PHYSICS 11 STUDY GUIDE

Mathematical Toolkit
Metric system: units of different sizes are related by powers of ten
Standard units: time  second (s)

Length Metre (m)

Mass  kilogram (kg)

Derived units: combination of the standard units (i.e. m/s)

Scientific Notation is used to express very large or very small quantities in a shortened form.

Big Number  Positive Exponent

Small Number Negative Exponent

Ex. 302145000 kg  3.02 x 108

0.0000006081 N  6.08 x 10-7

Prefixes used with SI units ( Used to change SI units by towers of ten)

- micro-
- milli-
- Centi-
- deci-
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Precision and Accuracy

These two words are often used together but mean different things and cannot be used interchangeably

Accuracy:

- a measure of how close to reality (the standard value) a measurement is.

- how well the result agrees with the accepted values
- No such thing as perfectly accurate measurement

Precision:

- The degree of exactness in which the measurement of a quantity can be reproduced

- It is indicated by the number of significant digits in the written value

Significant Figures:
 - The precision of measuring devices is limited, thus the number of digits that are
valid for any measurement is also limited
- The valid digits are called significant
- Rules:

1. No zero digits are always significant (i.e. 562  3 S.F.)

2. Any zeros between two significant figures are significant (i.e. 7004 4 S.F.)

3. A final zero on trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY are significant (i.e.
1.890  4 S.F., 23.890000  8 S.F., 201.3040 7 S.F. )

4. Preceding zeros before the first number are NOT significant. (i.e. 0.0083  2
S.F., 0.0080340  5 S.F. )

5. Zeros before the decimal but after the number ARE significant. (i.e. 50.0  #
S.F., 200  1 S.F. )

Kinematics
- Science of describing the motion of objects using words, diagrams, numbers, graphs,
and equations.

Time, Distance and Speed (Scalor)

- Time: Refers to the time interval that has elapsed while recording in an object’s
motion
- Distance: refers to how much “ground and objects has covered in a given amount of
time
- Speed: Refers to “ how fast an object is moving” (i.e. a fast moving object has a high
speed; slow- moving object has a low speeds; an object with no movement has no
speed)
- Speed is calculated by finding distance per unit time
distance
speed=
time

Instantaneous Speed vs. Average Speed

- Instantaneous speed: the speed at any one instant; a “snapshot”

- Average Speed: defined as “ the total distance covered divided by the time to cover
that distance”

Formula for average speed:

 total distance
average speed =
total time

∆d
average speed =
∆t

d = df-di = d-d

Scalars vs. Vectors

- Scalars: quantities which are fully described by a magnitude alone

Examples: time, distance, speed, energy
- Vectors: quantities which are fully described by both a magnitude AND a direction
Examples: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum

Distance vs. Displacement

- Distance is a scalar. Its vector counterpart is displacement

- Displacement is a vector quantity which refers to an object’s change in position.

Speed vs. Velocity

- Recall that speed is measured as distance per unit time. Its vector counterpart is
velocity.
- Velocity is a vector quantity which refers to “the rate at which an object changes its
position”
_
d ∆d ∆d
v= v= v av
t ∆t ∆t

Note: Although direction can be described in terms of left and right, it will be more convenient for us to
use plus (+) and minus (-) signs

- Positive (+) directions are to the right of the reference point

- Negative (-) directions are to the left of the reference point

Acceleration

- Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes

- The sign of acceleration indicates how the velocity is changing NOT the direction of
movement
- Acceleration tells us how many metres per second the velocity changes in each
second.
 Example: A car is driving in a perfectly circular path. The speedometer never changes
from reading 60 km/h. Is the object accelerating?

YES, velocity (direction of velocity) is changing

Freefall

- Affect on gravity is the same for all objects (in a vacuum)

- Gravity causes the objects to accelerate towards the centre of the Earth
(downwards)
- Acceleration due to gravity is given the symbol g
- g= -9.80 m/s2 (Assume up is positive)
- In reality, effect on gravity lessens as one moves further from the earth.
- Air resistance would oppose the pull of gravity and would eventually balance
terminal velocity

Ex.a tennis ball is thrown straight up with a initial velocity of 22.5 m/s. It is caught at the
same distance above the ground from which it is thrown.

A) How high does the ball rise?

vf2=vi2+ 2ad  d=vf2- vi2/2a d= 0-22.5/2(-9.8) = 25.8

B) How long does the ball remain in the air?

Graphs
1. Objects A, B, D, and E are maintaining a state of motion (i.e., remaining with constant velocity) as
demonstrated by the constant slope. If the slope is constant, then the velocity is constant.

2. Object C is accelerating. An acclerating object has a changing velocity. Since the slope of a p-t graph
equals the velocity, an accelerating object is represented by a changing slope.

3. Objects A and E are not moving. An object which is not moving has a zero velocity; this translates into
a line with zero slope on a p-t graph.

