Solid Oxide Fuel Cell/Gas Turbine Hybrid APU

System for Aerospace Applications

Kaushik Rajashekara1 and James Grieve David Daggett
Delphi Corporation Boeing Commercial Airplanes
Kokomo, IN 46904 Seattle, WA. 98124

[1: Kaushik Rajashekara is presently with Rolls-Royce Corporation, Indianapolis, IN]]

Abstract: Traditionally, electric generators, driven by an Presently, electrical power is provided to the aircraft during
aircraft’s main propulsion engines or by a gas turbine the entire flight envelope by generators that are driven by the
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU,) have supplied the electrical core of the main propulsion engines. However, with the
needs of commercial aircraft. In flight, the marginal growing demands for electrical capacity on future aircraft,
efficiency of electric power generated by the main engines these generators would have to increase in size, which is
and their generators is at most 30 – 40%. While on the limited in today’s modern engines by the capability of the core
ground with the engines shut off, the average fuel efficiency and available space. Hence engines are having to be
of the turbine powered APU is typically less than 20% and redesigned to accommodate the large increase in electrical
also has undesirable noise and gaseous emissions. As power needs for the MEA. An improvement would be to
environmental concerns mount, aircraft manufacturers and replace these heavy generators with one or more highly
others are challenged to reduce fuel consumption while efficient and clean continuously operating Fuel Cell Auxiliary
simultaneously reducing emissions. Hence, there is very Power Units (FCAPU.) This could supply the aircraft with its
strong interest in developing fuel cells for aerospace electric demands on the ground and in flight. If one large
applications. This paper reports on the study results of FCAPU is used, the main engine driven generators could
using Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) in combination with a supply peak power and back-up power on a redundant, fail-
Gas Turbine (GT) as a hybrid APU system for a commercial safe basis. If several smaller FCAPUs were incorporated into
aircraft. The purpose of this feasibility study is to investigate the aircraft, this redundancy may enable the engine generators
the potential use of fuel cell based APUs for onboard power to be replaced entirely.
generation in future “more electric” commercial aircraft. In
this paper, the modeling of the major components of the With the efforts to move towards a more environmentally
SOFC-GT power generation system, summary of the sustainable aircraft design, a reduction of fossil fuel use is vital.
findings, challenges, and final recommendations are Consequently, feasible concepts that are more fuel efficient than
presented. the main engine generator (around 30-40%) and turbine
powered APU (15-20%) have to be found. One of these is the
I INTRODUCTION replacement and certification of the current conventional
turbine-powered APU into a full time fuel efficient, fuel cell
The application and the benefits of using Solid Oxide Fuel APU. In collaboration with NASA, Delphi and Boeing
Cell/Gas Turbine Hybrid Systems for stationary power conducted a feasibility study of developing a hybrid fuel cell
generation applications has been extensively investigated in APU for a large, 305 seat commercial aircraft. The aim of this
the literature and a few systems have been practically study was to investigate the potential of incorporating
demonstrated [1-8]. Recently, the use of these hybrid systems turbomachinery into Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) system to
are being investigated for transportation applications for on- create a fuel cell APU.
board power generation [9], particularly for aerospace
applications. The aerospace industry is facing similar The SOFC inherently produces three products: electricity,
environmental challenges as the automotive industry in terms syngas and heat. The high temperature exhaust of the SOFC is
of improving emissions, fuel economy, and cost [10-11]. used to drive the a gas turbine that in turn drives a centrifugal
Another similarity is the move towards replacing mechanical compressor, to supply compressed air for the system, and also
systems by electrical systems, thus transitioning towards a drives a high speed starter/ generator to supply additional
More Electric Architecture or Aircraft (MEA). Future aircraft electrical power, thus increasing the overall efficiency of the
will need to meet significantly lower emissions standards. In system. The system consists of a planar solid oxide fuel cell
addition, airport authorities are demanding further stack, fuel reformer, gas turbine (compressor, turbine and high
improvements in airplane environmental performance. speed generator) and balance of plant (heat exchangers, fuel

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1-4244-0365-0/06/$20.00 (c) 2006 IEEE
system, manifolding, control system, pressure vessel, insulating aerospace applications, the study results presented in this
enclosure etc.) paper focused on the development of a much higher power
density planar SOFC technology that optimized the system for
Both the SOFC and gas turbine operate more efficiently in a high efficiency and low weight. This has led to a system that
hybrid configuration than as separate cycles. One such is fuel cell dominant and to a fully endothermic reforming
analysis of the SOFC-Gas Turbine hybrid system for an process using as much waste heat from the SOFC as possible.
aircraft application is presented in [12-13]. For this study, a Also, the issues related to operating pressure, altitude, and
high level schematic of the SOFC/GT hybrid approach is water recovery are addressed in this paper.
shown in Figure 1. To make the SOFC/GT hybrid viable for

FUEL
EXHAUST

AIR
440 kW
540 V SOFC

Electric
Loads

POWER GENERATOR COMPRESSOR TURBINE

CONDITIONER
Figure 1: A simplified schematic of the SOFC/GT Hybrid Concept.

