Introduction:

Communication is a process of sharing and conveying messages or information from one person
to another within and across channels, contexts, media, and cultures (McCornack, 2014). There
is a wide variety of contexts and situations in which communication can be manifested; it can be
a face-to-face interaction, a phone conversation, a group discussion, a meeting or interview, a
letter correspondence, a class recitation, and many others.

Nature of Communication
1. Communication is a process.
2. Communication occurs between two or more people (the speaker and the receiver).
3. Communication can be expressed through written or spoken words, actions (nonverbal),
or both spoken words and nonverbal actions at the same time.

Elements of Communication
Communication is divided into elements which help us better understand its mechanics or
process. These elements are the following:
1. Speaker – the source of information or message
2. Message – the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker in words or in
actions
3. Encoding – the process of converting the message into words, actions, or other forms
that the speaker understands
4. Channel – the medium or the means, such as personal or non-personal, verbal or
nonverbal, in which the encoded message is conveyed
5. Decoding – the process of interpreting the encoded message of the speaker by the
receiver
6. Receiver – the recipient of the message, or someone who decodes the message
7. Feedback – the reactions, responses, or information provided by the receiver
8. Context – the environment where communication takes place
9. Barrier – the factors that affect the flow of communication

Functions of Communication
Basically, there are five functions of communication. These are control, social interaction,
motivation, emotional expression, and information dissemination.
1. Control – Communication functions to control behavior.
2. Social Interaction – Communication allows individuals to interact with others.
3. Motivation – Communication motivates or encourages people to live better.
4. Emotional expression – Communication facilitates people’s expression of their feelings
and emotions.
5. Information dissemination – Communication functions to convey information.
Models of Communication Process
Elements of Communication Process
(Nordiquist, 2020)
1. The Sender
The communication process begins with the sender, who is also called the communicator
or source. The sender has some kind of information — a command, request, question, or
idea — that he or she wants to present to others. For that message to be received, the
sender must first encode the message in a form that can be understood, such as by the use
of a common language or industry jargon, and then transmit it.

2. The Receiver
The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the interpreter. To
comprehend the information from the sender, the receiver must first be able to receive the
sender's information and then decode or interpret it.

3. The Message
The message or content is the information that the sender wants to relay to the receiver.
Additional subtext can be conveyed through body language and tone of voice. Put all
three elements together — sender, receiver, and message — and you have the
communication process at its most basic.

4. The Medium
Also called the channel, the medium is the means by which a message is transmitted.
Text messages, for example, are transmitted through the medium of cell phones.

5. Feedback
The communication process reaches its final point when the message has been
successfully transmitted, received, and understood. The receiver, in turn, responds to the
sender, indicating comprehension. Feedback may be direct, such as a written or verbal
response, or it may take the form of an act or deed in response (indirect).

Other Factors
The communication process isn't always so simple or smooth, of course. These elements
can affect how information is transmitted, received, and interpreted:

1. Noise: This can be any sort of interference that affects the message being sent, received,
or understood. It can be as literal as static over a phone line or radio or as esoteric as
misinterpreting a local custom.

2. Context: This is the setting and situation in which communication takes place. Like
noise, context can have an impact on the successful exchange of information. It may have
a physical, social, or cultural aspect to it. In a private conversation with a trusted friend,
you would share more personal information or details about your weekend or vacation,
for example, than in a conversation with a work colleague or in a meeting.
Barriers to Communication
1. Noise - In the linguistic parlance ‘noise’ is referred to as interference or interruption.
Often an oral communication is impeded through interruption. If two persons are
interacting, third person comes and interrupt conversation; it is a barrier to
communication. If there is a telephone call which impedes been spoken to him. This kind
of barrier to communication is known as “noise” and this is the commonest barrier to
communication as it happens quite often.

2. Code - To ensure effective communication the addresser and the addressee must share
the same language. If the addressee speaks French and the addresser speaks English this
language barrier will affect the process of communication. Even if they share the same
language the level of difference in the competence in the use of language of the sender
and receiver may affect the smooth process of communication and may act as barrier to
communication. In the case of oral communication the accentual patterns of the sender
and the receiver may differ and may create barrier to communication.

