL NOlI or impact and for the inspection of composite repairs.

It is said that a knowledge of history can provide some With a continuing emphasis on the NDI of airplane
insight of future events. The history of airplane NOI has structure, such as the supplemental structural inspection
shown that significant technical advances have been slow of older airplanes, added emphasis is being placed on
to evolve. While inspection employing X-ray, magnetic operator training. Regulations in a number of countries
particle and penetrant existed in the 19405, significant currently require that commercial airplane NOI operators
ultrasonic inspection of airplane structure did not occur be certified by examination. Boeing supports NDltraining
unti! the 1950s and eddy current inspection not until the of its airplane operators with courses in eddy current and
1960s. graphite composite NOt Course emphasis is on in-service
airplane structural inspection. The increased
Improvement in each of these methods has occurred over understandingofNDI brought about through training and
the years. However, there has been no significant new NOI experience will lead to greater use and to development of
method for commercial airplane structural inspection new inspection applications.
since eddy current. Such nondestructive test methods as
acoustic emission, neutron radiography, holography, For the near future the current emphasis on eddy current
liquid crystal and infrared have not found significant inspection of metal structure will continue, and the
application in commercial airplane structural inspection. increased use of composite structure will put greater
There is no dramatic new nondestructive test for the emphasis on ultrasonic inspection.
inspection of airplane structure just over the horizon.

AlRLlNER/JUL-SEP 1986 11
t=E~ ..

Figure 6. New impedence plane instruments can differentiate between an edge


signal and a crack signal, whereas a standard eddy current meter cannot.

SUMMARY
the complexity and variation of modern airplane structure:.
This third and closing article brings us up to date with Employing a detailed inspection procedure to account for
NOI of large commercial jet transport structure. Tc>day's structural variations is a partial solution. However, this
knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of NOI requires a high degree of nondestructive test skill, both for
provides for development of detailed procedures for the procedure preparation and application. Complex structure
controlled NDI of airplane structure. Nondestructive test will continue to be a limiting factor in the NDI of
equipment necessary to the implementation of detailed in-service airplanes.
inservice airplane inspections is oommercially available.
The nondestructive test skills required to prepare and The near future will see a continued broadening in the
perfonn detailed inspections are defined and identified in understanding of nondestructive test principles and a
current certification procedures and practices. strengthening of skills necessary for the development and
application of complex NOI procedures. This, together
Considering the progress which has been made in the field with the availability of suitable nondestructive test
ofNDI during the past twenty years, a greater fulfillment equipment for airplane structural inspection, will result
of its early promise to detect small hidden cracks and in greater acceptance of in-service airplane NO I, based on
reduce airplane inspection costs might have been expected. its ability to provide definable and reproducible inspection
A significant obstacle to the fulfillment of this promise is results.

12 AIRLLNER/JUL-SEP 1986
---------------

Fuel Conservation AIRuNER

Op~ions EWSLETTER No. 23 July·September 1986

CONTENI'S which will reference any FOR activity poning flight operations personnel on
Introduction ......•.....• I since the previous issue of the News- topics of a technical nature. Many
Flight Operations Redew .• 1 leU~r. This will make an operator airlines produce publications that re-
RU211 Operation and aware that an issue has not been port and comment on flight oper-
Maintenance in a Sand received, or, because of model effec- ations related issues based on their
and Dust Environment .. _ 2 tivity. was not applicable. own, or other operators, operational
Cost index ..•.•..•.••.. _ 3 or training el'(periences. On various
In this issue we also complete our occasions il has been suggesled lhal
discussion on engine operation and Boeing provide operators with feed·
INTRODUCfION maintenance in a sand and dust back and useful general information
environment by adding information on operational related items. We are
ith th~ January-March for the Rolls Royce RB2 I 1 engines. therefore pleased to announce a new

W 1984 issue of th~ News-


letter we started to include
operations items in addition to fu~1
Similar information for CFM56,
CF6, JT8D and JT9D engines was
provided in Newslettu Number 20
publication has now been developed,
~ntitled Flight Operations R~view
(FOR).
conservation related topics, and (Octobec-lkcemb..- t985 AIRLINER).
changed tbe title to Fu~1 ConsefWItion The intended scope of the Flight
and Operations N~wslelter. Th~ During a recent all operator meeting OpelTJtions Review will be to supple-
Operational topics coverui, such as in Seattle. comments were made con· ment rather than replace the el'(isting
reduced thrust operation, nap el'(tcn- ceming COSI index. We are discussing methods used to d.i.sseminate informa-
sion speeds, go/no go decision at VI. this topic again in the ewsl~uer, tion, such as Operations Manual Bul·
and otber subjects, were considered since we feel there is still consid~rable letins and the Boeing AIRLINER
general interest items for various confusion on the definition and deri- magazine. The FOR is intended to
groups'within an airline. Boeing has vation of cost index, and its effect on informally discuss flight operations
re<:enUy introduced a new publication Right Operations. related topics at the flight crew l~vel.
entitled Flight O/Hrations Review Boeing encourages operators to dis·
(FOR). Although the FOR will prob- INTRODUCING THE FLIGHT tribute copies of Flight Operations
ably use some of the topics thaI would OPERATIONS REVIEW Review to flight crews and supporting
have appeared in the Newslett~r, it is flight operations personnel, However,
really aimed directly at night crews, Safe, efficient and reliable flight oper- it is not intended to replace or super-
and is intended to supplement rather ations are enhanced by good commu- sede infonnation contained In ap--
than r~place existing publications. nications with night crews and sup-- proved operational documentation,

We have included an article about the


Flight OpelTJtions Rm·ew in this issue
F~ht Operations REVIEW
of the Newsletter. The article. which
is based on t.he aU-operalOr leiter used
to transmit and introduoe the fIrst
... -' .... -- _ - .. _-,.....
.... . . . , . .4, __

FOR, revie\\·'s why the FOR was


created; its intended scope; format
details, and production and di tnbu-
tton Plans. etc. The FOR is available
to all operators of e\>ery apphcable
Boeing model, but will only Ix pro-
vided to th~ persons responsible for

_. '<_<1"1' _
~
:~.~'.~>eW~:e=.'::~~~~l;~
tcUt ac
u- .-1.<
_
:;
0( _

1Ilm...-P/
.-1

'!KJ!!5l.!
«>u<"'" _ _ ." ,_u

the operator's Flight Operations and rror .u _\tlIi .,~ • _<I., -=t.cl . - t l IOU'"", . . . , _ .,.