4. None of these objects change direction. An object changes its direction if it changes from a + to a -
velocity (or vice versa). This translates into a p-t graph with a + slope and then a - slope (or vice versa).

5. Object B is traveling fastest. To be traveling fastest is to have the greatest speed (or greatest
magnitude of velocity). This translates into the line on a p-t graph with the greatest slope.

6. Object D is traveling slowest. To be traveling slowest is to have the smallest speed (or smallest
magnitude of velocity). This translates into the line on a p-t graph with the smallest slope.

7. Object C has the greatest acceleration. It is the only object with acceleration. Accelerated motion on a
p-t graph is represented by a curved line

8. Objects A and E are maintaining their state of motion. To maintain the state of motion is to keep a
constant velocity (i.e., to have a zero acceleration). This translates into a zero slope on a v-t graph.

9. Objects B and C are accelerating (and for a while, object D). Accelerated motion is indicated by a
sloped line on a v-t graph.

10. Each of the objects are moving. If an object were not moving, then the v-t graph would be a
horizontal line along the axis (v = 0 m/s).

11. Objects B and C change their direction. An object that is changing its direction is changing from a +
to a - velocity. Thus, the line on a v-t graph will pass from the + to the - region of the graph. Object D is
not changing its direction; object D first moves in the - direction with increasing speed and then
maintains a constant speed.
12. Object B has the smallest acceleration. Acceleration is indicated by the slope of the line. The object
with the smallest acceleration is the object with the smallest slope.

13. Object A has the greatest velocity (and object E is a "close second"). The velocity is indicated by how
far above or how far below the axis the line is. Object A has a large + velocity. Object E has a large (but
not as large) – velocity

Dynamics
Dynamics is the study of why objects move as they do.
Force: an interaction between two (material) objects involving a push or a pull
Forces are vectors have magnitude and direction
Four kinds of forces

- Gravitational attractive force that exists between all objects

- Electromagnetic force due to electric charge (static and moving)
- Strong nuclear  force that holds the particles in the nucleus together
- Weak nuclear- force involved in the radioactive decay of some nuclei

Newton’s Laws of Motion explain why objects move

Consider:

- A car suddenly stops and you strain against the seat belt
- When riding a horse, the horse suddenly stops and you fly over its hear
- The magician pulls the tablecloth our from under a table full of dishes

Newton’s First Law of motion

- An object with no force acting on it moves with constant velocity

- Objects at rest tend to stay at rest and objects in motion tend to stay in motion
- More formally  an object with no net force acting on it remains at rest or moves
with constant velocity in a straight line.
- Net force: the vector sum of all of the forces that push or pull on an object.
- No net force on an object means: either there are no net forces on the object, or the
forces that push or pull the object cancel exactly.
- Inertia: property of matter which causes objects to resist acceleration

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

- The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the net force on it and

inversely proportional to its mass
- If there is a net force on an object, the object accelerates
- The object’s acceleration is in the same direction as the net force
- Mass measures the inertia of an object
 - Objects with more mass have more inertia
- Mass is a SCALOR quantity – stays the same no matter where you are
- Unit of force: a force that causes a mass of one kilogram to accelerate at a rate of
one meter per second squared is defined as one newton (N). That is
- F=ma = (1.00kg)(1.00m/s2) = 1.00 N
- Mass is not the mass as weight
- Weight is a force- an interaction between 2 objects involving a push or a pull(very
big, the Earth or Moon)
- Weight is not a property of an object

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

- When one object exerts a force on a second object, the second exerts a force on the
first that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
- For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction ( equal in size and time,
opposite in direction)
- These two forces are often called action-reaction forces
- Forces always occur in pairs
- Since a force is an interaction between objects, two objects are involved in every
force.
-

Free Body Diagram

Friction: Force (Ff) that opposes the motion between two surfaces
that are in contact.

- Direction of the frictional force is parallel to the surface and

will be in the opposite direction of the motion of the object.
Static Friction: force that opposes the start of motion (if two
objects are not relative motion)  has max. value
Sliding/Kinetic Force: force between surfaces in relative
motion ( force that resists an object already in motion)
Sliding friction<static friction

Example: Box on Carpet

How large is the force of sliding friction? To keep an object moving at a constant velocity you must exert
a constant force that is just the same as the frictional force, but in the opposite direction.
Applied Force: By measuring the applied force, F A, we can find out the force of friction.

Ff= μ Fn μ is always less than 1

Coefficient of Friction ( μ): constant that depends on the two services in contact
- Steel on Steel f = 0,0005m
 - Wood on Steel f = 0,0012m
- Wood on Wood f = 0,0015m
- Iron on iron f = 0,00051m
- Iron on granite f = 0,0021m
- Iron on Wood f = 0,0056m
- Polymer on steel f = 0,002m
- Hardrubber on Steel f = 0,0077m
- Hardrubber on Concrete f = 0,01 -0,02m
- Rubber on Concrete f = 0,015 -0,035m

Normal Force (Fn) the force pushing the surfaces together (normal means perpendicular)

-for an object that is on a level surface the normal force is equal to the force of gravity.