3. Vocabulary - If the sender uses the subject specific vocabulary if may not be understood
by the receiver. If the speaker is a scientist and the listener knows nothing about science
the terminology used by the sender will not be understood by the receiver. This will act
as a barrier of communication.

4. Background - To make the communication effective and successful the sender and the
receiver must share common background and assumptions. Lack of common background
may make the comprehension of the message difficult and act as a barrier to
communication.

5. Cultural Differences - If the sender and the receiver do not share common culture the
use of culture specific vocabulary may impede the smooth process of communication and
may act as barrier to communication.

6. Environmental Disturbances - Environmental disturbances can impede communication.

Even physical distance between the sender and the receiver can harm the process of
communication.

7. The Emotional states - Effective communication may be affected by the emotional

states of the sender and the receiver. Mental state like anxiety, fear, lack of mutual trust
and rivalry may become barrier to communication.

In addition to general barriers to communication discussed above there are some sender specific
and receiver specific barriers, i.e. lapses on the part of the sender and lapses on the part of the
receiver which act as barrier to communication.

1. Barriers on the art of the sender and how to overcome them

A. If the message is not properly planned before its delivery, the transmission of the
message will not be smooth and it will lack clarity, precision and accuracy. The sender of
the message should plan his message ahead. He / She should be very clear in his / her
mind about the contents of the message and choose the right channel or medium of
communication.

B. Sometimes the sender assumes that the receiver will understand what has already been
conveyed. He / She assume that the receiver is supposed to know the background and
context of the matter. Depending on these assumptions he / she leave gaps in the
communication. These assumptions can become a barrier to communication. To
overcome this barrier while planning the message the sender should try to understand the
receiver’s background and his / her knowledge of the subject. He / She should use the
familiar terms and try to anticipate the problems likely to be faced by the receiver in
understanding and interpreting the message.

C. An English word has many different meanings. It is possible that the same word may
convey two different meanings to two different persons. If the sender and the receiver
assign different meanings to the word the message may be misunderstood. In such cases
it will be helpful if the sender chooses his / her words carefully keeping in mind the
problems that the receiver is likely to face. He / She may explain the meaning of
technical and unconventional words. He / She may even restate the main points to ensure
that the message has been correctly received.

D. If the sender lacks command over language and is unable to use appropriate and exact
words the message will not be correctly understood by the receiver. The sender is
expected to have complete command over language and he / she must choose his /her
words very carefully. In the case of oral communication there should be no
inconsistencies between verbal and non-verbal language. Facial expressions, gestures and
postures should be according to the verbal language.

E. In professional dealings feelings like hatred, indifference, jealousy and prejudices have
no place. While communicating the message the sender should take care that his / her
personal liking or disliking or moods do not affect the smooth run of the communication.

2. Barriers on the part of the receiver

A. The communication may not be received or understood correctly because of some lapses
at the receiver’s end. In the case of oral communication there may be disturbances caused
by the noise coming from a roaring bike or from the music being played during a
marriage professions. Such barriers to communication can be avoided if the receiver of
the communication receives the communication in a place list likely to be invaded by
such noises.

B. If the listener does not have the professional attitude towards his / her job or the
professional training He / She may become inattentive. He / She may not pay the
requisite attention to the communication due to boredom or because the subject is not of
 his / her interest. The kind of behaviour / conduct comes in the category of
unprofessionalism. A great manager / leader has to rise above all these factors and pay
due attention to whatever is being communicated to him / her.

C. Some receivers suffer from weaknesses like rigid beliefs and non-flexible approach. They
are not interested in new ideas. This is also a barrier to communication. The receiver of
the communication must rise above all these weaknesses and shows great maturity in
receiving and welcoming new ideas and information.

D. Where there is prejudice against the sender, where the receiver mistrusts the sender the
message is likely to get distorted. The receiver should have an open mind and a positive
attitude. When the receiver shows such attitude of trust and goodwill the communication
is successful.