_~ ~ I , .... -.toaJ. • •- . . .
..........11_ • • -.otft. .... tiatad .t 'I1l

-........
Engin«ring organizations. In each _ ~ _ taOQK p,td>
at.... - . !but'.- ....... typ>eaUy J'l ~<_ po< ... --"..-
issue of the NewsleU~r w~ will also
include a paragraph on FOR Activity, ....
- . l 4 .... ... par -.:nt. 1\1 _ .
',_ , .. .. .......,

Fuel Conservation and Operations Newsleuer I


• Airfoil material
Topics will be sekcttd where I D~ ingestion and associated night crrw
for such information appears to emt procedures ""ere discussed in appro- • Core protection
and the: infonnatioll is of broad. gen- priate Boeing Operations Manual
eral interest. Where possible the mate- Bulletins. The following discussion Rolls-Royce test results obtalntd
rial will be presented in I sufftciendy was obtained from materials supplied from quartz (the hardest constituent
generaJ nature to cover aU models, by RoJJs..Royce and is only applicable of sand) bombardment of chromium
with enmples designed to make a 10 the RB211 family of engines. steel samples show that the degree of
point rather than be technically exact impact erosion rises rapidly with both
for a precise airframe/cogme oombi- The main hazards of a sand/dust particle size and velocity. The greatest
nation. Specific models will be cov- environment are erosion, deposition damage is caused by panicles larger
ered where appropriate. In some cases and blockage. Sand particles vary in than 10 thousandths of an inch, and
the subject may only apply to a size from about I to 50 thousandths impacting at velocities above about
particular model, in which case the ofan inch and are not normally found 5000 feet per second. Particles of this
FOR will only be sent to operators of above heights of about six feet. size will generally only be ingested
that model. The effects of sand ingestion occur while the airplane is on the ground at
predominantly during takeoff, high power settings during takeoff
The initial Flight Operations Revi~w landing and tui operations. Smaller and landing, the latter being aggra-
was shipped to all operators on particles of dust (less than vated by reverse thrust which can
March 14, 1986. Subsequent i ues I thousandth of an inch in size) are cause sand particles to be re-ingested
will be published on an as NquirPd more prevalent and can be carried up into the engine.
basis with no flxed timetable. We by dust storms to heights of many
expect to produce 5e\eral issues each thousands of feet; such that even in At takeoff speeds, airplane and
year. A typical issue of the FOR will cruise operation the effects of dust nacelle components are not greatly
consist of one or t~..o 8-l/r x 11 R ingestion, erosion, and blockage can affected by sand and dust. However,
pages printed in black and white ...itb be felL fan blade tips and intermediate
simple diagrams and charts if pressure compressor blades will be
applicable. 1'1Ie Causes of Erosion moving at speeds above 1200 fect
per second. It is these speeds when
We will provide copies. in a readily The factors which influence the combined with velocity of intake fiow
reproducible format, from which 0p- degrttoferosion which can also affect which yield the conditions that can
erators can print suffICient quantities performance particularly, of com- cause erosion.
for distribution. For every operator pressor blades are:
we will mail ten copies, five addressed Rolls-Royce Engine Design
to Right Operations and five to • Particle size, hardness and
Engineering. concentration
The largest influence engine design
• Particle impact velocity and angle can have is the amount of protection
We ltUst that our new publication will
be informative and contribute to suc-
cessful flight operations.

RB2ll Operation and MalnteaaMe


ia • Sud ud Dust
EndroDDlcct

The October-December 1985 edition


of the Fuel Conservation and
Operattons Ne\\'-sltuer cont81ned a
gencrtl dlSCussioo of the operation
and nwntenance of CF6, CFM~,
Tr80 and IT90 engines m sand and
dust environments. This Newsleuer
presents coverage for the RB211
famil) of engines. Please be aware Figure 1. The wide-blade design and greater
that the effects of volcanic ash fan blade spacing along ",jlh the large spacing
between the nose of the core Ind the by-pass
splitter increases core protection.

