Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

HISTORY

Conveyor belt

Primitive conveyor belts were used since the 19th century. In 1892, Thomas Robins began a series of
inventions which led to the development of a conveyor belt used for carrying coal, ores and other
products. In 1901, Sandvik invented and started the production of steel conveyor belts. In 1905 Richard
Sutcliffe invented the first conveyor belts for use in coal mines which revolutionized the mining industry.
In 1913, Henry Fordintroduced conveyor-belt assembly lines at Ford Motor Company's Highland Park,
Michigan factory. In 1972, the French society REI created in New Caledonia the longest straight-belt
conveyor in the world, at a length of 13.8 km. Hyacynthe Marcel Bocchetti was the concept designer.
 In 1957, the B. F. Goodrich Company patented a Möbius strip conveyor belt, that it went on to produce as
the "Turnover Conveyor Belt System". Incorporating a half-twist, it had the advantage over conventional
belts of a longer life because it could expose all of its surface area to wear and tear. Such Möbius strip
belts are no longer manufactured because untwisted modern belts can be made more durable by
constructing them from several layers of different materials. In 1970, Intralox, a Louisiana-based
company, registered the first patent for all plastic, modular belting.

Classifications

Types of conveyor belt

General Purpose Belts

This broad group of belting is typically made of an inner carcass and an outer shield. The materials used
for these belts have rubber, PVC, Urethane, Neoprene, Nylon, Nitrile, Polyester, leather, and others. Belt
properties determine the conveyor belt’s primary uses. For instance, mining and milling industries use
rubber to handle bulk materials including raw ore and aggregates. Grocery stores usually use PVC
conveyor belts, and airports may use neoprene, polyester, or rubber for baggage handling.
These materials possibly feature different coatings, thicknesses, and arrangements to deliver a variety of
handling properties. Some also offer food safety ratings while others perform well in extreme
temperatures. Other standard features of general-purpose belt include high or low friction levels and
specific bulk-handling structuring.

Plastic Belting and Chain

These are light-weight, durable, and are available for use in different industries. The most common use of
these belts is in areas where rust and wear resistance are highly present. Areas include food production
and processing, pharmaceutical, packaging, and manufacturing industries among others.
Common industry names for this type of belting include TableTop, MatTop, Angled Roller Belting, and
MicroSpan. Uses include:
 Food production
 Packaging
 Pharmaceuticals
 Manufacturing

Hinged Metal Belts

Hinged belts often feature metal construction liked shaped steel. The hinged belt gives a flat, stable
surface; capable of rotating around the pulley system via interlocking hinges. Hinge metal belts are
incredibly durable and are often used for machine chip and scrap removal from shaped steel.
 Companies use hinged belts for a small product, scrap, and recycling applications. Due to their rigidity,
they can stand up to rigorous use.

Woven Wire Belting

These are high and low-temperature conveyor belts whose extensive utilization is highly recommended in
areas where rapid drying is required. These belts feature interlinking chains or shaped steel designed to
allow airflow as an item moves ahead. Businesses generally use woven belts to facilitate drying, cooling,
and heating processes in the food, electronics, and glass-working industries.
Manufacturers offer pre-fabricate woven belt designs or custom design a woven belt to meet a customer’s
specific application needs.

Flat Wire Belting

As the name suggests, flat wire belting has a flat surface making it ideal for food handling as it is more
economical at times compared to woven wire belting. These belts are made purely from wire mesh.
With the level of high aeration presented in the belt, the conveyor is suitable for use in the food industry,
especially for drying of food.
More uses of this type of belting include:
 Canning and food preparation
 Baking and freezing food
 Parts painting/drying
 Product sorting, assembly, and packaging
 Parts transfer

PVC Conveyor Belts

PVC conveyor belts, otherwise known as solid woven conveyor belts, are used in the mining industry to
transport aggregates, materials, and fines from the open-pit or underground mines to the mine plant or the
stacker system. PVC is used in underground and above-ground applications and is known for its anti-
corrosion properties. Due to its flexible nature, it puts less strain on the conveyor support. It is resistant to
corrosion damage, impact damage, and remains unaffected by oil and bacteria.
PVC conveyors are very easy to install, and there are numerous varieties of PVC belt weaves with
varying levels of strength and resistant properties.

Rubber Belting
Rubber conveyor belts are used in mining projects as well as other industrial applications. As an
inexpensive alternative to the PVC belts, rubber belts provide astute anti-corrosion properties. Rubber
belts offer flexible support for delivering materials. However, these belts are not resistant to tearing and
impact damage as the solid woven belts.

Food Industry Conveyor Belts

Much like the metal conveyor belts, food industry belts are made primarily from metal composites. The
food industry often requires complex conveyor systems for the various stages of the food production
process, so each wire belt system needs to be customized for the operation at hand.

Slat/Apron
Apron/Slat conveyors are product handling systems that use shaped steel, wood, or other materials
typically mounted on roller chains to convey products. These conveyors are mainly required in material
handling applications for moving large, hefty objects including crates, drums, or pallets in heavy-industry
settings. The slats make way for heavy duty use with less wear and tear. These conveyor systems are
usually automated and come in many sizes and load capacities.
Beltless Magnetic
These conveyor belts are material handling systems that use moving magnets beneath stationary plates.
This is done to move magnetic (ferrous) materials usually in the form of machining scrap. Key
specifications include the intended application of conveyed product, throughput, and electrical
requirements. Systems can be horizontal, vertical, or combinations.

Metal Detector

The first metal detector was made by Gustave Trouvé, a French electrical engineer,
in 1874. He made it to find and remove bullets or other metal objects from people.
Alexander Graham Bell tried to make a metal detector like Trouvé's device in 1881,
after United States President James Garfield was shot. Bell tried to find the bullet
inside President Garfield using his device. Bell's metal detector worked, but the
metal coils of James Garfield's bed confused the detector, and the attempt to find
the bullet was not successful.

Metal detectors were very useful as land mine detectors in World War II. A Polish
Army engineer, Lieutenant Józef Kosacki, made the first portable metal detector in
1941. Poland was occupied by Nazi forces, and Lieutenant Kosacki was stationed in
Scotland at the time. His design had a long wand and dish, like modern portable
detectors, but it needed a large and heavy backpack for the electronics. Hundreds
of thousands of land mine detectors based on his design were used by the Allies
during World War II.

1. Gerhard Fisher applied for the first metal detector patent in 1925. He was
working on a system for navigation using radio waves, but found that the
results were thrown off when his device was near rocks that contained a lot
of metal. He realized he could use this to make a metal detector, and applied
for the patent.
2. Metal detectors are used in archaeology to find metal artifacts. The first
recorded use was by a military historian in 1958. Don Rickey used a metal
detector to map the site of the Battle of the Little Bighorn.

3. The first use of metal detectors at airports was in the United States, in 1972.
A company in Finland, Outokumpu, made the first walk-though security
detectors.