Communication Styles
Direct Communication Style

As indicated in the communication style matrix, people with the direct communication style are
highly assertive and not expressive. They tend to tell others what to do instead of asking others
what they think should be done, and they will not easily show emotions in their communications
with others. Their communication style is meant to be expedient, though others may not always
see it that way. They may appear terse and cold to others, who might take their style of
communicating personally. Direct communicators will try to tell you as little as possible before
moving on to the next topic – not because they are trying to be evasive, but because they are
trying to save time. They won’t always stop to listen to others, even if the others have something
valuable to contribute. They may seem impatient and overbearing at times, but it’s not meant to
be personal. They are attempting to focus on results rather than emotions. They will speak their
minds, even if it could be off-putting to others. Don’t expect them to talk about their personal
lives – they like to keep business and personal issues separate. They don’t back down from
conflict, and at times could be seen as being aggressive rather than assertive in the way that they
express their opinions.

Tips for Communicating if You Have a Direct Communication Style

 Make an effort to listen fully to others and avoid interrupting

 Allow time for ‘chatting’ at the beginning of a meeting
 Recognize that others may feel the need to express their emotions about topics 
Recognize that brainstorming can be helpful and not just a ‘time waster’
 Try to communicate your expectations for how a meeting will go – the length of time, the
topics to be covered, and the expected results – before a meeting occurs
 Take the time to show your appreciation for others’ contributions
 Don’t use email for sensitive or complicated topics
 Allow time in your schedule for questions and feedback
People with direct communication styles are the ‘gogetters’ in the group. They will work hard
and fast and will brook few questions or distractions. These people need to use caution to avoid
appearing dictatorial or cold. If you are a direct style, you could probably use some practice with
listening skills.

Tips for Communicating with People with a Direct Communication Style

 Ask if they have time to talk before jumping in

 Get to the point quickly – don’t bore them with lots of background information
 Limit ‘chatting’ or conversation that is off-topic
 Use short, direct sentences
 Ask for a specific call to action or make a specific request
 Do not speak in the abstract
 Only promise what you are certain you can deliver
 Don’t give or ask for information about personal issues unless they initiate it
 Don’t sugar coat things – speak plainly

Spirited Communication Style

People with the spirited communication style are very interested in the ‘big picture’. They are the
dreamers, the inventors, and the innovators in the group. Their communication may be full of
grand ideas and hyperboles that tend to be very persuasive to others at first. However, they are
not always very good at discussing the details or the exact steps in the process. They will tend to
go off on tangents in their conversations, and like to interject anecdotes into their dialogues in
order to demonstrate or drive home a point. Keeping to an agenda is sometimes a challenge for
those with the spirited communication style since both time management and remaining focused
are challenges for this group. Their written or verbal communication may tend towards the
dramatic. While they can be very entertaining, getting them to communicate clearly on specific
topics may take the assistance of someone else to guide them through a conversation and keep
them on track by bringing them back to the subject at hand. People with the spirited
communication style love to flesh out ideas, brainstorm, and talk about the big picture – as long
as they get to do a lot of the talking! Spirited people can have a hard time nailing down the
details in their wonderful ideas. They may also have a hard time sticking to an agenda or to one
topic.

Tips for Communicating if You Have a Spirited Communication Style

 When considering new ideas to share, also consider whether or not you have suggestions
on how to put those ideas into action
 Respect agreed-upon agendas and time limits when in meetings
 Try to limit your sharing of personal anecdotes that take the group off-topic
 Make sure you are allowing others to contribute their ideas and suggestions – and that
you are listening
 Be certain any requests you make are clear and that you convey the reason for asking
 Communicate your appreciation for others’ work and input
Tips for Communicating with People Who Have a Spirited Communication Style

 Use an agenda with time limits listed for each topic

 Praise them in front of other people
 Learn to gently redirect the conversation back to the topic at hand
 Understand that they may exaggerate
 Challenge them to break down their ‘big ideas’ into specific outcomes and steps
 Reaffirm with them what they have agreed to do
 Use check-lists or other written reminders as a way to help communicate what needs to
be done Figure 13: Tips for

Systematic Communication Style

Those with a systematic communication style like to focus on facts and details rather than
opinions and possibilities. Expect to use and appreciate logic when you communicate with a
systematic. They will appreciate facts and analysis rather than the ‘big picture’ ideas that have
not yet been proved useful. They may be slower to respond to your communication, as they are
probably analyzing the situation and constructing a logical, well thought-out response. Charts,
graphs and trends are all useful tools for communicating with systematic as well. Those with a
systematic communication style are uncomfortable with expressing their feelings about things
and do not like conflict. They may tend to shut down communication rather than dealing with
emotional or confrontational situations. If you give them directions, you will need to be very
thorough and precise in relaying them. The more information you can give them, the happier
they will be – as long as the information is relevant to the current discussion or is relevant
background information.
People with a systematic communication style will focus on facts over opinions. Communication
with tangible evidence is best for systematic. They will likely be uncomfortable expressing
feelings and will tend to avoid confrontation.