2 Fuel Conscnation and Operations Newsletter


offered to the engine core by the ambient tem~ralures which may performance departments. Several
centrifugal separation of particles make them specify more frequent hot discussions at the conference indi-
passing through the fan. The larger section inspections. cated some lack of understanding on
particles of sand wiD have sufficient how cost index was derived and used,
momentum to impact upon fan blades Oil System and its effect on airplane operations.
whereupon they will be deflected The 757/767 FMCS questions raised
tangentially. The smaller particles There is evidence that some bearings in Seattle: were fonnally answered in
which are light enough to he have shown a higher damage rate in the Conference Report; however, we
influenced by the airflow may not be sandy environments than elsewhere. felt it would be of general interest to
hit by a blade. but will be affected by As this may be an indication contami- include a modified version of our
the forces required to rotate the fan. nation from smaller particles, a finer response in the Newsletter, since it is
The forces near the root of the fan will standard of pressure filter has been applicable to 757, 767 and 737-300
drive the denser than air panicles incorporated throughout the neet. Oil models, all of which are FMCS equip-
outboard. The combination of these and filter changes remain as for other ped. For reference, it is pointed out
effects ensures that a significant operations. that other articles on cost index ap-
proportion or the sand panicles are pear In the January-March 1983,
deflected out into the by-pass ducl Flight Operations Recommendations April-June 1984, July-September
and are carried away. Currently the 1984 and October-December 1985
R0211-535EA with its wide chord fan Flight crew actions that may be taken issues of the Newsleller.
blades and large spacing between the on the ground, under severe exposure
fan blades and the nose of the core to conditions, to minimize sand and The Flight Management Computer
by-pass splitter, provides the greatest dust ingestion - CONDITIONS (FMC) uses cost index (CI) to
degree of core protection. restricting PERMIlTING - are as follows: optimize perfonnance calculations.
the ingestion to only about 40% ofthe The cost inda is defined as:
solid particles taken in by other en- • Shut down engines as soon as
gines with narrow chord fan blades practical. Cost of time in Slhour
(see Figure I). The increased dis- CI =
tances allow a much greater propor- • Avoid ingestion of anOther en- Cost of fuel in ,./pound
tion of particles to be centrifuged gine's wake.
a ....·ay. protecting the core of the en- Cost index is used by the FMC to
gine from damage and deterioration. • Use reverse thrust judiciously, calculate economy climb, cruise and
particularly at low ground speeds, descent speeds and optimum altitude,
Additionally, sand panicles can be and when there is an accumula- for minimum trip cost. Use of cost
deposited onto turbine airfoils with tion of sand and dust on runways inda allows each operator to deter--
the smaller panicles fmding their way and adjacent areas. mine the most economical speeds for
into the turbine cooling air system. their operation. In addition, cost in-
Rolls-Royce experience and testing • A void static high power operation dex can be adjusted to account for
has shown that sand building up on with sand and dust on runways cost differences between routes or
blades has a very small effect on and adjacent areas. changes in cost structure over time.
turbi~ efficiency. The sizing and
placement ofblade film cooling holes • Use rolling takeoff thrust setting Cost indices can vary from UfO to 999
in 1M RB211 minimized blade dis- procedures contained in the for the 757/767, and from zero to 200
tress caused hy minute particles Boeing Operations Manual for for the 737-300. A cost index of zero
blocking cooling passages. your airplane. means that the cost of time equals
zero. The economy speeds for CI =0
Maintenance Recommendations COST INDEX will result in minimum trip fuel; the
airplane will climb at close to the best
General During March 1986, Boeing held a rate of climb speed. cruise at Maxi-
757/767 Flight Management Com- mum Range Cruise speed, and de:-
For the RB211. no special module puter System (FMCS) conference in scend near minimum drag speed.
management actions are specified for Seattle. The conference was attended High cost inda values mean that the
operations in sandy environments. by 90delegates from 3Oofour 757 and cost of time is considered to be high
except that IR the Middle East. 767 customers. representing airline relative to the cost of fuel. and the
airlines also generally encounter high night operations, engineering and economy speeds at very high CI

Fuel Consen'ation and Operations Newsletter 3


values will therefore result in mini- cost index applicable to their engine maintenance costs can be
mum trip time. The FMC also 0b- operation. equally divided between flight time
serves the efTecth"e FMC Vmo/Mmo and cycle costs; that is, assume half
speed limits which willl.lSUa.lly define We are developing a more detailed of the total maintenance: costs are
the economy speeds at ..·ery high CI article on cost index. for publication affected by flight time..
values. Economy climb and descent in a future issue of the AJRLINER
speeds will reach the effective FMC The following general guidelines are Most operators are using low cost
Vmofl'f mo at cost indices between offered at this time to help operators index values. A few airlines use values
about 100 and 300 for the 757n67 evaluate cost index. that produce: our recommended econ·
and between about 50 and 200 for the omy cruise schedule, which is an
737-300 (the FMC VmofMmo is the While the cost mfuel isa known value approximation to Long Range Cruise
airplane VmofMrno ~ith a S KIAS to the operator, the cost of time is speed near optimum attitude. This is
speed tolerance applied during climb much more difficult to determine. 0.80 Mach for the 757fl67 modeJs.,
and cruise, and 10 KlAS tolerance for The cost of time should include those achieved with a CI ofabout 100. and
descenl). costs which vary directly with flight 0.74 Mach for the 737-300 (approxi-
time. which are primarily the air- mate CI = 30). Others use: lower cost
Boeing has de..eloped docunlents, en- frame and engine maintenance costs Index values, with the general trend
titkd FMC Supplemenlal Perform- (labor, materiaJs., burden). Mainte- on all models appearing to be a CI
ance Documents, which are available nance costs are generally divided be- that results in a cruise speed about
for all 757. 767 and 737-300 models.. tween cycle COSts and flight time halfway between MRC (CI=O) and
These documents are provided to the costs. Only the flight time related LRC.
PenormancelOperatKKlRl Engineer- costs affect the cost index calculation.
ing departments in each airline to Additionally, time costs can include
suppon ground planning and for trip
analysis purposes.
any components of direct operating
costs accounted for on the basis of
" II
n
Tffl
• r""Y
/- ',J."
cost per hour of airplane operation.
The FMC Supplementary Perform- These may include crew pay, insur- • March 14. 1986 (AJI Models)
ance: Documents provide economy ance and depreciation.
climb, cruise: and descent speeds as a The Importance of
function of cost index. Economy Although an accurate determination Proper Rotation Technique
climb speeds vary with COSt index and of cost index may be beneficial. a very
gross weight. Economy descent detailed study of applicable time costs • April 30. 1986 (727 only)
speeds are a function of cost index can be both difficult and very time
only. Economy cruise: speeds are a consuming. Funhermore, the trip 727 Reverse Thrust
function of cost index, gross weight, cost savings resulting from such a Engine Surges
cruise altitude and wind. Headwind study may be small; for example. on
increases the economy cruise speed the 767, assuming a cost index of • May 30, 1986 (All Moods)
while a tailwind decreases the econ- 100 when the actual index should be
New Generation
omy cruise speed. In a tailwind, lhe 50 will result in an approximate COSt Weather Radars
cruise speed is limited by the zero increase of 0.2%. This value will vary
wind maximum range cruise spero. depending on route distance, gross
The FMC Supplemental Performance: weight, etc. An airline can determine
Documents also include information the fueVtime/cost sensitivity of a
on other items, such as oplimum given route by calculating trip data.
altitude, holding speeds, etc. using the economy speeds from the
BOEI -G Ft.:EL CO""lSERVATIOS
FMC Supplementary Performance: A!'Il1) OPERAno. -s SEWSLETTER
The determination of cost index val- document and drag, thrust and fuel
ues for use in the FMC (or the 747 flow data from the Performance: Engi- Flight Operations Engineering
Performance Management System or neer's Manual. MIS 2T-70
the 727n37 Performance Data Com- Boeillg Commercial AirpLane Company
putei'" System) presents a challenging The mast difficult pan of the time P.O. Do:.: 3707. Seanle WA 98124
problem. and Boeing is frequently cost calculation is deciding how to Telephone U06} 655-JI85
asked to assist in these calcuJations. divide the total maintenance costs
HO\loever. Since: each operator's fuel between night time costs and cycle
and time cosu are different, only the costs. To simplify this calculation. it
operatOl" can determtne the value of may be assumed that the airframe and

