Chapter 4.

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Polynomial and Rational Functions
Example 6
Graphing a polynomial using its x-intercepts

For the polynomial

f ( x)  x 2 ( x  2)
(a) Find the x- and y-intercepts of the graph of f.
(b) Use the x-intercepts to find the intervals on which the graph of f is above the x-axis and the intervals
on which the graph of f is below the x-axis.
(c) Locate other points on the graph and connect all the points plotted with a smooth, continuous curve.

Solution: (a) The y-intercept is f (0)  0. To find the x-intercepts, solve the equation f ( x)  0.
Therefore, we get f ( x)  x 2 ( x  2)  0 giving x  0 or x  2.

(b) The two x-intercepts divide the real number line into three intervals:
(,0), (0,2), (2,)
Since the graph of f crosses or touches the x-axis at x  0 and x  2, it follows that the graph of f is either
above the x-axis ( f ( x)  0) or below the x-axis ( f ( x)  0) on each of these three intervals. To see where the
graph lies, we only need to pick a number in each interval, evaluate f there and see whether the value is
positive (above the x-axis) or negative (below the x-axis). To draw the conclusion, prepare the following
table:

Interval Number picked Value of f Point on graph Location of graph

(,0) 1 f (1)  3 ( 1,  3) Below the x-axis

(0,2) 1 f (1)  1 (1,  1) Below the x-axis

(2,) 3 f (3)  9 (3, 9) Above the x-axis

(c) From the above Table, we can see that the points on the graph are (1,  3), (1,  1) and (3, 9).

Figure 11 illustrates these points, the intercepts, etc.

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Conclusions
Since the points ( 1,  3) and (1,  1) lies below the x-axis on both sides of 0, the graph of f touches the x-
axis at x  0 which is a zero of multiplicity 2.
Since the graph of f lies below the x-axis for x  2 and above x-axis for x  2, the graph of f crosses x-
axis at x  2 which is a zero of multiplicity 1.

The problem suggests the following results:

If r is a Zero of Even Multiplicity

Algebra Geometry
The sign of f(x) does not change from one side to the The graph of f touches the x-axis at r.
other side of r.

If r is a Zero of Odd Multiplicity

Algebra Geometry
The sign of f(x) changes from one side to the other The graph of f crosses the x-axis at r.
side of r.

Behavior Near a Zero

Now we see that the graph of f ( x)  x 2 ( x  2) behaves like the graph of f ( x)  2 x 2 near x  0.
Since the zero 0 comes from the factor x 2 , we evaluate all factors in the function f at 0 with the exception
of x 2 . Therefore, we get
f ( x)  x 2 ( x  2)  x 2 (0  2)  2 x 2
(We keep the factor x 2 fixed and let x  0 in the remaining factors)

Next we see that the graph of f ( x)  x 2 ( x  2) behaves like the graph of f ( x)  4( x  2) near x  2.
Since the zero 2 comes from the factor x  2, we evaluate all factors in the function f at 2 with the
exception of x  2. Therefore, we get
f ( x)  x 2 ( x  2)  22 ( x  2)  4( x  2)
(We keep the factor x 2 fixed and let x  0 in the remaining factors)

Figure 14 illustrates how we would use this information to begin to graph f ( x)  x 2 ( x  2).

Turning Points
The points at which a graph changes its direction are called turning points.

The following Theorem tells us the maximum number of turning points that the graph of a polynomial
function can have.

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Theorem
If f is a polynomial function of degree n, then the graph of f has at most n  1 turning points.

If the graph of a polynomial function f has n  1 turning points, the degree of f is at least n.

For very large values of x, either positive or negative, the graph of f ( x)  x 2 ( x  2) looks like the graph of
f ( x)  x 3 .
To see why, rewrite f in the form
 2
f ( x )  x 2 ( x  2)  x 3  2 x 2  x 3  1  
 x
2
Now, for large values of x, either positive or negative, the term is close to 0, so for large values of x,
x
 2
f ( x )  x 3  2 x 2  x 3 1    x 3 .
 x
The behavior of the graph of a function for LARGE values of x, either positive or negative, is referred as its
end behavior.

This suggests the following theorem,

Theorem (End Behavior)

For large values of x, either positive or negative, the graph of the polynomial function
f ( x)  an xn  an 1xn 1    a1x  a0
resembles the graph of the power function
y  an x n
For example, if f ( x)  2 x3  5 x 2  x  4, then the graph of f will behave like the graph of y  2x3 for
LARGE values of x, either positive or negative.

We describe the behavior of the graph of a function using notation.

We can symbolize “the value of f becomes a larger and larger negative number as x becomes a larger and
larger positive number” by writing f (x)   as f (x)   (read as the values of f approach negative
infinity as x approaches infinity) where we use the symbolism
lim f ( x)  
x 
When the value of a limit equals infinity, we mean that the values of the function are unbounded in the
positive or negative direction and we call the limit an infinite limit.

Based on the preceding theorem and above discussion on power functions, the end behavior of a polynomial
function are of FOUR types. See Figure 18.
For example, if f ( x)  2 x 4  x3  4 x 2  7 x  1, the graph of f will resemble the graph of the power function
y  2x 4 for large x . The graph of f will behave like Figure 18(b) for large x .

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SUMMARY
For the graph of a polynomial function
f ( x)  an xn  an 1xn 1    a1x  a0 , an  0
(a) Degree of the polynomial function f is n;
(b) The graph f is smooth and continuous;
(c) There are n  1 turning points;
(d) At a zero of even multiplicity the graph f touches the x-axis;
(e) At a zero of odd multiplicity the graph f crosses the x-axis;
(f) Between zeros, the graph of f is either above or below the x-axis;
(g) End behavior: For large x , the graph of f behaves like the graph of y  an x n .