With this hybrid configuration as the basis, the optimal system System Weight Goal: <880 kg
architecture, operating temperatures, process conditions and the Fuel: Commercial jet fuel
ability to meet system goals for efficiency, weight and
packaging were investigated. The constraints of the The fuel cell stack output and the turbine generator output
interconnected processes and extremely demanding requirement together will provide 440 kW, high voltage DC, at the output
for system weight resulted in the system architecture moving of the fuel cell power conditioner. The required 230 VAC for
toward a certain operating regime for best efficiency. In this the electrical loads is also derived from the output of the
paper, the requirements of the hybrid fuel cell APU, high-level power conditioner unit as shown in Figure 2. The continuous
concepts of the SOFC-Gas Turbine architecture, operation of power generation requirements are:
the system, and simulation results are presented. A simulation ♦ Ground operation, Engines off: DC load is 330 kW
study was performed for various altitude levels. A summary of and AC load is 102 kW
the results of the study, recommendations, and conclusions are ♦ Engine Start: DC load is 310 kW and AC load is 108
also presented. kW
♦ In Flight Maximum, DC load is 388 kW and AC load
II SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS is 50 kW

The hybrid fuel cell APU design needed to meet the design The in-flight load under high altitude, cruise conditions is
requirements of future MEA architectures for long-range expected to be relatively constant because it is dominated by
aircraft, such as will be used on the Boeing 787. As this cabin pressurization require;ments. The ground operation
particular aircraft is still under development, a current 305- loads are more variable – with the benefit that SOFC systems
seat Boeing 777 study aircraft was used as the baseline. It have a much flatter efficiency profile at light load compared to
incorporated a MEA architecture design that was equipped gas turbines alone. One system requirement, which would
with an all-electrical environmental control system, which depend on the specific aircraft application, would be for the
consumes most of the electrical power. The FCAPU was APU to use either outside air or cabin exhaust air as the air
designed to achieve the following minimum goals for the 305 source for the system. For this study, the use of cabin air was
seat study aircraft: considered the normal operating condition, because this air
Design Power Output: 440 kW source is already compressed, has higher temperature and
Peak System Power Output: 438kW (in flight) humidity, and as will be seen, leads to a higher system fuel
432kW (on ground) efficiency. The use of outside air was also studied as an
Lifetime: 40,000 hours option.

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 Boost Converter.
540 V DC
DC/DC 270 V DC
Converter
SOFC

DC/AC 230 V ac
Inverter

Turbine-
DC/AC
Generator 115 V ac
Inverter

PWM Rectifier
Figure 2: Power Conversion System of the Hybrid Fuel Cell/Turbine System

III DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM temperature of 650 °C to a maximum of about 850 °C inside
the fuel cell. The hot air exiting from the stack then enters a
The system architecture of the proposed hybrid fuel cell APU catalytic combustor where it reacts with unutilized fuel to
is shown in Figure 3. Starting with the airflow through the bring the temperature to about 1200 °C. This hot gas is used
system, air is supplied by either using cabin exhaust flow or to drive the reforming, gas turbine and heat exchanger
taking the air directly from outside the aircraft. Inlet air is processes for the system. The turbine drives the compressor
further compressed by the turbo-machinery compressor and via a common shaft. This common shaft also drives a high
directed through the external heat exchanger where it is heated speed starter/generator, which converts surplus shaft power
by the exhaust of the gas turbine unit. In certain situations, if into electricity. The turbine exhaust, still having a high
the air is not warm enough, further warming of the air in an temperature of about 800 °C, passes through the external heat
internal heat exchanger is necessary to increase SOFC stack exchanger providing heat energy for the compressed inlet air.
efficiency and to avoid thermal stress in the stack. Air
entering the SOFC stack is heated up from the entry