4 Fuel Coose"ation and Operations Newslelter


Delta Air Unes received the first P&W PW2037-powered 757 while
Eastern got the initial Rolls Royce RB211-535E4-powered airplanes.

757 ALTERNATE ENGINE CERTIFICATION PROGRAMS


BOEING COMMERCIAL AIRPLANE COMPANY
by
J. Malcolm McNeill
David T. Powell
757 Propulsion Technology

be 757-200 airplane was initially certified with (Figure 2). These engines take advantage of the latest

T RB21l-535C engines and entered service in


December 1982. At thai time work bad already
begun on the incorporation of two new engines both
engine technology to improve fuel efficiency in making the
757 airplane the most fuel efficient transport in
commercial service.
scheduled to be certified on the 757 airplane in October
1984. The simultaneous ce:rtifteation of two new engine Engine Commitments
models on one airplane model was unparalleled in Boeing
history. Both new engines incorporate features to enhance
maintenance/durability based on years of in-service
The new engines committed were the Pratt &. Whitney experience. Maintenance: is simplified by modular design.
PW2037 (Figure 1) and the Rolls-Royce RB211-535E4 The engines art composed of several interchangeable

AJRLlNER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 3
Figure 1. Details of the P&W PW2037 engine innovations.

Figure 2. Improvements on the Rolls Royce RB2U-S3SE4 engine.

14 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - A I R L I N E R / J U L - S E P 1986
modules resulting in build and strip man hours During reverse thrust operation the integrated nozzle
substantially lower than required for comparable engines olTers another advantage over the separate nozzle
without modular construction. Advantages of modular configuration. When the bypass flow is deflected forwards
construction are: by the dosed blocker doors, the residual core exhaust jet
expands into the large inttgrated noule area. reducing its
• Decreased turnaround time for repairs vdocity and improving the overatl reverse thrust.
• Low OVenill maintenance costs
• Reduced spare engine inventory Improvements throughout the core engine include
• Muimum life achieved from each module changes to the IP and HP compressor and turbine blades
• Savings in transponation costs by the use of advanced computer aerodynamic analysis
techniques. The HP compressor features the introduction
The engine installations are designed such that the leit and oi end bend blading to improve efficiency in the boundary
right positions are fully interchangeable. layer. Directionally - solidified cast turbine blades are
used and thermal barrier coatings have been incorporated
The accessory drive gearbox is supponed beneath tbe fan on the H P nozzle guide vanes for improved life and
exit case on both engines and incorporates provisions for performance characteristics.
airframe accessories.. This location provides a cool
environment and easy access. The external location also The -535E4 engine utilizes a Kevlarfan blade containment
allows gearbox removal without disturbance to other system. Multiple layers of lightweight Kevlar are wrapped
modules. around the fan case to contain the unlikely release of a
fan blade. This system results in a significant reduction
RB211·535E4 Features in weight compared to the conventional containment
systems.
The RB211·535E4 (Roll~Royce) engine is an advanced
derivative of the RB211-535C but incorporates significam PW2031 Features
configuration improvements (Stt Figure 3). Like the
-535C, the -535E4 is a three-spool engine and. there- The PW2037 is an all new engine using advanced
fore. requires no variable compressor stator geometry. technology aerodynamics and materials (Stt Figure 4).
Improvements in engine performance have been achieved The PW2037 engine evolved from the JTIOD program
through the incorporalion of I) a wide chord fan which had been in development since 1972. A major
blade, 2) increased efficiency core and 3) integrated feature of the PW2037 is a full-authority digital electronic
nozzle assembly. engine control system which results in the PW2037
powered 757 being the first fly·by·wire digital electronic
The -535E4 wide chord fan is based on over 10 years of engine controlled aircraft in commercial service.
research which demonstrated advantages in performance,
mechanical integrity and foreign-object-damage (FOD) Pratt & Whitney's extensive knowledge in materials
resistance. A large deterrent in the production of this technology bas been applied in the PW2037. The PW2037
configuration has been the inability to manufacture the incorporates the latest material processes in turbine blades
blades strong enough for FOD resistance while keeping and compressor and turbine discs. A new nickel-based
the weight in control. Rolls-Royce have developed a steel alloy, manufactured by the powdered metal process
manufacturing process that results in a construction of having 15% mort strength than conventional alloys is
activated diffusion bonded titanium outer skins on a used in the rear stage of the HP compressor where tbe
titanium honeycomb sandwich. combination of mechanical and thermal stresses is highesL
It is also used in the HP turbine where the higher strength
The ntw fan has fewer, stifTer blades, which do not noed means that thinner discs are possible, leading to a slightly
mid-span shrouds for mutual suppon. The benefits of this shorter design. Single-crystal alloy has been utilized in the
fan are improved efficiency with the corresponding HP turbine providing strongtr turbine blades that can
improvement in fuel consumption and a reduced weight work at higher temperatures. Prau & Whitney have opted
from the fabricated construction. This is the first time a 10 not operate at higher temperatures bul reduce the
wide-<:hord shroudless fan design has been incorporated amount of turbine blade cooling air extracted from the
on a large turbofan engine and the first fan of Ihis type compressor and increase wheel speed, thereby, improving
in commercial servlce. performance. Tht use of advanced materials in the engine
core has aJl~·ed improvements in aerodynamic efficiency
In tht ·535E4 integrated nonk the hot exhaust gases are without a corresponding increase in weight.
mixed with the bypass airstream inside the final txhaust
annulus. This mixing provides an improvement in fuel An active clearance control (ACe) system has been
consumption and a decrease in jet noise. Additionally incorporated on the PW2037 to improve engine
more area is available for acoustic lining. performance. This system comprises a series of pipes

AIRLlNERlJUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 5
around the rear HP compressor casing and all turbine Flight Test Planning
casings and carries cool air from the fan and direets it on
to the cases to reduce blade tip clearances during cruise. The extent of electronics in the airplane avionics and
The ACC system is modulated by the eleetronic control engine control systems causes the test sequencing to
to tailor the cooling requirements to the thermal operating become highly critical in the night test planning process.
characteristics of the engine. Engine characteristics and operation are closely
interrelated with the avionics systems and the liming when
The fulJ-authoritydigital engine control system introduces engine test data is available to support the various software
a high level of sophistication in propulsion control freezes becomes very significant.
systems. The airplane level system, Eleetronic Propulsion
Control System (EPCS), improves the pilot interface with During the initial planning stages the data timing required
the engine and can handle many more inputs than previous to achieve software design freezes that support airplane
controls. The ability of digital eleetronics to rapidly deliveries is established. Data timing required to support
disseminate large quantities of information allows a more the Airplane Flight Manual and Operation Manual is also
precise control of parameters such as acceleration, idle, identified. From this information a program critical path
ACC, variable stators and surge bleed valves and with a assessment is developed and used to establish test priorities
high degree of intelligence. The Eleetronic Engine Control and deeision gates. A considerable amount ofother testing
(EEC) on each engine is an integral part of EPCS. The required for configuration decisions or certification may
EEC on an engine is divided into two channels, each not be on the critical path but must be integrated with the
capable of controlling the system on that engine when the critical path testing in a timely manner.
other has failed. The system will readjust to ahernative
engine control modes if normal inputs fail. The EPCS has Testing Requirements
self-test and fault isolation, and is able to trace faults to
at least line-replaceable unit level. Each EEC computer In fulfilling the overall propulsion certification
has two back-up operating modes which allow continuing requirements satisfactory operation in several areas has 10
operation with the deteeted and isolated faults. EPCS be demonstrated during the night test program. A major
eliminates the need to trim the engine. saving considerable test done relatively early in the night test program is
time after maintenance. generating the engine performance data bose consisting of
thrust, fuel now and other engine characteristics for
Certification Flight Test Programs takeoff, climb and cruise conditions. For specific
conditions up to four engines worth of data is required to
The flight test certification program is a complex establish overage engine performance. Following receipt
interaction of multiple disciplines. The test, of these data an analysis period is required where the data
instrumentation and data requirements are established to is generalized and can be extrapolated throughout the
support certification requirements. Test requirements are night envelope.
used in compiling the Right Test Specification which
provides the definition of demonstrations for submittal to Additional tests are conducted to demonstrate that
the FAA. The various tests are packaged, sequenced and operational characteristics are within applicable Federal
scheduled to provide for efficient test exeeution. Work on Aviation Regulations (FAR). Engine handling is
the planning of a major night test certification program demonstrated for extreme throttle manipulations to assure
begins a year before the first night of that configuration. surge-free operation throughout the night envelope.
Engine acceleration, engine starting, nacelle component
Satisfactoryoperation throughout the night envelope must and oil system temperatures and the prevention oftrappecl
be demonstrated to fulfill certification requirements. This Ouids within the nacelle and strut muSt be demonstrated
requires demonstration of operation in corner conditions to be within certification limits. Faull accommodation of
not normally encountered in service and can require the electronic systems is demonstrated by deliberately
testing in extreme adverse conditions to establish margins. inserting faults inlo the system. In addition to the above
propulsion lesting other airplane systems require
In fu.lfilling these requirements, operations at airports with evaluation with a new engine configuration. Aerodynamic
higher elevations and more extreme ambient temperatures performance testing is conducted to evaluate fuel mileage
than found locally are necessary and the airplane often with a new engine configuration. Siability and control
goes remote. Operation at remote sites is also conducted testing is required to confirm satisfactory airplane
because testing can be accomplished much more handling characteristics. Airplane systems where
efTeciently due to better weather and air traffic conditions. operation or performance are engine dependenl require
The logistics of remote operation involves establishing a demonstraling the system still fulfills its inlended function.
ground facility with three-shift operation to support the Interior noise measurements are obtained to demonstrate
airplane plus acquiring accommodations for typically 70 compliance with airplane requirements. Community noise
support personnel who travel with the airplane.