Types of metal detector

There are three kinds of metal detectors to choose from. It is crucial to recognize the variety
prior to buying one. You have to choose the model that best fits your expertise level, your
budget, and the kind of pursuit you want to take up; whether you want to go searching for relics,
or go for the gold.
Once you pick a metal detector that contains all of the features you need, you will be more
successful in your endeavors. The following are the types of metal detectors you need to know.
Beat-Frequency Oscillation

One of the most common metal detectors, this is the type that is mostly used in electronics
stores. It is capable of looking for items situated approximately 2 feet underground. Each and
every metal detector makes use of twisted copper rolled all over a ring that is made from steel
or iron.
The metal detectors feature one big ring that is fastened to its base. Furthermore, it has another
smaller ring fastened a bit higher. These coils are both linked to the oscillators that can produce
a frequency.
The coils work at a differing frequency, though. This particular disparity is the factor that the
metal detector perceives and transmits to the speakers. The speakers look like a head
ornament and they generate a noticeable, constant hum that can be perceived by the user
employing the detector.
As soon as the base coil passes over a metallic item, the electromagnetics’ interaction brings
about an intrusion in the transmission of frequency. This intrusion is then employed as evidence
of the presence of a metallic item.
VLF (Very Low Frequency)

This kind of detector is one of the most widely-used since it has a variety of uses due in part to
technological advancements. It has 2 spherical wire coils which are called a transmitter and
receiver. The transmitter is employed to release a magnetic field with low frequency into the
ground that is utilized for hunting treasures.
The receiver, meanwhile, is employed for its ability to pick up magnetic signals from an item that
is located under the ground. As soon as the signal occurs, a sound will be audible.
In addition, this kind of detector has an electric circuit called a tuner, and its purpose is to send
signals to the receiver of the device. For gold and silver prospecting, users can filter out signals
that come from steel and aluminum so they can focus more on their goal item.
PI (Pulse Induction)

The pulse induction kind is specifically employed to look deep into the surface for relics, gold,
and treasure. The larger-sized models are employed at checkpoints that need security for
firearm/weapon detection. A single coil is employed for this purpose and it transmits a magnetic
field into the ground.
This kind of detector changes models to assist users in listening for the signal that was found
and can distinguish between accidental external signals from its environment, or sent signals.
Furthermore, this type of detector is pricier compared to the others.
Industrial

The industrial kind is employed mainly for security purposes. They cannot be used for treasure
and gold hunting. One of the most widely-used examples of an industrial detector is the
doorframe detector. This type is normally found in a majority of well-secured buildings and
airports.
It operates by way of standard electromagnetism principles. It is also very efficient when it
comes to preventing criminals from going inside buildings with hidden weapons.
FLOW CHART

Start

Conveyor On

Object moves for sensing

No

If the detector detects it as a metal Object moves forward

Yes

Slider moves Fall into the non- metal box

Fall into the metal box

Stop

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE DETAILS

Hardware details

Hardware’s used in this project are the following

 Metal Detector
 IR Sensor
 Transformer
 Rectifier Bridge
 L293D Motor Drive
 DC Motor
 Arduino Uno

Metal Detector

Metal Detector Circuit

Metal detector is a very common device that is used for checking persons,
luggage or bags in shopping malls, hotels, cinema halls, etc. to ensure that
person is not carrying any metals or illegal things like guns, bombs etc. Metal
Detectors detect the presence of metals.
There are different types of metal detectors like hand held metal detectors,
walk through metal detectors and ground search metal detectors. Metal
detectors can be created easily and the circuit for a basic metal detector is not
that complex.

Circuit Diagram
The following image shows the circuit diagram for the metal detector circuit.
 f

Components Required

 1 x TDA0161 Proximity Detector IC

 2 x 47nF Capacitors (Ceramic Capacitor code 473)
 1 x 1 KΩ Resistor (1/4 Watt)
 1 x 330 Ω Resistor (1/4 Watt)
 1 x 100 Ω Resistor (1/4 Watt)
 1 x 5 KΩ Potentiometer
 1 x 2N2222A (NPN Transistor)
 1 x 5V Buzzer
 Coil (copper wire of 26 – 30 AWG is taken and it is wound in to a coil of
diamater 5 – 6 cm and 140 – 150 turns)
 Additional Components (for LED)
 1 x 220 Ω Resistor (1/4 Watt)
 1 x 5mm LED

Component Description
TDA0161 Proximity Detector IC:

 TDA0161 is a Proximity Detector IC manufactured by STMicroelectronics. It

can be used detect metal objects by detecting the slight changes in the high
frequency Eddy current losses.
The TDA0161 IC acts as an oscillator with the help of externally tuned circuit.
The changes in supply current will determine the output signal i.e. current is
high when a metal object is near and it is low when there is no metal object.
TDA0161 has 8 pins and it comes in Dual in – line Package (DIP). The
following image shows the pin diagram of TDA0161 IC.

Metal Detector Circuit Explanation

 When the LC circuit that is L1 and C1 has got any resonating frequency
from any metal which is near to it, electric field will be created which will
lead to induces current in the coil and changes in the signal flow through
the coil.

 Variable resistor is used to change the proximity sensor value equal to

the LC circuit, it is better to check the value when there is coil not near
to the metal. When the metal is detected the LC circuit will have
changed signal. The changed signal is given to the proximity detector
(TDA 0161), which will detect the change in the signal and react
accordingly. The output of the proximity sensor will be of 1mA when
there is no metal detected and it will be around 10mA when coil is near
to the metal

 When the output pin is high the resistor R3 will provide positive voltage
to transistor Q1. Q1 will be turned on and led will glow and buzzer will
give the buzz. Resistor r2 is used to limit the current flow.

Block Diagram of Metal Detector

There are three main parts in the metal detector circuit: the LC Circuit, the
Proximity Sensor , output LED and the Buzzer. The coil and the capacitor C1,
which are connected in parallel, will form the LC circuit.
Proximity sensor(TDA0161), is triggered by this LC cirucit if any metal is
detected.The Proximity sensor will then turn on the led and produces alarm
using buzzer.

LC Circuit:
LC circuit has inductor and capacitor connected in parallel.This circuit sarts
resonating when there is same frequency material near to it. The LC circuit
charges capacitor and inductor alternatively.When the capacitor is charged
fully ,charge is applied to inductor.
Inductor starts charging and when charge across the capacitor is nil, it draws
charge from the inducutor in reverse polarity. Then inductor charge is reduced
and again the process repeats.Note inductor is a magnetic field storage
device and capacitor is electric field storage device.

Proximity Sensor:
 The proximity sensor can detect the objects with out any physical
interference. The proximity sensor will work same as infrared sensor,
proximity also release a signal, it will not give output unless and until there is
no change in the reflected back signal.
If there is a change in signal it will detect and give the output accordingly.
There are different proximity sensors for example to detect plastic material we
can use capacitive type proximity and for metals we should use inductive type.

Working
The LC Circuit, which consists of L1 (coil) and C1, is the main metal detector
part of the circuit. With the help of this LC Circuit, which is also called as Tank
 Circuit or Tuned Circuit, the TDA0161 IC acts as an oscillator and oscillates at
a particular frequency.
When the LC circuit detects any resonating frequency from any metal which is
near to it, electric field will be created which will lead to induces current in the
coil and changes in the signal flow through the coil.
Variable resistor is used to change the proximity sensor value equal to the LC
circuit, it is better to check the value when the coil is not near any metal
object. When the metal is detected, the LC circuit will have changed signal.
The changed signal is given to the proximity detector (TDA 0161), which will
detect the change in the signal and react accordingly. The output of the
proximity sensor will less than 1mA when there is no metal detected and it will
be around 10mA (usually greater than 8mA) when coil is near to the metal.
When the output pin is high, the resistor R3 will provide positive voltage to
transistor Q1. Q1 will be turned on and LED will glow (not shown in the circuit)
and buzzer will be activated.