Tips for Communicating if You Have a Systematic Communication Style

 Recognize that not everyone follows linear thought processes and decision-making
 Realize that for good working relationships, consideration for others’ feelings is
important
 Learn to ask qualifying questions that will help you get the information you need
 Ask others questions about themselves if you want to build rapport
 Make sure you understand the scope of a project so that you don’t waste time collecting
information that is not going to be needed
 If you need to ask for more time for analysis, be able to explain the benefit of the
information you are working on.

Tips for Communicating with People with a Systematic Communication Style

 Focus on the facts of the situation rather than individuals’ opinions

  Speak with precision and accuracy rather than generalizations
 Be organized, on time, and on topic when you communicate with them
 Give logical reasons for your actions and for what you ask of them
 Allow them time for research and analysis before decision-making
 Avoid personal topics unless they open the conversation

Considerate Communication Style

Those with the considerate communication style are very concerned about the feelings of others.
They want to please other people and to be included in their peer group. They like to work with
others, help others, and connect to others on a personal level. If there is conflict in your group,
they will be the ones to attempt to mediate it. They want everyone to have the chance to speak
their minds, have their turns, and receive recognition for their contribution. They are natural
trainers and counselors, and enjoy helping others to succeed. They will encourage group
collaboration and communication, though they are not always inclined to speak their own minds.
People with a considerate communication style will be very interested in listening and in finding
out how you and others are doing. They will want everyone to have a chance to speak, but might
refrain from expressing their own opinions if they think it will displease others. This is the major
communication challenge for those with the considerate personality style – they may be reluctant
to share an opposing opinion, even if it’s important information, because they are concerned
about keeping the peace and being liked. They are also inclined to take direct communication as
a personal matter. It’s difficult for them to separate other peoples’ opinions about a topic from
their opinions about them, and so may feel that an opposing opinion is due to not liking them.
There is also the possibility that they will be talked into something in order to preserve the peace
rather than standing their ground.

Tips for Communicating if You Have a Considerate Communication Style

 Recognize that other people’s opinions about a topic are separate from their opinions
about you
 Realize that not everyone is comfortable discussing personal topics with work colleagues;
allow others to open personal topics before asking questions
 Respect your own opinion as you respect others’ opinions
 Recognize that you don’t have to be friends with everyone, but you should treat others
and be treated professionally

Tips for Communicating with People Who Have a Considerate Communication Style

 When possible, reassure them that your opinions are not personal
 Express a sincere interest in their feelings, thoughts, and personal life
 Encourage them to ask questions and share their opinions
 Let them know that you appreciate their help
 Resolve any conflicts quickly

Spirited Style
When communicating with someone who is spirited, it might be hard to even pin them down for
communication in the first place. And once you have their attention, keeping it is another matter
entirely. You will find that consistency is important in communicating with people who are
spirited. If you can get them used to a particular format or method of communication, it will be
easier to keep them communicating. This doesn’t mean always choosing email or always
choosing telephone. But it does mean always using follow-up questions or checking in on a
regular basis to see if you are both still on the same page. Also remember that a person with a
spirited style may need more time to brainstorm and discuss ideas than the other communication
styles. If you want them to come to the table with decisions already made, be sure to get their
buy-in beforehand. Otherwise they may still find the need to discuss something that you already
felt was decided. Finally, you can go a long way towards relationship-building with a spirited
style person if you give them the opportunity to shine. Does your team need to make a
presentation? Let the spirited person know that you think they would be a good choice to lead.
Complimenting them in a public arena is a good choice as well.