Example 9 Analyzing the Graph of a Polynomial Function

Analyze the graph of the polynomial function f(x) = (2x+1)(x-3)^2.

Example 10 Analyzing the Graph of a Polynomial Function

Analyze the graph of the polynomial function

f ( x)  x 2 ( x  4)( x  1)
Solution
Step 1: End behavior: the graph of f resembles that of the power function y  x 4 for large values of x , i.e.
lim f ( x)   and lim f ( x)  
x  x 
Step 2: The y-intercept is f (0)  0. To find the x-intercepts, solve the equation f ( x)  0.
Therefore, we get f ( x)  x 2 ( x  4)( x  1)  0 giving x  1 or x  0 or x  4.
Thus, y-intercept is 0 and the x-intercepts are x  1, 0 and 4.
Step 3: The intercept 0 is a zero of multiplicity 2, so the graph of f touches the x-axis at 0.
The other intercepts  1 and 4 are zeros of multiplicity 1, so the graph of f crosses the x-axis at  1 and 4 .
Step 4: Since f is a polynomial function of degree 4, the graph of f contains at most three turning points.

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Step 5: Behavior near zeros:
Near  1: f ( x)  x 2 ( x  4)( x  1)  (1)2 (1  4)( x  1)  5( x  1) which is a line with slope  5
(We keep the factor x  1 fixed and let x  1 in the remaining factors)
Near 0 : f ( x)  x 2 ( x  4)( x  1)  x 2 (0  4)(0  1)  4 x 2 which is a parabola that opens down
(We keep the factor x 2 fixed and let x  0 in the remaining factors)
Near 4 : f ( x)  x 2 ( x  4)( x  1)  42 ( x  4)(4  1)  80( x  4) which is a line with slope 80
(We keep the factor x  4 fixed and let x  4 in the remaining factors)

Step 6: Figure 21(a) illustrates the information obtained from Step 1 to Step 5.

The graph of f is given in Figure 21(b).

To draw the conclusion, prepare the following table:

Interval Number picked Value of f Point on graph Location of graph

(  ,  1) 2 f (2)  24 (2, 24) Above the x-axis

(1, 0)

1  1 9  1 9 Below the x-axis
f       , 
2  2 16  2 16 
(0, 4) 2 f ( 2)  24 (2,  24) Below the x-axis

(4,  ) 5 f (5)  150 (5, 150) Above the x-axis

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We evaluated f at  2,  , 2 and 5 to help establish the scale on the y-axis.
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49. y  3( x  7)( x  3) 2

(a) Zeros: 7, multiplicity 1;  3, multiplicity 2;

(b) Graph touches the x-axis at  3 and crosses it at 7.
(c) Near  3 : f ( x)  30( x  3)2 which is a parabola that opens down
Near 7 : f ( x)  300( x  7) which is a line with slope 300
(d) 2
(e) y  3x3
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To draw the conclusion, prepare the following table:

Interval Number picked Value of f Point on graph Location of graph

(,  3) 4 f (4)  33 (4,  33) Below the x-axis

(3, 7) 0 f (0)  189 (0,189) Below the x-axis

(7,  ) 8 f (8)  363 (8, 363) Above the x-axis

51. y  4( x 2  1)( x  2)3

(a) Zero 2, multiplicity 3;
(b) Graph crosses the x-axis at 2;

(c) Near 2 : f ( x)  20( x  2)3 which is a cubic function with its turning point at ( 2,0).
(d) 4
(e) y  4x 5

Interval Number picked Value of f Point on graph Location of graph

(, 2) 1 f (1)  8 (1,  8) Below the x-axis
(2,  ) 3 f (3)  40 (3, 40) Above the x-axis

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 1
53. y  2 x   ( x  4)3
 2
1
(a) Zeros:  , multiplicity 2;  4, multiplicity 3;
2
1
(b) Graph touches the x-axis at  , and crosses the x-axis at  4;
2

2
1  1
(c) Near  : f ( x)  85.75 x   which is a parabola that opens down
2  2
Near  4 : f ( x)  24.5 x  4  which is a cubic function lying in the second and fourth quadrant
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(d) 4
(e) y  2x 5

Interval Number picked Value of f Point on graph Location of graph

( ,  4) 5 f (4)  40.5 (4, 40.5) Above the x-axis

 1 2 f ( 2)  36 (2,36) Below the x-axis

  4,  
 2
 1  1 f (1)  562.5 (1,  562.5) Below the x-axis
 , 
 2 

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55. y  ( x  5)3 ( x  4)2
(a) Zeros: 5, multiplicity 3;  4, multiplicity 2;
(b) Graph touches the x-axis at  4, and crosses the x-axis at 5;
(c) Near  4 : f ( x)  729x  4 which is a parabola that opens down
2

Near 5 : f ( x)  81 x  5 which is a cubic function lying in the first and third quadrant
3

(d) 4
(e) y  x5

Analyze each polynomial function:

69. y  x 2 ( x  3)

71. y  ( x  4)( x  2) 2

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73. y  2( x  2)( x  2) 3

75. y  ( x  1)( x  2)( x  4)

77. y  x 2 ( x  2)( x  2)

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79. y  ( x  1) 2 ( x  2) 2

81. y  x 2 ( x  3)( x  1)

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83. y  ( x  2)2 ( x  4)2

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