Advantages

 The Proximity Detector IC TDA0161 based Metal Detector Circuit is a

very simple and easy to construct metal detector that can be used to detect
small metals in our homes, offices and gardens.

 There is need for any microcontroller as the Proximity Sensor will be

sufficient to implement the project.

Disadvantages

 The main disadvantage of this Metal Detector Circuit is the range of

detection. The metal object has to be at a distance of 10mm for the detector to
detect it.

Applications
 This simple Metal Detector can be used to identify metals like iron, gold,
silver etc.

 Since it is a simple project, we can use this in our home to scan for
nails,
 metal scraps etc. which are not easily spotable by naked eye.

Infrared IR Sensor

An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the
motion.These types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is
called as a passive IR sensor. Usually in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some
form of thermal radiations. These types of radiations are  invisible to our eyes, that can be
detected by an infrared sensor.The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the
detector is simply an IR photodiode which is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength as that
emitted by the IR LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode, The resistances and these output
voltages, change in proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.

An infrared sensor emits and/or detects infrared radiation to sense its

surroundings.
The working of any Infrared sensor is governed by three laws: Planck’s
Radiation law, Stephen – Boltzmann law and Wien’s Displacement law.
Planck’s law states that “every object emits radiation at a temperature not
equal to 00K”. Stephen – Boltzmann law states that “at all wavelengths, the
total energy emitted by a black body is proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature”. According to Wien’s Displacement law, “the radiation
curve of a black body for different temperatures will reach its peak at a
wavelength inversely proportional to the temperature”.
The basic concept of an Infrared Sensor which is used as Obstacle detector is
to transmit an infrared signal, this infrared signal bounces from the surface of
an object and the signal is received at the infrared receiver.
There are five basic elements used in a typical infrared detection system: an
infrared source, a transmission medium, optical component, infrared detectors
or receivers and signal processing. Infrared lasers and Infrared LED’s of
specific wavelength can be used as infrared sources. The three main types of
media used for infrared transmission are vacuum, atmosphere and optical
fibers. Optical components are used to focus the infrared radiation or to limit
the spectral response.
Optical lenses made of Quartz, Germanium and Silicon are used to focus the
infrared radiation. Infrared receivers can be photodiodes, phototransistors etc.
some important specifications of infrared receivers are photosensitivity,
detectivity and noise equivalent power. Signal processing is done by
amplifiers as the output of infrared detector is very small.

Types of IR Sensors

Infrared sensors can be passive or active. Passive infrared sensors are

basically Infrared detectors. Passive infrared sensors do not use any infrared
source and detects energy emitted by obstacles in the field of view. They are
of two types: quantum and thermal. Thermal infrared sensors use infrared
energy as the source of heat and are independent of wavelength.
Thermocouples, pyroelectric detectors and bolometers are the common types
of thermal infrared detectors.
Quantum type infrared detectors offer higher detection performance and are
faster than thermal type infrared detectors. The photosensitivity of quantum
type detectors is wavelength dependent. Quantum type detectors are further
classified into two types: intrinsic and extrinsic types. Intrinsic type quantum
detectors are photoconductive cells and photovoltaic cells.
Active infrared sensors consist of two elements: infrared source and infrared
detector. Infrared sources include an LED or infrared laser diode. Infrared
detectors include photodiodes or phototransistors. The energy emitted by the
infrared source is reflected by an object and falls on the infrared detector.

IR Transmitter
Infrared Transmitter is a light emitting diode (LED) which emits infrared
radiations. Hence, they are called IR LED’s. Even though an IR LED looks like
a normal LED, the radiation emitted by it is invisible to the human eye.
The picture of a typical Infrared LED is shown below.

There are different types of infrared transmitters depending on their

wavelengths, output power and response time.
A simple infrared transmitter can be constructed using an infrared LED, a
current limiting resistor and a power supply. The schematic of a typical IR
transmitter is shown below.
When operated at a supply of 5V, the IR transmitter consumes about 3 to 5
mA of current. Infrared transmitters can be modulated to produce a particular
frequency of infrared light. The most commonly used modulation is OOK (ON
– OFF – KEYING) modulation.
IR transmitters can be found in several applications. Some applications
require infrared heat and the best infrared source is infrared transmitter. When
infrared emitters are used with Quartz, solar cells can be made.

IR Receiver
Infrared receivers are also called as infrared sensors as they detect the
radiation from an IR transmitter. IR receivers come in the form of photodiodes
and phototransistors. Infrared Photodiodes are different from normal photo
diodes as they detect only infrared radiation. The picture of a typical IR
receiver or a photodiode is shown below.
Different types of IR receivers exist based on the wavelength, voltage,
package, etc. When used in an infrared transmitter – receiver combination,
the wavelength of the receiver should match with that of the transmitter.
A typical infrared receiver circuit using a phototransistor is shown below.
It consists of an IR phototransistor, a diode, a MOSFET, a potentiometer and
an LED. When the phototransistor receives any infrared radiation, current
flows through it and MOSFET turns on. This in turn lights up the LED which
acts as a load. The potentiometer is used to control the sensitivity of the
phototransistor.

Principle of Working
The principle of an IR sensor working as an Object Detection Sensor can be
explained using the following figure. An IR sensor consists of an IR LED and
an IR Photodiode; together they are called as Photo – Coupler or Opto –
Coupler.

When the IR transmitter emits radiation, it reaches the object and some of the
radiation reflects back to the IR receiver. Based on the intensity of the
reception by the IR receiver, the output of the sensor is defined.

Obstacle Sensing Circuit or IR Sensor Circuit

A typical IR sensing circuit is shown below.
It consists of an IR LED, a photodiode, a potentiometer, an IC Operational
amplifier and an LED.
IR LED emits infrared light. The Photodiode detects the infrared light. An IC
Op – Amp is used as a voltage comparator. The potentiometer is used to
calibrate the output of the sensor according to the requirement.
When the light emitted by the IR LED is incident on the photodiode after
hitting an object, the resistance of the photodiode falls down from a huge
value. One of the input of the op – amp is at threshold value set by the
potentiometer. The other input to the op-amp is from the photodiode’s series
resistor. When the incident radiation is more on the photodiode, the voltage
drop across the series resistor will be high. In the IC, both the threshold
voltage and the voltage across the series resistor are compared. If the voltage
across the resistor series to photodiode is greater than that of the threshold
voltage, the output of the IC Op – Amp is high. As the output of the IC is
connected to an LED, it lightens up. The threshold voltage can be adjusted by
adjusting the potentiometer depending on the environmental conditions.
The positioning of the IR LED and the IR Receiver is an important factor.
When the IR LED is held directly in front of the IR receiver, this setup is called
Direct Incidence. In this case, almost the entire radiation from the IR LED will
fall on the IR receiver. Hence there is a line of sight communication between
the infrared transmitter and the receiver. If an object falls in this line, it
obstructs the radiation from reaching the receiver either by reflecting the
radiation or absorbing the radiation.