When you need to communicate with a person who has the systematic communication style,
remember that facts are what to emphasize. Opinions are not going to be very effective. Use
logical, linear thinking and communicate in the same way. Step them through your thinking –
don’t jump ahead of any steps. It will save you time in the long run if you take the time to
explain your argument or thoughts through the first time. If you need a systematic to make a
decision, let data do the talking for you as much as possible. Have charts? Know some trends?
Have examples to show how something works? All of these can be useful in communicating
with a systematic person. If you are attempting to encourage a systematic to support an idea that
is not supported by the data, you will be in for a bit of a challenge. However, you can still get
their help if you can logically explain your position. Remember too that systematic types are not
prone to sharing personal information with work colleagues. You shouldn’t take this personally –
it’s simply what they prefer. Yet if they do broach a personal subject with you, you can usually
take it as a sign that they feel more comfortable with you than others.

The example of how not to communicate with a direct communication style person is a good
example of how not to communicate with someone of a systematic style as well. You could also
avoid phrases like:
 It’s my opinion that…
 I believe that…
 I feel that…

Instead, try using phrases like:

 The data shows that…
 The trends show that…
 The results of the test show…

To best communicate with someone who is a considerate communication style, remember that
the person’s feelings are going to be important. They will listen best when you make them feel as
if their feelings are important to you, their opinion is important to you, and that you value them
as a team member and a contributor. This doesn’t mean that you have to become very
emotionally expressive yourself, but showing in interest in them as an individual will go a long
way. Why not start your communication with an inquiry into how their child is doing, or how
their last vacation was? The small investment of your time can have a great return. If you have
something to communicate that will perhaps be perceived as a critical, you will need to tread
cautiously in order to be effective. Let the person know that you appreciate their work, and name
the aspects that you find valuable and good. Then note the changes that need to be made,
explaining the reason for the changes as much as you can. Smile, and use open body language to
let them know that there is nothing personal in what is being said. Whenever possible, use
requests instead of imperatives in discussing the needed changes. For considerate style people,
the example of used as how not to speak to a direct style person is actually a good one to use for
a considerate style. It builds to the point easily, it shows care for the other person, and it makes a
request in a friendly, personal manner.

Types of Speech Context

1. Intrapersonal – This refers to communication that centers on one person where the
speaker acts both as the sender and the receiver of message. “The message is made up of
your thoughts and feelings. The channel is your brain, which processes what you are
thinking and feeling. There is feedback in the sense that as you talk to yourself, you
discard certain ideas and replace them with others.” (Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p 16)

Examples:
• You spent the night thinking and analyzing why a student from the other class talked to
you on the way home and you decided it probably meant nothing.
• You felt happy while thinking about how your teacher appreciated you for submitting
your project before the due date and you reflected on why this was so.

2. Interpersonal – This refers to communication between and among people and

establishes personal relationship between and among them. Solomon and Theiss (2013)
state that “the inter part of the word highlights how interpersonal communication
connects people… when you engage in interpersonal communication, you and another
person become linked together…The personal part means that your unique qualities as a
person matter during interpersonal communication…”

Types of Interpersonal Context

A. Dyad Communication – communication that occurs between two people

Example:
• You offered feedback on the speech performance of your classmate.
• You provided comfort to a friend who was feeling down.

B. Small Group – This refers to communication that involves at least three but not more than
twelve people engaging in a face-to-face interaction to achieve a desired goal. In this type
of communication, all participants can freely share ideas in a loose and open discussion.

Example:
 • You are participating in an organizational meeting which aims to address the concerns
of your fellow students.
• You are having a discussion with your group mates on how to finish the assigned tasks.

3. Public – This type refers to communication that requires you to deliver or send the
message before or in front of a group. The message can be driven by informational or
persuasive purposes. “In public communication, unlike in interpersonal and small group,
the channels are more exaggerated. The voice is louder and the gestures are more
expansive because the audience is bigger. The speaker might use additional visual
channels such as slides or a Power Point presentation.” (Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p 19)

Example:
• You deliver a graduation speech to your batch.
• You participate in a declamation, oratorical, or debate contest watched by a number of
people.

4. Mass Communication – This refers to communication that takes place through television,
radio, newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, internet, and other types of media.

Example:
• You are a student journalist articulating your stand on current issues through the
school’s newspaper.

Types of Speech Style

The context dictates and affects the way people communicate, which results in various speech
styles. According to Joos (1968), there are five speech styles. Each style dictates what
appropriate language or vocabulary should be used or observed.