Reformer
Fuel
Reformate

Anode
Combustor
DC Cathode
To Aircraft Loads

440 KW Water
540 V
CAHx Condenser

Power
Conditioner

Water
Reservoir

AC
Starter/
Turbine Compressor
Generator

Cabin Air

Figure 3: Hybrid APU System

On the fuel side, fuel is introduced into the reformer via an dioxide. The chemical reaction between the fuel and oxygen
external fuel heat exchanger, heated by the same hot gas takes place in the SOFC at an average electrolyte temperature
exhaust. After reformation, the generated reformate of about 800°C.
(containing H2 and CO) is passed through the anode, where it
reacts with Oxygen ions (O-2) to produce water and carbon

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The cabin air configuration takes advantage of the higher Temperature rise across the compressor
pressure, temperature, and humidity of the air being exhausted Tinc ( Pr
( γ −1) / γ
− 1)
from the cabin outflow valve. The cabin air outlet pressure ∆TC =
condition at the highest aircraft cruise altitude is assumed η adia
equivalent to those at 8,000 feet. For the outside air source The compressor power is given by:
case, the compressor needs to be sized to further compress the PC = C p .∆TC .m c
ambient air. For all altitudes, turbine exhaust is expanded to The temperature drop across the turbine is:
outside air pressure. The turbine and compressor are assumed (1− γ)/γ
to be capable of operating at different pressure ratios. The ∆TG = Ting .(1 − p r ).ηadia
adiabatic efficiencies of the turbine and compressor were The turbine power is given by:
assumed to be constant. PG = C p .∆TC .m g

IV MODELING AND SIMULATION Power output from the turbine generator =

(Turbine power – Compressor power)*(Combined efficiency
The modeling objective was to evaluate various operating of generator and PWM converter)
conditions and its affect on the performance and ultimate
design of the fuel cel APU. To do this, it was necessary to Total output power = Power from the fuel cell system + Power
evaluate the sensitivity to the reforming process, the stack from Turbine generator
operating temperature/pressure, the cooling strategy
(temperature differential), and water recovery. Multiple The parameters are:
concepts were developed for the system to predict E: Voltage of the fuel cell (V)
performance as a function of airplane altitude and stack Er: Reversible open circuit voltage (V)
temperature. From this, requirements for the stack, reformer, E0: EMFat standard pressure (V)
turbo-machinery, heat exchangers, and other principle T; SOFC Temperature (K)
components were developed. n: Number of electrons transferred per mole of reactant
α: Empirically derived charge transfer coefficient
Numerous assumptions were necessary to facilitate the F: Faraday constant (96485 Coulombs))
modeling process. Chemical reactions are assumed to reach i: Curent density (mA/Cm2)
equilibrium in the reformer, combustor, and SOFC anode. in: Internal current density (mA/Cm2)
The system and components are assumed to be adiabatic with io: Exchange current density (mA/Cm2)
heat transfer only through idealized heat exchangers. iL: Limiting current density (mA/Cm2)
Idealized compressor and turbine components are assumed. r: Total internal specific resistance (kW.Cm2)
Fuel was assumed to be n-dodecane, which is similar to Jet-A Pr: Compressor pressure ratio
fuel. pr: Turbine expansion ratio
Tinc.: Temperature of the input gases to compressor
For an SOFC with known partial pressures of reactant and Ting.: Temperature of the input gases to the turbine
products, the reversible cell potential can be calculated from Cp:Specific heat at constant pressure
the Nernst equation: γ: Ratio of the specific heat capacities of the gas
1/2
− ∆G o RT p H 2 p O 2
E r = E o + ∆E == + ln Several concepts were evaluated in order to meet the
nF nF p H 2O
performance requirements. An iterative optimization process
Considering the irreversible losses, the actual voltage of the was utilized to converge on the most promising FCAPU
fuel cell is: concepts. Only those that best met the requirements are
presented for consideration. Concepts were evaluated at a
E = E r − (V Act + VOhm + VConc ) variety of operating conditions:
RT i + in • Altitude (sea level, 8,000, 35,000 and 42,000 ft)
VActivation = ln[ ] • Inlet air (cabin and outside)
nα F i
o • Variation of air and fuel re-circulation
RT i + in
VConcentration = − ln[1 − ] • Variation of air and fuel utilization
nF iL • Different stack pressure values
VOhmic = r * (i + i n ) • Change in operating stack temperatures
• Variation in compressor pressure ratios
• Variation in turbine expansion ratios
r = ΣrComponent
The results of one simulation corresponding to an altitude of
35,000 ft is shown in Figure 4. At each node, corresponding
to the input/output of the different component blocks, the