16 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AIRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986
Figure 3. This was the certification program for the two new engines.

levels are determined for ailernate engines by using engine Number) 757 airplane was converted from a RB21 )·535C
ground test data to adjust the community noise data base to a PW2037 engine configuration and performed the bulk
for the corresponding engines. The initial community of the test work. A Delta Air Lines production airplane
noise data base for the 757 was denloped during the basic was used for airplane perfonnance measurement. A third
flight test program with ·535C engines. airplane was used for interior noise measurements where
a full-up interior was required (see Figure 3). The PW2037
Alte.rnate Engine flight Testing was a 7 In month airplane test program that commenced
with first Oight on March 14, 1984. A total of 3070 test
The E4 certification flight test program was planned using conditions were run and 2000 instrumentation
a single airplane (see Figure 3). In order to develop the measurement were utilized. The PW2037 powered 757
four engine performance data base this plan required an was certified as planned in October 1984.
engine swap relatively early in the program to provide
timely data for avionics and manual development. The E4 SUMMARY
program was conducted over 8 months commencing with
first Oight on February 3. 1984. A total of 2430 test Aircraft delivery to airline customers of both engme
conditions were run and 1200 instrumentation configurations commenced in October and ovember
measurements were utilized. The E4 powered 757 was 1984 for the ·535E4 and PW2037. respectively. By
cenified on October 4. 1985, the day scheduled some thorough planning of the extensive Oight test programs
2 1/2 years prior. these latest t«hnolegy engines were mtroduced on time
and with a high assurance of satisfactory service.
The PW2037 certification flight test program was
conceived as a two-airplane program. The Boeing owned

AIRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 7

"

Progeny and progenitor. The Model 367-76 (KC·97) and its offspring, the Model 361·80.

30
THE KC·135 CELEBRAITS 30 YEARS OF FLIGHT

By
A. T. Lloyd
!:.ailor. Boeing AIRLINER Magazine

UgUst 31. 1986, marks the 30th anniversary of the for speed of execution, size, cost-effectiveness and

A first night of the Boeing/USAF KC·135A


Stratotank.er. Between April 3D, 1957, and
January 12, 1965, a total of 820 of these airplanes were
operational success. These airplanes were delivered at the
lowest cost·per·pound of airframe weight of any military
aircraft in production at that time. The tOial production
manufactured at the Renton, Washington, plant. Seven run of 820 airplanes COSI approximately S1.66 billion, or
versions of the -135 were built for Strategic Air Command about $2 million per machine.
(SAq and Military Air Transport Service (MATS) in the
US Air Force. and for the French Armee de l'Air. Since Boeing has had an interest in aerial refueling since 1929
then 46 versions, which may be identified by prefix and when a hose was extended from a Boeing Model 4Q..B to
suffix, were developed by the US Air Force. This truly is service a Model 95 mail plane with fuel. The first flying
a plane of a thousand faCfS. The family lineage of the -1358 boom was developed by Boeing for use on the KB·29P in
is depicted on the accompanying chari. the lale 19405. A tOlal of 116 8-29s were convened 10
boom tankers. Next came a fleel of 814 KC-97 propeller-
Since the end of World War 11, few military aircrafl driven Stralofreighters with an improved boom sYSlem.
production programs can compare to that of the KC·135 With the large influx of jet bombers into SACs inventory,

1 8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AIRLlNER/JUL-SEP 1986
~' T

·e .. .~
fI...
~ «-

.
~

i]
............ -
_I"'(UWY}
.r I*'(IUS.O K K ~

_ .. U K •

U-lJlIl~".nJ

.......... .... ~ "'"'


KC-llSA
QuJlIil}

m
e-_
SAC

....... -""
~

•a
K
~

o,
KC-ll'U

Rc-mB
"
10
SAC

SAC

C.Il'A
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.. I ......
"ATS

..
C·13'8 lO "ATS


.. ....,..
& ...
Re·])'" "ATS

C·I)'P dol!
"
AfIIMlC fA ...
¥C-l'" M T>O

1 " .. ...
~
~

K'"
.. n~
~- T.ble 1, The -135 production summary.

.... " .. " ~

This family tree depicts the originally produced airplanes and their derivations.

the need for an all-jet lanker .... as evident. Boeing 148 inches. This major difference precluded I he use of
conducted a number of design studies based on the KC·97 much of the tooling from the KC-I3S program. A mOSl
(Boeing Model 367). eventually leading to the Model noticeable difference between the commercial airliner and
367-80 - a four-jet, swept·wing airplane. The Dash 80 the KC-l3S is the absence of cabin windows on the later
first new 011 July 15. 1954. concurrent with Boeing's 38th airplane. A boom operators pod was installed on all
anniversary. By October or that year the USAF had placed variants of the -135.
an order for29 airplanes based on The Dash 80even before
the design had been finalized or the in night refueling Fuselage length~ also vary between the airplanes. The
capabilities of the airplane had been demonstrated. The body length of the KC-l3S is 128' 10" whIle the
first KC-JJ5A Stratotanker rolled out of the Remon 707·100/-200 length is 138' 10". The 707-300/-400
factory in less thall two years and made irs maiden night Interconlinental airplanes have a body length of 145' 6".
on August 31, 1956.