Distinguishing Between Black and White Colors

It is universal that black color absorbs the entire radiation incident on it and
white color reflects the entire radiation incident on it. Based on this principle,
the second positioning of the sensor couple can be made. The IR LED and
the photodiode are placed side by side. When the IR transmitter emits infrared
radiation, since there is no direct line of contact between the transmitter and
receiver, the emitted radiation must reflect back to the photodiode after hitting
any object. The surface of the object can be divided into two types: reflective
surface and non-reflective surface. If the surface of the object is reflective in
nature i.e. it is white or other light color, most of the radiation incident on it will
get reflected back and reaches the photodiode. Depending on the intensity of
the radiation reflected back, current flows in the photodiode.
If the surface of the object is non-reflective in nature i.e. it is black or other
dark color, it absorbs almost all the radiation incident on it. As there is no
reflected radiation, there is no radiation incident on the photodiode and the
resistance of the photodiode remains higher allowing no current to flow. This
situation is similar to there being no object at all.
The pictorial representation of the above scenarios is shown below.
The positioning and enclosing of the IR transmitter and Receiver is very
important. Both the transmitter and the receiver must be placed at a certain
angle, so that the detection of an object happens properly. This angle is the
directivity of the sensor which is +/- 45 degrees.
The directivity is shown below.

In order to avoid reflections from surrounding objects other than the object,
both the IR transmitter and the IR receiver must be enclosed properly.
Generally the enclosure is made of plastic and is painted with black color.

Bridge Rectifier

Bridge rectifier circuit is a common part of the electronic power supplies. Many  electronic
circuits require rectified DC power supply for powering the various electronic basic
components from available AC mains supply. We can find this rectifier in a wide variety of
electronic AC power devices like home appliances , motor controllers, modulation process,
welding applications, etc.
A Bridge rectifier is an Alternating Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC) converter  that
rectifies mains AC input to DC output. Bridge Rectifiers are widely used in power supplies that
provide necessary DC voltage for the electronic components or devices. They can be
constructed with four or more diodes or any other controlled solid state switches.
Depending on the load current requirements, a proper bridge rectifier is selected. Components’
ratings and specifications, breakdown voltage, temperature ranges, transient current rating,
forward current rating, mounting requirements and other considerations are taken into account
while selecting a rectifier power supply for an appropriate electronic circuit’s application.

Types of Bridge Rectifiers

Bride rectifiers are classified into several types based on these factors: type of supply,
controlling capability, bride circuit’s configurations, etc. Bridge rectifiers are mainly classified into
single and three phase rectifiers. Both these types are further classified into uncontrolled, half
controlled and full controlled rectifiers. Some of these types of rectifiers are described below.

1. Single Phase and Three Phase Rectifiers

Single Phase and Three Phase Rectifiers

The nature of supply, i.e., a single phase or three-phase supply decides these rectifiers. The
Single phase bridge rectifier consists of four diodes for converting AC into DC, whereas a three
phase rectifier uses six diodes, as shown in the figure. These can be again uncontrolled or
controlled rectifiers depending on the circuit components such as diodes, thyristors, and so on.

2. Uncontrolled Bridge Rectifiers

Uncontrolled Bridge Rectifiers

This bridge rectifier uses diodes for rectifying the input as shown in the figure. Since the diode is
a unidirectional device that allows the current flow in one direction only. With this configuration
of diodes in the rectifier, it doesn’t allow the power to vary depending on the load requirement.
So this type of rectifier is used in constant or fixed power supplies.
3. Controlled Bridge Rectifier
 Controlled Bridge Rectifier

In this type of rectifier, AC/DC converter or rectifier – instead of uncontrolled diodes,

controlled solid state devices like SCR’s, MOSFET’s, IGBT’s, etc. are used to vary the output
power at different voltages. By triggering these devices at various instants, the output power at
the load is appropriately changed.

Bridge Rectifier Circuit Diagram

The main advantage of bridge rectifier is that it produces almost double the output voltage as
with the case of a full wave rectifier using center-tapped transformer. But this circuit doesn’t
need center tapped transformer so it resembles low-cost rectifier.

The bridge rectifier circuit diagram consists of various stages of devices like transformer, Diode
Bridge, filtering and regulators. Generally all these blocks combination is called as regulated DC
power supply that powers various electronic appliances.
The first stage of the circuit is a transformer which is a step-down type that changes the
amplitude of the input voltage. Most of the electronic projects uses 230/12V transformer to
step-down the AC mains 230V to 12V AC supply.
 Bridge Rectifier Circuit Diagram

Next stage is a diode-bridge rectifier which uses four or more diodes depending on the type of
bridge rectifier. Choosing a particular diode or any other switching device for a corresponding
rectifier needs some considerations of the device like Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV), forward
current If, voltage ratings, etc. It is responsible for producing unidirectional or DC current at the
load by conducting a set of diodes for every half cycle of the input signal.

Since the output after the diode bridge rectifiers is of pulsating nature, and for producing it as a
pure DC, filtering is necessary. Filtering is normally performed with one or more capacitors
attached across the load, as you can observe in the below figure wherein smoothing of wave is
performed. This capacitor rating also depends on the output voltage.
The last stage of this regulated DC supply is a voltage regulator that maintains the output
voltage to a constant level. Suppose the microcontroller works at 5V DC, but the output after
the bridge rectifier is around 16V, so to reduce this voltage, and to maintain a constant level –
no matter voltage changes in input side – a voltage regulator is necessary.

Bridge Rectifier Operation

As we discussed above, a single-phase bridge rectifier consists of four diodes and this
configuration is connected across the load. For understanding the bridge rectifier’s working
principle, we have to consider the below circuit for demonstration purpose.
During the Positive half cycle of the input AC waveform diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased
and D3 and D4 are reverse biased. When the voltage, more than the  threshold level of the
diodes D1 and D2, starts conducting – the load current starts flowing through it, as shown as
red lines path in the diagram below.

Bridge Rectifier Operation

During the negative half cycle of the input AC waveform, the diodes D3 and D4 are forward
biased, and D1 and D2 are reverse biased. Load current starts flowing through the D3 and D4
diodes when these diodes starts conducting as shown in the figure.

We can observe that in both the cases, the load current direction is same, i.e., up to down as
shown in the figure – so unidirectional, which means DC current. Thus, by the usage of a bridge
rectifier, the input AC current is converted into a DC current. The output at the load with this
bridge wave rectifier is pulsating in nature, but for producing a pure DC requires additional filter
like capacitor. The same operation is applicable for different bridge rectifiers, but in case of
controlled rectifiers thyristors triggeringis necessary to drive the current to load.

Transformers
A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the transformation of electric power in
one circuit to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. The voltage can be raised or
lowered in a circuit, but with a proportional increase or decrease in the current ratings.

Transformer – Working Principle

The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits which is
linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two coils that are electrically
separate and inductive, but are magnetically linked through a path of reluctance. The working
principle of the transformer can be understood from the figure below.