1. Intimate – This style is private, which occurs between or among close family members or
individuals. The language used in this style may not be shared in public.

2. Casual – This style is common among peers and friends. Jargon, slang, or the vernacular
language are used.

3. Consultative – This style is the standard one. Professional or mutually acceptable language is
a must in this style. Examples of situations are communication between teachers and
students, employers and employees, doctor and patient, judge and lawyer, or President and
his/her constituents.

4. Formal – This style is used in formal settings. Unlike the consultative style, this is one-way.
Examples are sermons by priests and ministers, State of the Nation Address of the President,
formal speeches, or pronouncements by judges.
5. Frozen – This style is “frozen” in time and remains unchanged. It mostly occurs in
ceremonies. Common examples are the Preamble to the Constitution, Lord’s Prayer, and
Allegiance to country or flag.

Speech Acts
A speech act is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an intended effect. Some of the
functions which are carried out using speech acts are offering an apology, greeting, request,
complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal. A speech act might contain just one word or
several words or sentences. For example, “Thanks” and “Thank you for always being there for
me. I really appreciate it” both show appreciation regardless of the length of the statement.

Three Types of Speech Act

According to J. L. Austin (1962), a philosopher of language and the developer of the Speech Act
Theory, there are three types of acts in every utterance, given the right circumstances or context.
These are:

1. Locutionary act is the actual act of uttering.

Example:
“Please do the dishes.”

2. Illocutionary act is the social function of what is said. By uttering the locution “Please do the
dishes,” the speaker requests the addressee to wash the dishes.

3. Perlocutionary act is the resulting act of what is said. This effect is based on the particular
context in which the speech act was mentioned. “Please do the dishes” would lead to the
addressee washing the dishes.

There are also indirect speech acts which occur when there is no direct connection between the
form of the utterance and the intended meaning. They are different in force (i.e., intention) from
the inferred speech act.

For example, read the following utterance.

“Can you pass the rice?”

Inferred speech act: Do you have the ability to hand over the rice?
Indirect speech act: Please pass the rice.

So while the utterance literally asks the addressee if he or she has the ability to hand a plate of
rice, it actually indirectly requests the addressee to pass the rice to the speaker.

Performatives
Austin also introduced the concept of performative utterances: statements which enable the
speaker to perform something just by stating it. In this manner, verbs that execute the speech act
that they intend to effect are called performatives. A performative utterance said by the right
person under the right circumstances results in a change in the world. Note that certain
conditions have to be met when making a performative utterance.

For example, the phrase “I now pronounce you husband and wife,” when uttered by an
authorized person such as a judge will have the actual effect of binding a couple in marriage.
However, if the same statement is uttered to the same couple in the same place by someone who
is not authorized to marry them—as in the case of the accompanying picture, a robot—then there
is no effect whatsoever because a condition was not met.

Searle’s Classifications of Speech Act

As a response to Austin’s Speech Act Theory, John Searle (1976), a professor from the
University of California, Berkeley, classified illocutionary acts into five distinct categories.

1. Assertive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses belief about the truth of
a proposition. Some examples of an assertive act are suggesting, putting forward, swearing,
boasting, and concluding.

Example:
No one makes better pancakes than I do.

2. Directive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker tries to make the addressee
perform an action. Some examples of a directive act are asking, ordering, requesting, inviting,
advising, and begging.

Example:
Please close the door.

3. Commissive – a type of illocutionary act which commits the speaker to doing something in
the future. Examples of a commissive act are promising, planning, vowing, and betting.

Example:
From now on, I will participate in our group activity.

4. Expressive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses his/her feelings or
emotional reactions. Some examples of an expressive act are thanking, apologizing,
welcoming, and deploring.

Example:
I am so sorry for not helping out in our group projects and letting you do all the work.

5. Declaration – a type of illocutionary act which brings a change in the external situation.
Simply put, declarations bring into existence or cause the state of affairs which they refer to.
Some examples of declarations are blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding, passing a sentence, and
excommunicating.
Example:
You are fired!

By saying that someone is fired, an employer causes or brings about the person’s unemployment,
thus changing his external situation.