D1FFERE"'CES - Model 707/717

II is an error to consider the KC·135 (Boeing Model 717)


to be SImply a military \er:t.ion of the Model 707
commercial jetliner. The Model 707 was de...eiopcd in a
separate progmm with its first night occuring some
18 months after that of the KC-135A.

The outward appearancc of the Model 707 and the


KC-135 bear a strong resemblance - panicularly with
the shoner Model 707·100/·200 Stratoliners. However,
there are major differences between the airplanes.
Differences in the fuselage diameteN are sho..... n in
Figure I. While the Dash 80 utilized the same fuselage
diameter as the KC-97, studIes indicated that an optimum
size for both a military tanker and a commercial jetliner
would be 144 inches. Subsequent studies re\ealed that for Figure I, The fuselage diameter differences between the Dash
a commercial airliner the cabin dIameter should be 80, Model 717, and Model 707 are shown in these illustrations.

AIRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 9
The wing spans on the KC-135 and 101-100/-200 are Strategic Air Command. In 1964 an additional 12 tankers
130' 10". For the lnterconunenlal jetliners this dimension (C-135Fs) were delivered to the French Armee de rAir.
was increased to 145' 9".
MATS began receiving C-!35As in 1961 to serve as
Utilization rates between commercial and military long-range logistic transports. These airplanes were
airplanes have a relative order of magnitude difference of powered by Prall & Whitney J57 turbojets. Next came the
ten to one. While a KC135 achieves 315 night hours per TF33 turbofan-powered C-135Bs. The C-135s were
year, a commercial 101 would accrue about 3500 hours operated by the 161lth and 150lst Air Transport Wings,
in the air. Because of this difference in operation two located at McGuire AFO, New Jersey, and Travis MO,
dilTerent design philosophies were employed in the California, respectively.
development of the two airplanes. DilTerent materials were
selected. To achieve the the higher strength-to-weight Turbofan-powered KC-135Bs were produced for the
ratio desired by the Air Force, the -135 structure was USAF in 1961. These airplanes were redesignated as
designed to a safe-life philosophy; whereas the Model 707 EC-135Cs and serve as airborne command posts. Under
was designed to the/aU-sofe requirements of the Federal the Looking Glass program, one of these type airplanes has
Aviation Administration. been on a continuous airborne alert since February 3, 1961.

ORIGINALLY DELIVERED -1355 Another production version was the RC-135B with
turbofan engines. These airplanes were immediately sent
The first KC-135A was delivered to the USAF on to the Martin Aircrart Company. Baltimore. Maryland,
April 30, 1957. Less than twO years laIC:r the Stratotankers for conversion into RC-135Cs with the large side-looking
were in service with the 93rd Air Refueling Squadron at radar (SLAR) cheeks.
Castle AFB, California. On January 12. 1965, the last
KC-135A was delivered to the 380th Air Refueling The last four airplanes in the family were the RC-135As
Squadron at Plattsburgh AFB, New York. At the end of which were delivered in 1965-1966. These photomapping
the production program, 132 KC-135A tankers had been and geodetic survey airplanes were assigned to the 1370th
delivered. These airplanes not only ronn the backbone of Photo Mapping Wing, Air Photographic and Charting
America's strategic aerial refueling force, but also service Service, based at Turner AFB, Georgia.
airplanes nown by our Allies' air forces. In the summer
of 1975 a number ofKC-135As were transferred to USAF A summary of the seven delivery configurations of the
Reserve and Air National Guard units, marking the first -135 family are shown on Table I.
time the non-regular forces perfonned a mission for
MODIFICATIONS

The basic -135 airframe has lent itself to a large number


of uses. A host of reconnaissance derivatives have
provided photographic, electronic. and weather
surveillance capabilities. These airplanes carry the
RC/WC designation.

For communications, command, and control another


series of customized versions were made. Differences
result because of specific requirements of the operating
command. An EC prefix is assigned to these airplanes. It
is interesting 10 nOie that the first KC-135A, serial number
55-3118, is still nying as the EC-135K for Tactical Air
Command. This airplanes portfolio has numerous letters
of commendation from the various distinguished
passengers it has carried.

A number of special test airplanes carry the NC/NKC


designation. These specially-modified airplanes have
changed continuously to meet particular test requirements
for the USAF. US Navy, FAA and NASA. They have
The KC-135 was designed to meet the refueling been used for classified missions. testing new equipment.
requirements of an all-jet air force. and chasing eclipses and comets. Many have windows cut
into the fuselages resulting in the nickname, piccolo tubes.

2 0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AtRLlNERlJUL·SEP 1986
For NASA, an NKC-13SA senes as
a weightlesslless trainer for the
astronauts.

An RC-13SS prepares to lake on (uel. ..

An NKC-13SA operated by the


U.S. Navy for electronics testing...


- This EC·135N is used as a communications relay
airplane to support NASA Space Shuttle missions.

This WC-13SB collects atmospheric samples.