Note: Ff is neither dependent on the surface area of the object in contact with the other surface, not the
velocity of the object.

Impulse
- Stopping an object with momentum  necessary to apply a FORCE against its motion for a given
period of time
- Object with more momentum requires a greater amount of force or a longer amount of time or
both to bring such an object to a halt
- An unbalanced force always accelerates an object – either speeding it up or slowing it down
- An unbalanced force will change the velocity of an object  then the momentum of an object is
changed
Ft=p
Ft=impulse

- The affect of collision time upon the amount of force an object experiences
- The affect of rebounding upon the velocity change and hence the amount of force an object
experiences

Examples:
1) How are airbags advantageous to you in a collision? They increase the amount of time the force act
on you in the vehicle.

Windshield p=Ftshort time, therefore large force

airbag p=Ftlong time, therefore smaller force

2) You are sitting at a baseball game when a foul ball comes in your direction. You prepare to catch it
barehanded. In order to catch it safely, how should you move your hands and why?
You should move your hands in the same direction the ball is traveling to increase the time of collision,
therefore reducing the force.

3) An archer shoots arrows at a targe. Some arrows stick in the target while others bounce off. Assuming
the mass and velocity are the same, which arrows strike the target with more force?

If they stop: p = m( vf-vi)

p=mvi

If they bounce: p= m(vf-vi)

p=2mvi
Therefore, when they bounce, Force is larger.

4) In racket and bat sports, why are hitters often encouraged to follow through when striking a ball?

In force and initial velocity remain constant, then increasing change in time means final velocity
increases as well.

m( vf-vi)= Ft

5) Is it possible for an object to obtain a larger impulse from a smaller force than it does from a larger
force? How?
Yes, if the smaller forces acts for a long enough time, it can provide a larger impulse.

6) Why are cars made with bumpers that can be pushed in during a crash?

In order to increase the time of collision, reducing the force

7) Two soccer players come from opposite directions. They leap in the air to try and hit the ball, but
collide with eachother instead, coming to rest in midair. What can you say about their original
momenta?

P=0, their initial momentum were equal and opposite

8) Two trucks that look the same collide. One was initially at rest. The turcks stick together and move off
at more than half the original speed of the moving truck. What can you say about the mass of each
truck?
At half the final speed, 2 trucks would have equal masses, at MORE THAN HALF original speed, moving
truck has more massive load.

9) Two bullets of equal mass are shot at equal speeds at blocks of wood on a smooth ice rink. One bullet,
made of rubber, bounces off the wood. The other bullet, made of aluminum, burrows into the wood.
Which bullet makes the wood move faster? Why?

p is conserved, therefore momentum of block and bullet after collision equals p of bullet before. Bullet
has negative p after impact, so the blocks P must be greater.

10) Which collision presents a greater danger to the passengers involved: 1) two cars collide and remain
entangled, or 2) the same two cars colliding and rebounding off eachother? Explain.

Rebounding presents greater danger because it requires greater p and therefore greater impulse.

Law of Conservation of Momentum

- The momentum of any closed(objects neither enter nor leave it), isolated(no net external force
exerted on it) system (any specified collection of objects) does not change.
- In any collision, net momentum before collision = net momentum after collision
- Momentum is a vector force

This is written as:

m1v1 + m2v2 = m1v1’ + m2v2’

Elastic Collision: when objects do not stick together in a collision

Inelastic Collision: when objects stick together

' 2 m1 v 1
Derived from m1v1 + m2v2 = m1v1’ + m2v2’ v 2=
m1 +m2

Derived from KE1 + KE2= KE1’ + KE2’

m 1−m 2
v1 '= ( ) v
m 1 +m 2 1

Work
- Energyis what makes things move.
- An object has energy if it can produce a change in itself or its surroundings
- To have energy is the capacity to do work
 - Work is a scalar quantity
- In phsics and Science in general, work is said to be done only when a force moves an object some
distance
- In other words, the amount of work you do depends on two things
1) The amount of force exerted on an object
2) the distance object has moved in the direction of the force

W= Fd

Force vs. Displacement Graphs

A 5.0-kg mass is pushed along a straight line

by a net force described in the graph
below. The object is at rest at t = 0 and x =
0.

The area under the curve of a force-

displacement graph represents the total
work done.

Work and Direction of Froce

- When the force exerted on an object

is perpendicular to the motion of the object  no work is done
- However id the force exerted is at an angle to the resulting motion of the object, you have to take
the component of force that is in the same direction of motion to calculate the work
- Work is done an object only when the object moves in the direction of the applied force.
- Imagine a box being lifted, then lowered.
-When you lift a box, energy is being transferred from you to the box, therefore work is
positive.