Transformer Working

 As shown above the electrical transformer has primary and secondary windings. The core
laminations are joined in the form of strips in between the strips you can see that there are some
narrow gaps right through the cross-section of the core. These staggered joints are said to be
‘imbricated’. Both the coils have high mutual inductance. A mutual electro-motive force is induced in
the transformer from the alternating flux that is set up in the laminated core, due to the coil that is
connected to a source of alternating voltage. Most of the alternating flux developed by this coil is
linked with the other coil and thus produces the mutual induced electro-motive force. The so
produced electro-motive force can be explained with the help of Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic
Induction

e=M*dI/dt

If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and thus electrical energy is transferred
magnetically from the first to the second coil.

The alternating current supply is given to the first coil and hence it can be called as the primary
winding. The energy is drawn out from the second coil and thus can be called as the secondary
winding.

In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:

 Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.
  Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.
 Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.

 Transformer Construction
For the simple construction of a transformer, you must need two coils having mutual inductance and
a laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and from the steel core. The
device will also need some suitable container for the assembled core and windings, a medium with
which the core and its windings from its container can be insulated.

In order to insulate and to bring out the terminals of the winding from the tank, apt bushings that are
made from either porcelain or capacitor type must be used.

In all transformers that are used commercially, the core is made out of transformer sheet steel
laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with minimum of air-gap included. The
steel should have high permeability and low hysteresis loss. For this to happen, the steel should be
made of high silicon content and must also be heat treated. By effectively laminating the core, the
eddy-current losses can be reduced. The lamination can be done with the help of a light coat of core
plate varnish or lay an oxide layer on the surface. For a frequency of 50 Hertz, the thickness of the
lamination varies from 0.35mm to 0.5mm for a frequency of 25 Hertz.

Types of Transformers
Types by Design
The types of transformers differ in the manner in which the primary and secondary coils are provided
around the laminated steel core. According to the design, transformers can be classified into two:

1. Core- Type Transformer

In core-type transformer, the windings are given to a considerable part of the core. The coils used for
this transformer are form-wound and are of cylindrical type. Such a type of transformer can be
applicable for small sized and large sized transformers. In the small sized type, the core will be
rectangular in shape and the coils used are cylindrical. The figure below shows the large sized type.
You can see that the round or cylindrical coils are wound in such a way as to fit over a cruciform
core section. In the case of circular cylindrical coils, they have a fair advantage of having good
mechanical strength. The cylindrical coils will have different layers and each layer will be insulated
from the other with the help of materials like paper, cloth, micarta board and so on. The general
arrangement of the core-type transformer with respect to the core is shown below. Both low-voltage
(LV) and high voltage (HV) windings are shown.
 Core Type Transformer Cruciform Section

Core Type Transformers

The low voltage windings are placed nearer to the core as it is the easiest to insulate. The effective
core area of the transformer can be reduced with the use of laminations and insulation.

2. Shell-Type Transformer
In shell-type transformers, the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings. The
comparison is shown in the figure below.

Core Type and Shell Type Transformer Winding

The coils are form-wound but are multi layer disc type usually wound in the form of pancakes. Paper
is used to insulate the different layers of the multi-layer discs. The whole winding consists of discs
stacked with insulation spaces between the coils. These insulation spaces form the horizontal
cooling and insulating ducts. Such a transformer may have the shape of a simple rectangle or may
also have a distributed form. Both designs are shown in the figure below:

Shell Type Transformers Rectangular Form

Shell Type Transformers Distributed Form

 A strong rigid mechanical bracing must be given to the cores and coils of the transformers. This will
help in minimizing the movement of the device and also prevents the device from getting any
insulation damage. A transformer with good bracing will not produce any humming noise during its
working and will also reduce vibration.

A special housing platform must be provided for transformers. Usually, the device is placed in tightly-
fitted sheet-metal tanks filled with special insulating oil. This oil is needed to circulate through the
device and cool the coils. It is also responsible for providing the additional insulation for the device
when it is left in the air.

There may be cases when the smooth tank surface will not be able to provide the needed cooling
area. In such cases, the sides of the tank are corrugated or assembled with radiators on the sides of
the device. The oil used for cooling purpose must be absolutely free from alkalis, sulphur and most
importantly moisture. Even a small amount of moistures in the oil will cause a significant change in
the insulating property of the device, as it lessens the dielectric strength of the oil to a great extent.
Mathematically speaking,  the presence of about 8 parts of water in 1 million reduces the insulating
quality of the oil to a value that is not considered standard for use. Thus, the tanks are protected by
sealing them air-tight in smaller units. When large transformers are used, the airtight method is
practically difficult to implement. In such cases, chambers are provided for the oil to expand and
contract as its temperature increases and decreases.

These breathers form a barrier and resist the atmospheric moisture from contact with oil. Special
care must also be taken to avoid sledging. Sledging occurs when oil decomposes due to
overexposure to oxygen during heating. It results in the formation of large deposits of dark and
heavy matter that clogs the cooling ducts in the transformer.

The quality, durability and handling of these insulating materials decide the life of the transformer. All
the transformer leads are brought out of their cases through suitable bushings. There are many
designs of these, their size and construction depending on the voltage of the leads. Porcelain
bushings may be used to insulate the leads, for transformers that are used in moderate voltages.
Oil-filled or capacitive-type bushings are used for high voltage transformers.

The selection between the core and shell type is made by comparing the cost because similar
characteristics can be obtained from both types. Most manufacturers prefer to use shell-type
transformers for high-voltage applications or for multi-winding design. When compared to a core
type, the shell type has a longer mean length of coil turn. Other parameters that are compared for
the selection of transformer type are voltage rating, kilo-volt ampere rating, weight, insulation stress,
heat distribution and so on.

Transformers can also be classified according to the type of cooling employed. The different types
according to these classifications are:

Types of Transformers based on Cooling method

1. Oil Filled Self-Cooled Type
Oil filled self-cooled type uses small and medium-sized distribution transformers. The assembled
windings and core of such transformers are mounted in a welded, oil-tight steel tanks provided with a
steel cover. The tank is filled with purified, high quality insulating oil as soon as the core is put back
at its proper place. The oil helps in transferring the heat from the core and the windings to the case
from where it is radiated out to the surroundings.

For smaller sized transformers the tanks are usually smooth surfaced, but for large size transformers
a greater heat radiation area is needed, and that too without disturbing the cubical capacity of the
tank. This is achieved by frequently corrugating the cases. Still larger sizes are provided with
radiation or pipes.

2. Oil Filled Water Cooled Type

This type is used for much more economic construction of large transformers, as the above-told self-
cooled method is very expensive. The same method is used here as well- the windings and the core
are immersed in the oil. The only difference is that a cooling coil is mounted near the surface of the
oil, through which cold water keeps circulating. This water carries the heat from the device. This
design is usually implemented on transformers that are used in high voltage transmission lines. The
biggest advantage of such a design is that such transformers do not require housing other than their
own. This reduces the costs by a huge amount. Another advantage is that the maintenance and
inspection of this type is only needed once or twice in a year.
3. Air Blast Type
This type is used for transformers that use voltages below 25,000 volts. The transformer is housed in
a thin sheet metal box open at both ends through which air is blown from the bottom to the top.