AIRLlNER/JtJL.SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 1
FORCE MULTIPLIERS regimes. The horizontal stabilizer were retrofitted to
provide the pitch control margins required by the larger
A pair of re-engining programs for the -135 neet began engines.
in 1982. These programs center around the new General
Electric/SNECMA CFM56-2 and salvaged Prall & Next came the CFM56 program for Strategic Air
Whitney JTJD turbofans. Each of these engines offers Command's neet of KC·135As and the French Annee
significant state·of-the-an improvements over the de ('Air's C-135Fs. The first KC·135R was delivered 10
earlier 19SO's·vintage P&W J57 turbojets which are rated the 384th Air Refueling Wing based at McConnell AFB,
at 13,500 pounds of thrus!. The CFM56 is in Ihe Kansas, on July 2, 1984. The first C·135FR was
20,OOO-pound static thrusl class, while the JT3D is rated redelivered to the Armee de I'Air in August, 1985.
at 18,000 pounds. Improved engine perfonnance allows Conversion to the KC-135R model results in a 50%
a greater payload/range capability and enhanced engine· increase in fuel ofT-load capability.
out performance. From an economic standpoint, these
new engines significantly reduce fuel consumption, The KC-135 was the only airplane in the world specifically
thereby resulling in a direct payback; also they make the designed for the aerial tanker mission. During the paSt
airplanes better neighbors from the point of view of noise. 20 years the refueling requirement of the anned forces
KC·135As retrofitted with the CFM56 or the JT3D have more than doubled, thereby making the KC·135 an

.. With GE/SNECMA CFM56 engines installed,


the KC-135As are redesignated as KC13SRs.

The French Armee de l'Air C-135Fs are having


CFMS6 engines retrofi"ed and arc redesignated .-
as C13SFRs.

engines are redesignated as KC-135Rs or KC-135Es. extremely valuable national asset. Approximately 650 of
respectively. these tankers are in service currently and upgrading them
to meet these demands is economically prudent.
During the first seven months of 1982, a total of 18 special
purpose -135s were retrofined from the J57 to the TF33 SUMMARY
(militarized JT3D). Next in line were the KC·135As
assigned to the Air National GUlIJ"d and the Reserves. The The basic -13.5 airplane size. range and structure has
TF 33 engines came from retired high-time commercial proven 10 be extremely adaplable for meeting specific
Model 707jelliners. Conversion to the KC-135E mission requirements, hence the large variety identified on
configuration has resulted in an 18% increase in fuel the family tree. Yeoman service is perfonned on a daily
off-load capability. Parts taken from the retired 707s basis by the large neet of lankers whether they support
included the turbofan engines (including struts, cowls, and airplanes transiting their area or provide fuel for mass
thrust reversers). stabLilizers. Use of the series yaw damper deployments. It is expected that these airplanes will be in
pennitted operation of the autopilot system in all night service to tbe year 2010 or beyond.

22 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - A I R L I N E R / J U L · S E P 1986
DETECTORS

... .- .-
. :
~

~
~
"-
~

An exposed surface 1'iew of the smoke detector A hidden surface view of the smoke detector
showing the face plate and sensor. showing the case and bracket.

LAVATORY SMOKE DETECTORS

by
Brent Hamer, Engineer
Payloads Design, Centrol Engineen"ng
Boeing Commercial Airplane Company

he Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) installed. The lavatories arc unattended, closed from view

T conducted investigations of recent aircraft


cabin fires and an inspection survey of air carrier
fleets within the United States. FAA studies indicated that
by a door, and ventilated to eliminate odors (precluding
sensory smoke warnings), thus making them more sus-
ceplible to having undetected fires.
the lavatories should have smoke detection systems

AIRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23
As a result of these studies, the FAA has issued a new rule
requiring that each lavatory be equipped with a smoke
detection system. The final rule, Amendment 121-185 to
14 CFR Pan 121, has a compliance date of October 29,
1986. The new system must either provide a warning in
the Oight deck or a visual/aural warning to the passenger
cabin crew. The rule is intended to provide a means to
enhance the detection of lavatory fire by passengers or
flight attendants. The design concept for the lavatory
smoke detection system is summarized in this article.

Boeing established a task group to develop a design and


certification approach to comply with the new FAA rule
thaI would be common for all Boeing commercial
airplanes.

The task group conferred with detector suppliers and


prepared a technical work statement describing the This schematic shows the main features incorporated
requirements of a lavatory smoke detector for Boeing into the smoke detector system.
airplanes. The work statement allows for a detector based
on either the photoelectric or Ionization detection prin-
ciple that meets the requirements of Underwriters Labora-
tories Standard U.L. 217 and additional requirements • A recessed switch to interrupt the aural warning hom.
related to: environment, applied loads, electro-magnetic This switch is accessed by use of a readily available
interference, vibration, flammability, and fungus. The tool (such as a pencil or equivalent).
smoke detector would operate on nominal 28 VDC power
and when activated, produce an aural alert of 85 dBa at • Remote alann output. The hom would normally be
ten feet from the detector's integral born. The sound from deleted when using a remote alann.
the hom is to encompass two widely separated frequencies
to allow for hearing impaired persons. All components are • Self-test capability.
assembled within an envelope 7.0· x 4.0· x 2S. Space is
provided within the envelope for the foHowing features • Remote temperature sensor activation.
upon request:

The face plate, sensor unit


and case. The box, the
electronic circuitry and
alarm horn.

24------------------------ AIRLINER/JUL-SEP 1986


The detector is capable of being surface mounted in any
orienlation within the lavatory. In most cases, however,
a mounting bracket is used to recess the unit within the
wall or ceiling. Typical unit mountings are shown in
Figures 1,2, and 3. The unit is installed from inside the
lavatory such thaI removal is not obvious to the passenger.
The certification method is being coordinated with the
FAA.

Installation of the detectors in production airplanes is


scheduled to begin in July 1986.

Service Bulletins and retrofit kits will be provided upon


request. Each kil will include parts and an FAA approved
service bulletin with instructions for installalion.

Figure 1, Typical nush ceiling-mounted smoke


detector installation.

Figure 2. Typical flush sidewall-mounted Figure 3. Typical surface-mounted smoke


smoke detec:lor installation. detector installation.

AJRLlNER/JUL-SEP 1986 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 5

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