-when you lower the box, energy is transferred from the box to you, therefore work is negative

Energy:
- the ability to do work ( i.e. the ability to change an object or its environment. )
- moving objects (i.e roller coaster, ball) have energy of motion  kinetic energy (KE)
- static object (i.e. book on shelf, child on slide) could cause an object to change potential energy
(PE)
- work is the transfer of energy by mechanical means

Kinetic Energy is directly proportional to mass and velocity 2

 1
KE= m v2 Kinetic Energy is measured in Joules (J)
2

How to increase KE? Exert greater force, exert force over larger distance.

Wnet=KEf-KEi=KE Work Energy Theoremthe net work done on an object is equal to its change in
KE.

Wnet is positive  KE is increasing  net force is in the same direction as motion

Wnet is negative KE is decreasing net force is in the opposite direction of motion

Potential Energy

Ex: Throwing a ball in the air

WAY UP

- speed decreases because of the downward force of Earth’s gravity

- work done is negative because KE is decreasing

WAY DOWN

- speed increase because gravity does positive work on the ball

- velocity at both points is equal

- the KE you give the ball is transferred to potential energy and then back to Kinetic Energy
- so the total energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.
E= KE+ PE
PE=mgh
- only changes in PE can be measured
- often PE is measured from the ground or floor level  hi= 0
- Elastic Energy elastic energy can also be stored in the bending or stretching of an object

Conservation of Energy

Law of Conservation

- Within a closed, isolated system, energy can change form, but the total amount of energy is
constant.(i.e. energy can be neither created or destroyed
- The sum of PE+KE is often called mechanical energy
- Xhanging the path an object follows as it falls, does not change its PE.
- In real life, there is always work lost due to friction and so pendulums, bouncing balls, etc. all
eventually come to a rest.

Analyzing Collisions
Elastic collision: KE of the bodies before collision is equal to KE after the collision (i.e. KE is conserved)
Inelastic collision: during a collision, some KE is changed into other forms

Power: the rate at which work is done/the rate at which energy is transferred
- Work done lifting a box of books is the same whether the box is being lifted in 2 sec. or if each
book is lifted seperatly, it takes 20min to put them all on the shelf.  work done is the same, but
the rate at which it is done is different.
w
- P=
t
- Power is measured in Watts.
- One watt is one joule transferred in 1 sec.
- A watt is a relatively small unit of power, therefore power is often pleasured in Kilowatts ( 1 KW =
1000W)

Waves
Wave transfer of energy

Types:

Mechanical: need something ( matter) to travel through

Example: -air/gas (sound)
-water/liquid (water waves)
- Earth/ solid (Earthquakes)

Electromagnetic: move on their own, without the need of a medium to carry them.

Doppler Shift

Doppler shift is also common. You probably experience it daily (often without realizing it).
Doppler shift occurs when sound is generated by, or reflected off of, a moving object. Doppler
shift in the extreme creates sonic booms (see below). Here's how to understand Doppler shift
(you may also want to try this experiment in an empty parking lot). Let's say there is a car
coming toward you at 60 miles per hour (mph) and its horn is blaring. You will hear the horn
playing one "note" as the car approaches, but when the car passes you the sound of the horn will
suddenly shift to a lower note. It's the same horn making the same sound the whole time. The
change you hear is caused by Doppler shift.
Here's what happens. The speed of sound through the air in the parking lot is fixed. For
simplicity of calculation, let's say it's 600 mph (the exact speed is determined by the air's
pressure, temperature and humidity). Imagine that the car is standing still, it is exactly 1 mile
away from you and it toots its horn for exactly one minute. The sound waves from the horn will
propagate from the car toward you at a rate of 600 mph. What you will hear is a six-second delay
(while the sound travels 1 mile at 600 mph) followed by exactly one minute's worth of sound.

Doppler shift: The person behind the car hears a lower tone than the
driver because the car is moving away. The person in front of the car
hears a higher tone than the driver because the car is approaching.

Now let's say that the car is moving toward you at 60 mph. It starts from a mile away and toots
it's horn for exactly one minute. You will still hear the six-second delay. However, the sound will
only play for 54 seconds. That's because the car will be right next to you after one minute, and
the sound at the end of the minute gets to you instantaneously. The car (from the driver's
perspective) is still blaring its horn for one minute. Because the car is moving, however, the
minute's worth of sound gets packed into 54 seconds from your perspective. The same number of
sound waves are packed into a smaller amount of time. Therefore, their frequency is increased,
and the horn's tone sounds higher to you. As the car passes you and moves away, the process is
reversed and the sound expands to fill more time. Therefore, the tone is lower.