E.M.F Equation of a Transformer

Transformer EMF Equation

Let,

 NA =  Number of turns in primary

 NB = Number of turns in secondary

Ømax  = Maximum flux in the core in webers = Bmax X A

f   = Frequency of alternating current input in hertz (HZ)

As shown in figure above, the core flux increases from its zero value to maximum value Ø max  in one
quarter of the cycle , that is in ¼ frequency second.

Therefore, average rate of change of flux = Ømax/ ¼ f = 4f ØmaxWb/s

Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced electro motive force in volts.

Therefore, average electro-motive force induced/turn = 4f Ømaxvolt

If flux Ø varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s value of induced e.m.f is obtained by multiplying the average
value with form factor.

Form Factor = r.m.s. value/average value = 1.11

 Therefore, r.m.s value of e.m.f/turn = 1.11 X 4f Ømax = 4.44f Ømax

Now, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in the whole of primary winding

= (induced e.m.f./turn) X Number of primary turns

Therefore,

 EA = 4.44f NAØmax = 4.44fNABmA

Similarly, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f  in secondary is

EB = 4.44f NB Ømax = 4.44fNBBmA

In an ideal transformer on no load,

VA = EA  and VB = EB  , where VB is the terminal voltage

Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

From the above equations we get

EB/ EA = VB/ VA = NB/NA = K

This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.

(1)   If NB>NA , that is K>1 , then transformer is called step-up transformer.

(2)   If NB<1, that is K<1 , then transformer is known as step-down transformer.

Again for an ideal transformer,

Input VA = output VA

VAIA = VBIB

Or, IB/IA = VA/VB = 1/K

Hence, currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio.

Applications of a transformer
Transformers are used in most electronic circuits. A transformer has only 3 applications;

 To step up voltage and current.

 To Step down voltage and current
 To prevent DC – transformers can pass only Alternating Currents so they totally prevent DC
from passing to the next circuit.

But the application of these 3 applications are endless which is why they have a place in lots of
circuits.
L293D Motor Driver

Even the simplest robot requires a motor to rotate a wheel or performs particular
action. Since motors require more current then the microcontroller pin can typically
generate, you need some type of a switch which can accept a small current, amplify
it and generate a larger current, which further drives a motor. This entire process is
done by what is known as a Motor driver. With L293D Motor Driver IC, that task is
made simple and has helped in a number of applications with relative ease.

L293D H-bridge driver is the most commonly used driver for Bidirectional motor
driving applications. This L293D IC allows DC motor to drive on either direction.
L293D is a 16-pin IC which can control a set of two DC motors simultaneously in any
direction. It means that you can control two DC motor with a single L293D IC.
Because it has two H-Bridge Circuit inside. The L293D can drive small and quiet big
motors as well. There are various ways of making H-bridge motor control circuit such
as using transistor, relays and using L293D/L298. Before going into detail, first we will
see what is H-Bridge circuit.

H-Bridge Circuit Working (L293D Motor Driver Working)

Motor driver is basically a current amplifier which takes a low-current signal from the
microcontroller and gives out a proportionally higher current signal which can
control and drive a motor. In most cases, a transistor can act as a switch and perform
this task which drives the motor in a single direction.
Turning a motor ON and OFF requires only one switch to control a single motor in a
single direction. What if you want your motor to reverse its direction? The simple
answer is to reverse its polarity. This can be achieved by using four switches that are
arranged in an intelligent manner such that the circuit not only drives the motor, but
also controls its direction. Out of many, one of the most common and clever design is
a H-bridge circuit where transistors are arranged in a shape that resembles the
English alphabet “H”.

A H bridge is an electronic circuit that allows a voltage to be applied across a load in

any direction. H-bridge circuits are frequently used in robotics and many other
applications to allow DC motors to run forward  & backward. These motor control
circuits are mostly used in different converters like DC-DC, DC-AC, AC-AC converters
and many other types of power electronic converters. In specific, a bipolar stepper
motor is always driven by a motor controller having two H-bridges.

A H-bridge is fabricated with four switches like S1, S2, S3 and S4. When the S1 and S4
switches are closed, then a +ve voltage will be applied across the motor. By opening
the switches S1 and S4 and closing the switches S2 and S3, this voltage is inverted,
allowing invert operation of the motor.

Generally, the H-bridge motor driver circuit is used to reverse the direction of the
motor and also to brake the motor. When the motor comes to a sudden stop, as the
terminals of the motor’s are shorted. Or let the motor run free to a stop, when the
motor is detached from the circuit. The table below gives the different operations
with the four switches corresponding to the above circuit.

L293D IC
L293D IC generally comes as a standard 16-pin DIP (dual-in line package). This motor
driver IC can simultaneously control two small motors in either direction; forward
and reverse with just 4 microcontroller pins (if you do not use enable pins).

PIN Diagram
Pin Description

PIN PIN
Description
No NAME
When the enable pin is high, then the left part of the IC will work
ENABLE
1 otherwise it won’t work. This pin is also called as a master control pin
1
of left side.
When the input pin is high, then the flow of current will be through
2 INPUT 1
output 1
OUTPUT This output-1 pin must be connected to one of the terminals of the
3
1 motor
4 GND Connected to Ground
5 GND Connected to Ground
6 OUTPUT This pin must be connected to one of the terminals of the motor
 PIN PIN
Description
No NAME
2
7 INPUT 2 When this pin is HIGH then the flow of current will be though output 2
This is the voltage pin which is used to supply the voltage to the motor
8 VS
(12v)
When this pin is high, then the right part of the IC will work & when it
ENABLE
9 is low the right part of the IC won’t work. This pin is also called as a
2
master control pin for the right part of the IC.
10 INPUT 3 When this pin is high, then the flow of current will through output-3
OUTPUT
11 This pin must be connected to one of the terminals of the motor
3
12 GND Connected to Ground
13 GND Connected to Ground
OUTPUT
14 This pin must be connected to one of the terminals of the motor
4
When this pin is high, then the flow of current will be through output-
15 INPUT 4
4
16 VSS This pin is the power source to the integrated circuit (5v)

Connection Diagram
The circuit shown to the right is the most basic implementation of L293D IC. There
are 16 pins sticking out of this IC and we have to understand the functionality of each
pin before implementing this in a circuit.

 Pin1 and Pin9 are “Enable” pins. They should be connected to +5V for the
drivers to function. If they pulled low (GND), then the outputs will be turned off
regardless of the input states, stopping the motors. If you have two spare pins in
your microcontroller, connect these pins to the microcontroller, or just connect
them to regulated positive 5 Volts.
 Pin4, Pin5, Pin12 and Pin13 are ground pins which should ideally be connected
to microcontroller’s ground.

 Pin2, Pin7, Pin10 and Pin15 are logic input pins. These are control pins which
should be connected to microcontroller pins. Pin2 and Pin7 control the first motor
(left); Pin10 and Pin15 control the second motor(right).

 Pin3, Pin6, Pin11, and Pin14 are output pins. Tie Pin3 and Pin6 to the first
motor, Pin11 and Pin14 to second motor

 Pin16 powers the IC and it should be connected to regulated +5Volts

 Pin8 powers the two motors and should be connected to positive lead of a
secondary battery. As per the datasheet, supply voltage can be as high as 36 Volts.