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temperature, pressure, and the mass flow rates are evaluated cases used the same fuel cell stack area. The effect of
and the system operating conditions are balanced. pressure on the stack was first investigated and the results are
shown in Figure 5 [14]. At higher pressures, the stack output
voltage increases thus increasing the total efficiency. An
V ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS increase in pressure from one to three atmospheres, at the
same current density, increases the output voltage by about
Using an iterative modeling process, while optimizing for 7% or power density by about 20%. The compressor power
weight and volume, yielded 250,000 cm2 as the best required to raise the stack pressure needs to be balanced
compromise for stack active area. The analysis for all the against the anticipated efficiency gains.

Figure 4: SOFC-Turbine Hybrid System parameters at various nodes at an altitude of 35,000 ft.

Figure 5: Effect of Pressure on the Stack Performance

Due to the recovery of the cabin pressurization work, it Concept 4 uses an auto-thermal process and has similar
follows designs using cabin exhaust air had higher efficiency system efficiency as Concept 1. Concept 2 uses an
at altitude. The system efficiency for these concepts, at endothermic process that is optimized for stack cooling had
different cruise altitudes, is shown in Table 1. Concept 1 was much improved fuel efficiency. Concept 3 is the same as
the baseline endothermic design as was illustrated in Figure 2.

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Concept 2, but has a higher stack temperature which results in Case #3. Higher power density and system efficiency was
a further increase in system efficiency. obtained at higher stack temperature – but this was not
selected because of uncertainty of reaching this temperature
Table 1: System Efficiency for different concepts and altitudes level with seal and interconnects materials. Even 850º C is a
Concept Sea Level 8000 ft 35000 ft 42000 ft stretch in technology for metal interconnect planar SOFC
1 52.9% 53.2% 62.1% 66.6% technology.
2 60.6% 63.1% 72.5% 73.0%
3 67.3% 69.7% 77.6% 79.0%
4 51.6% 54.7% 65.6% 66.2%
The study assumed that Jet–A fuel would be available with a
maximum sulfur content of 1,000 ppmw. In the event a
sulfur-tolerant SOFC does not materialize, or future jet fuel
To recover the water from the exhaust, it must be cooled to sulfur levels do not decline, a fuel sulfur removal system
well below the dew point. We chose to model 4°C as the final would then be needed. Such a system was evaluated for this
exhaust temperature. Water recovery at low altitudes study. However, the size of the sulfur removal system was
(including sea level) is not possible except under winter (cold calculated to be more than 500 kg with a 1,000 hour service
ambient) conditions. This is not a major issue, because water interval. As this weight approaches that of the entire fuel cell
recovery at sea level may not be of any importance. The APU, and the maintenance interval is much too frequent for
amount of water recovered decreases at higher altitudes. This commercial operators, such system penalties are clearly
is because the increased system efficiency results in reduced unacceptable. Hence the weight of the fixed-bed sulfur
fuel consumption and ultimately lower exhaust levels removal system was not included in the weight budget for the
available for water recovery. In addition, a lower dew point SOFC hybrid APU. Similarly, it was recognized that
exists at high altitudes (due to low pressure). Innovation is innovation was required to efficiently recover water from the
required to enhance water recovery, especially at altitude exhaust. High system weight and parasitic drag on the aircraft
conditions if, in the end, this is required. resulted in abandonment of water recovery concepts.