Always keep in mind that speech acts include concrete life interactions that require the
appropriate use of language within a given culture. Communicative competence (i.e., the ability
to use linguistic knowledge to effectively communicate with others) is essential for a speaker to
be able to use and understand speech acts. Idioms and other nuances in a certain language might
be lost or misunderstood by someone who does not fully grasp the language yet.

Communicative Strategy
Since engaging in conversation is also bound by implicit rules, Cohen (1990) states that
strategies must be used to start and maintain a conversation. Knowing and applying grammar
appropriately is one of the most basic strategies to maintain a conversation. The following are
some strategies that people use when communicating.

1. Nomination
A speaker carries out nomination to collaboratively and productively establish a topic.
Basically, when you employ this strategy, you try to open a topic with the people you are
talking to. When beginning a topic in a conversation, especially if it does not arise from a
previous topic, you may start off with news inquiries and news announcements as they
promise extended talk. Most importantly, keep the conversational environment open for
opinions until the prior topic shuts down easily and initiates a smooth end. This could
efficiently signal the beginning of a new topic in the conversation.

2. Restriction
Restriction in communication refers to any limitation you may have as a speaker. When
communicating in the classroom, in a meeting, or while hanging out with your friends,
you are typically given specific instructions that you must follow. These instructions
confine you as a speaker and limit what you can say. For example, in your class, you
might be asked by your teacher to brainstorm on peer pressure or deliver a speech on
digital natives. In these cases, you cannot decide to talk about something else. On the
other hand, conversing with your friends during ordinary days can be far more casual
than these examples. Just the same, remember to always be on point and avoid
sideswiping from the topic during the conversation to avoid communication breakdown.

3. Turn-taking
Sometimes people are given unequal opportunities to talk because others take much time
during the conversation. Turn-taking pertains to the process by which people decide who
takes the conversational floor. There is a code of behavior behind establishing and
sustaining a productive conversation, but the primary idea is to give all communicators a
chance to speak. Remember to keep your words relevant and reasonably short enough to
express your views or feelings. Try to be polite even if you are trying to take the floor
 from another speaker. Do not hog the conversation and talk incessantly without letting
the other party air out their own ideas. To acknowledge others, you may employ visual
signals like a nod, a look, or a step back, and you could accompany these signals with
spoken cues such as “What do you think?” or “You wanted to say something?”

4. Topic Control
Topic control covers how procedural formality or informality affects the development of
topic in conversations. For example, in meetings, you may only have a turn to speak after
the chairperson directs you to do so. Contrast this with a casual conversation with friends
over lunch or coffee where you may take the conversational floor anytime. Remember
that regardless of the formality of the context, topic control is achieved cooperatively.
This only means that when a topic is initiated, it should be collectively developed by
avoiding unnecessary interruptions and topic shifts. You can make yourself actively
involved in the conversation without overly dominating it by using minimal responses
like “Yes,” “Okay,” “Go on”; asking tag questions to clarify information briefly like
“You are excited, aren’t you?”, “It was unexpected, wasn’t it?”; and even by laughing!

5. Topic Shifting
Topic shifting, as the name suggests, involves moving from one topic to another. In other
words, it is where one part of a conversation ends and where another begins. When
shifting from one topic to another, you have to be very intuitive. Make sure that the
previous topic was nurtured enough to generate adequate views. You may also use
effective conversational transitions to indicate a shift like “By the way,” “In addition to
what you said,” “Which reminds me of,” and the like.

6. Repair
Repair refers to how speakers address the problems in speaking, listening, and
comprehending that they may encounter in a conversation. For example, if everybody in
the conversation seems to talk at the same time, give way and appreciate other’s initiative
to set the conversation back to its topic. Repair is the self-righting mechanism in any
social interaction (Schegloff et al, 1977). If there is a problem in understanding the
conversation, speakers will always try to address and correct it. Although this is the case,
always seek to initiate the repair.

7. Termination
Termination refers to the conversation participants’ close-initiating expressions that end a
topic in a conversation. Most of the time, the topic initiator takes responsibility to signal
the end of the discussion as well. Although not all topics may have clear ends, try to
signal the end of the topic through concluding cues. You can do this by sharing what you
learned from the conversation. Aside from this, soliciting agreement from the other
participants usually completes the discussion of the topic meaningfully.