I 

Let us consider an example,

Suppose you need to control the left motor which is connected to Pin3 (O1) and Pin6
(O2). As mentioned above, we require three pins to control this motor – Pin1 (E1),
Pin2 (I1) and Pin7 (I2). Here is the truth table representing the functionality of this
motor driver.

ENABLE 1 INPUT 1 INPUT2 FUNCTION

1 1 0 Rotates Anti-clockwise (Reverse)
1 0 1 Rotates Clockwise (Forward)
1 1 1 OFF
1 0 0 OFF
0 X X OFF
X= Either high or low (don't care)

In the above truth table you can observe that if ENABLE 1 is low then the motor
stops, irrespective of the states on INPUT 1 and INPUT 2. Hence it is essential to hold
ENABLE 1 high for the driver to function, or simply connect enable pins to positive 5
volts.

With ENABLE 1 high, if INPUT 1 is set high and INPUT 2 is pulled low, then current
flows from INPUT 1 to INPUT 2 driving the motor in anti-clockwise direction. If the
states of INPUT 1 and INPUT 2 are flipped, then current flows from INPUT 2 to INPUT
1 driving the motor in clockwise direction.

The above concept holds true for other side of the IC too. Connect your motor to
OUTPUT 3 and OUTPUT 4; INPUT 3 and INPUT 4 are input pins, and ENABLE 2 enables
the driver

DC MOTOR

Basics, Types & Application

A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current power. In any electric motor,
operation is dependent upon simple electromagnetism. A current carrying conductor generates
a magnetic field, when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will encounter a force
proportional to the current in the conductor and to the strength of the external magnetic field.It is
a device which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. It works on the fact that a
current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force which causes it to
rotate with respect to its original position.
Practical DC Motor consists of field windings to provide the magnetic flux and armature which
acts as the conductor.

Brushless DC Motors Work

The input of a brushless DC motor is current/voltage and its output is torque. Understanding
the operation of DC motor is very simple from a basic diagram is shown in below. DC motor
basically consist two main parts. The rotating part is called the rotor and the stationary part is
also called the stator. The rotor rotates with respect to the stator.
 DC MOTOR

The rotor consists of windings, the windings being electrically associated with the commutator.
The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts and rotor windings are such that when
power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnets are misaligned
and the rotor will turn until it is very nearly straightened with the stator’s field magnets.

As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator contacts and
energize the next winding. The rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor
winding, prompting a flip of the rotor’s magnetic field, driving it to keep rotating.

Advantages of DC Motor:
 Provide excellent speed control for acceleration and deceleration

 Easy to understand design

 Simple, cheap drive design

Connecting DC Motor with Microcontroller

Microcontrollers can’t drive the motors directly. So we need some kind of drivers to control the
speed and direction of motors. The motor drivers will acts as interfacing devices
between microcontrollers and motors. Motor drivers will act as current amplifiers since they
take a low current control signal and provide a high current signal. This high current signal is
used to drive the motors. Using L293D chip is the easy way for controlling the motor using
microcontroller. It contains two H-bridge driver circuits internally.
This chip is designed to control two motors. L293D has two sets of arrangements where 1 set
has input 1, input 2, output1,output 2, with enable pin while other set has input 3, input 4, output
3, output 4 with other enable pin.

Here is an example of DC motor which is interfaced with L293D microcontroller.

DC motor interfaced with L293D microcontroller

L293D has two set of arrangements where one set has input 1, input 2, output 1 and output 2
and other set has input 3, input 4, output 3 and output 4, according to above diagram,

 If pin no 2 and 7 are high then pin no 3 and 6 are also high. If enable 1 and pin number 2 are high
leaving pin number 7 as low then the motor rotates in forward direction.

 If enable 1 and pin number 7 are high leaving pin number 2 as low then the motor rotates in
reverse direction.

Today dc motors are still found in many applications as small as toys and disk drives or in large
sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines.
DC Motor Equations
Magnitude of flux experienced is

F=BlI

Where, B-   Flux density due to flux produced by field windings

l- Active length of the conductor

I-Current passing through the conductor

As the conductor rotates, an EMF is induced which acts in a direction opposite to the supplied
voltage. It is given as

Where,   Ø- Fluz due to the field windings

P- Number of poles

A-A constant

N – Speed of the motor

Z- Number of conductors

The supply voltage, V = Eb + IaRa

The torque developed is
Thus the torque is directly proportional to the armature current.

Also speed varies with armature current, hence indirectly torque and speed of a motor are
dependant on each other.

For a DC shunt motor, speed remains almost constant even if torque increases from no load to
full load.

For a DC series motor, speed decreases as torque increases from no load to full load.

Thus torque can be controlled by varying the speed. Speed control is achieved either by

 Changing flux by controlling the current through field winding- Flux Control method. By this
method, speed is controlled above its rated speed.

 Armature Voltage Control –  Provides speed control below its normal speed.

 Supply Voltage Control – Provides speed control in both directions.

4 Quadrant Operation of DC Motor

Generally a motor can operate in 4 different regions:

 As a motor in forward or clockwise direction.

 As a generator in forward direction.

 As a motor in reverse or anticlockwise direction.

 As a generator in reverse direction.

 4 Quadrant Operation of DC Motor

In the first quadrant, motor is driving the load with both the speed and torque in positive
direction.

In the second quadrant, torque direction reverses and motor acts as a generator

In the third quadrant, motor drives the load with speed and torque in negative direction.

In the 4th quadrant, motor acts a generator in reverse mode.

In the first and third quadrant, motor acts in both forward and reverse directions. For example,
motors in cranes to lift the load and also put it down.

In the second and fourth quadrant, motor acts as a generator in forward and reverse directions
respectively and provides energy back to the power source. Thus the way to control a motor
operation, to make it operate in any of the 4 quadrants is by controlling its speed and direction
of rotation.  Speed is controlled either by varying the armature voltage or weakening the field.
The torque direction or direction of rotation is controlled by varying the extent to which applied
voltage is greater than or less than the back emf.
Application to Control DC Motor Operation in 4 Quadrants

Control of DC motor operation in 4 quadrants can be achieved using a Microcontroller interfaced

to 7 switches.

Case1:  When start and clockwise switch is pressed, the logic in Microcontroller gives a output
of logic low to pin 7 and logic high to pin2, making the motor rotate in clockwise direction and
operate in 1stquadrant. The speed of the motor can be varied by pressing the pwm switch,
causing a application of pulses of varying duration to the enable pin of the driver IC, thus
varying the applied voltage.
Case 2: When forward brake is pressed, Microcontroller logic applies logic low to pin7 and logic
high to pin 2 and the motor tends to operate in its reverse direction, causing it to stop instantly.

In a similar way, pressing the anti clockwise switch causes the motor to move in reverse
direction, i.e. operate in 3rd quadrant and pressing the reverse brake switch causes the motor to
stop instantly.
Thus through proper programming of the microcontroller and through switches, the motor
operation can be controlled in each direction.