Based on the results, an endothermic reformer, 95% recycle, Several concepts for packaging the unit in the tail end of the
and 850 C stack exit temperature appeared to meet the target aircraft were investigated. The design concepts slightly
efficiency but required relatively large heat exchangers for the exceeded the desired mass target, but the designs did meet the
cathode air preheat and exhaust condenser. volume targets and were able to be packaged in the aircraft’s
tailcone as shown in Figure 6. With further advances in
The system designs were further optimized for all altitudes technology, it appears to be possible to meet both the weight
using cabin air and outside air cases – with an effort to and volume targets by the 2015 timeframe.
minimize heat exchanger size/weight and to keep the heat
exchanger performance consistent at the different altitudes. VI SUMMARY
Results indicate that for the cabin air case at high altitude
conditions, the system efficiency is extremely high. The Based on model simulations, the following observations were
lower outside air pressure at higher altitudes results in higher made.
power recovery turbine expansion ratios that increase turbo- (1) In order to obtain higher efficiency and reduced size, it is
machinery performance. This allows the fuel cell power to be better to operate the stack at relatively high temperatures on
reduced and allows the fuel cell to run at a more efficient the order of 850°C – 880 °C.
operating point. Hence, the overall system efficiency (2) Operating the stack with extremely high anode recycle had
increases at higher altitudes, particularly when using cabin air. a number of system benefits, which we believe make the high
Also for the cabin air cases at high altitude, the pressure ratio stack temperature critical.
for the turbine is at a much higher value than for the (3) Operating the stack at higher pressures of up to 3 atm. will
compressor. This is due to the difference between the input improve the efficiency or power density. However, higher
pressure to the compressor and the output pressure of the pressure will result in other challenges such as mechanical
turbine. For this reason, system pressure was reduced at requirements for the SOFC stack pressure vessel, diminishing
higher altitudes to keep the turbine expansion ratio at system efficiency returns due to the increased power needed to
reasonable levels, and to be compatible with the compressor drive the compressor.
pressure ratios. (4) Endothermic reforming provides higher efficiency and
improves the overall performance. Innovations are required to
System performances were calculated at sea level, 8000, make this function robust – especially for jet and diesel fuels.
35000, and 42000 feet with consistent criteria for stack, (5) Higher fuel utilization results in higher system efficiency –
combustor, and heat exchanger. At sea level and 8000 feet, but this is limited in practice by stack voltage (which affects
the outside and cabin air cases are assumed to offer the same stack efficiency and cooling) and heat exchanger size (which
performance because both cases have very similar inlet air tends to increase at higher utilization – because inadequate
pressures. A stack exit temperature of 850°C was used for energy is available in the exhaust for reformer, turbine and
three of the four cabin air cases, while 880°C was used for heat exchanger requirements).

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(6) Compact, counterflow heat exchangers have the ability to is the requirement to make large (approximately 25 x 25 cm)
meet system requirements at very low size and weight cells and long (100 or more cell) stacks with power density of
compared to industrial heat exchangers. > 1.0 W/cm2.
(7) In order to reduce the size and weight of the heat
exchangers, alternative materials such as Titanium alloys may Subsequent analysis has suggested that, for the fuel cell
be considered. manufacturer, designing a modular fuel cell system of a
(8) Water recovery appears to be viable and is a highly desired common size for use in all aircraft is necessary in order to
by-product of the system on the aircraft. But new approaches decrease development costs and increase production volume
need to be developed to improve recovery at altitude and [5]. Small aircraft would use fewer of these common modules
minimize parasitic losses. while larger sized aircraft would use more modules.

Air Inlet This study identified the need for a large decrease in system
weight as compared to industrial SOFC units, that appears to
Air Filter be entirely feasible. There is also a need to develop SOFC
(noise suppressor?) stacks that can tolerate fuel-borne sulfur, something that is
more daunting. However, developing such a premium concept
would enable an extremely attractive package that could
benefit other sectors. It could be competitive with gasoline and
Exhaust Jet diesel internal combustion engines as well as miniturbines in
size, footprint, cost, noise, emissions and modularity. Other
premium applications may include: military aerospace, heavy
vehicle, and transportable power applications. High volume
applications that could also benefit include; distributed power
Heat Exchanger
generation, industrial scale cogeneration and heavy-duty
Fuel Cell in a Pressure
Compressor
transportation (truck/bus, rail, marine) such as larger hybrid
vessel
Turbine electric vehicles.

Figure 6: Typical packaging concept, using outside air, at the It is expected that the hybrid SOFC/GT systems will be
tail end of the airplane. competitive in the 100 kW – 10 MW size range. It is also
possible that pressurized systems will be developed in the 10 –
(9) It is possible to package the entire system in the given 100 kW range with microturbines, scroll expanders, steam and
volume, and the weight requirement also looks possible – but organic rankine cycle bottoming cycles etc. In all cases, the
only with aggressive improvements in stack and reformer combined cycle approach offers a large increase in system
performance. efficiency, faster start-up time, and improved thermal
integration.
(10) Considerable R&D gaps remain to develop the
technology, materials, system integration and controls and ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
packaging to make this concept feasible in the 2015 time
frame. The authors wish to thank James Walker and Anita Liang
from NASA Glenn Research Center for their support that
(11) A clear trade-off between system efficiency and system made this study possible.
weight was found. It will be possible to trade off efficiency
for system weight in the aircraft application and to seek even REFERENCES
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