Types of DC Motors
Geared DC Motors:

Geared motors tend to reduce the speed of the motor but with a corresponding increase in
torque. This property comes in handy, as DC motors can rotate at speeds much too fast for an
electronic device to makes use of. Geared motors commonly consist of a DC brush motor and a
gearbox attached to the shaft. Motors are distinguished as a geared by two connected units. It
has many applications due to its cost of designing, reduces the complexity and constructing
applications such as industrial equipment, actuators, medical tools and robotics.

 No good robot can ever be built without gears. All things considered, a good understanding of
how gears affect parameters such as torque and velocity are very important.

 Gears work on the principle of mechanical advantage. This implies that by using distinctive gear
diameters, we can exchange between rotational velocity and torque. Robots do not have a desirable
speed to torque ratio.

 In robotics, torque is better than speed. With gears, it is possible to exchange the high velocity
with a better torque. The increase in torque is inversely proportional to the reduction in speed.

Geared DC Motors
Speed Reduction in Geared DC Motor:

Speed Reduction in geared DC Motor

Speed reduction in gears comprises of a little gear driving a larger gear. There may be few sets
of these reduction gear sets in a reduction gear box. Sometimes the objective of using a gear
motor is to reduce the rotating shaft speed of a motor in the device being driven, for example in
a small electric clock where the tiny synchronous motor may be turning at 1,200 rpm however is
decreased to one rpm to drive the second hand and further reduced in the clock mechanism to
drive the minute and hour hands. Here the amount of driving force is irrelevant as long as it is
sufficient to overcome the frictional impacts of the clock mechanism.

Series DC Motor:
Series motor is a DC series motor where field winding is connected internally in series to the
armature winding. The series motor provides high starting torque but must never be run without
a load and is able to move very large shaft loads when it is first energized. Series motors are
also known as series-wound motor.

In series motors, the field windings are associated in series with the armature. The field strength
varies with progressions in armature current. At the time its speed is reduced by a load, the
series motor advances more excellent torque. Its starting torque is more than different sorts of
DC motor. It can also radiate more easily the heat that has built up in the winding due to the
large amount of current being carried. Its speed shifts considerably between full-load and no-
load. When load is removed, motor speed increases and current through the armature and field
coils decreases. Unloaded operation of large machines is hazardous.

Series Motor

Current through the armature and field coils decreases, the strength of the flux lines around
them weakens. If the strength of the flux lines around the coils were reduced at the same rate
as the current flowing through them, both would decrease at the same rate which the motor
speed increases.

Advantages of Series Motor:

 Huge starting torque

 Simple Construction

 Designing is easy

 Maintenance is easy

 Cost effective

Applications of Series Motor:

Series Motors can produce enormous turning power, the torque from its idle state. This
characteristic makes series motors suitable for small electrical appliances, versatile electric
equipments and etc. Series motors are not suitable when a constant speed is needed. The
reason is that the velocity of series motors varies greatly with varying load.

Shunt Motor:
Shunt motors are shunt DC motors, where the field windings shunted to or are connected in
parallel to the armature winding of the motor. The shunt DC motor is commonly used because
of its best speed regulation. Also hence both the armature winding and the field windings are
presented to the same supply voltage, however there are discrete branches for the stream of
armature current and the field current.

A shunt motor has somewhat distinctive working characteristics than a series motor. Since the
shunt field coil is made of fine wire, it cannot produce the large current for starting like the series
field. This implies that the shunt motor has extremely low starting torque, which requires that the
shaft load be quite little.

Shunt Motor

When voltage is applied to the shunt motor, a very low amount of current flow through the shunt
coil. The armature for the shunt motor is similar to the series motor and it will draw current to
produce a strong magnetic field. Due to the interaction of magnetic field around armature and
the field produced around the shunt field, the motor starts to rotate. Like the series motor, when
the armature begins to turn, it will produce back EMF. The back EMF will cause the current in
the armature to begin to diminish to a very small level. The amount of current the armature will
draw is directly related to the size of the load when the motor reaches full speed. Since the load
is generally small, the armature current will be small.

Advantages of Shunt Motor:

 Simple control performance, resulting in a high level of flexibility for solving complex drive
problems

 High availability, therefore minimal service effort needed

 High level of electro-magnetic compatibility

 Very smooth running, therefore low mechanical stress of the overall system and high dynamic
control processes

 Wide control range and low speeds, therefore universally usable

Applications of Shunt Motor:

Shunt DC motors are very suitable for belt-driven applications. This constant speed motor is
used in industrial and automotive applications such as machine tools and winding/unwinding
machines where great amount of torque precision is required 

Arduino Uno
An Arduino is actually a microcontroller based kit which can be either used directly by
purchasing from the vendor or can be made at home using the components, owing to its open
source hardware feature. It is basically used in communications and in controlling or operating
many devices. It was founded by Massimo Banzi and David Cuartielles in 2005.
Arduino Architecture:
Arduino’s processor basically uses the Harvard architecture where the program code and
program data have separate memory. It consists of two memories- Program memory and the
data memory.The code is stored in the flash program memory, whereas the data is stored in the
data memory. The Atmega328 has 32 KB of flash memory for storing code (of which 0.5 KB is
used for the bootloader), 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM and operates with a clock speed
of 16MHz.

Arduino Architecture
Arduino Pin Diagram
A typical example of Arduino board is Arduino Uno. It consists of ATmega328- a 28 pin
microcontroller.

Arduino Pin Diagram

Arduino Uno consists of 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6
analog inputs, a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header,
and a reset button

Power Jack:  Arduino can be power either from the pc through a USB or through external
source like adaptor or a battery. It can operate on a external supply of 7 to 12V. Power can be
applied externally through the pin Vin or by giving voltage reference through the IORef pin.

Digital Inputs: It consists of 14 digital inputs/output pins, each of which provide or take up
40mA current. Some of them have special functions like pins 0 and 1, which act as Rx and Tx
respectively , for serial communication, pins 2 and 3-which are external interrupts, pins
3,5,6,9,11 which provides pwm output and pin 13 where LED is connected.

Analog inputs: It has 6 analog input/output pins, each providing a resolution of 10 bits.
ARef: It provides reference to the analog inputs

Reset: It resets the microcontroller when low.

How to program an Arduino?

The most important advantage with Arduino is the programs can be directly loaded to the device
without requiring any hardware programmer to burn the program. This is done because of the
presence of the 0.5KB of Bootloader which allows the program to be burned into the circuit. All
we have to do is to download the Arduino software and writing the code.

The Arduino tool window consists of the toolbar with the buttons like verify, upload, new, open,
save, serial monitor. It also consists of a text editor to write the code, a message area which
displays the feedback like showing the errors, the text console which displays the output and a
series of menus like the File, Edit, Tools menu.
5 Steps to program an Arduino
 Programs written in Arduino are known as sketches. A basic sketch consists of 3 parts

1. Declaration of Variables
2. Initialization: It is written in the setup () function.
3. Control code: It is written in the loop () function.
 The sketch is saved with .ino extension. Any operations like verifying, opening a sketch, saving a
sketch can be done using the buttons on the toolbar or using the tool menu.

 The sketch should be stored in the sketchbook directory.

 Chose the proper board from the tools menu and the serial port numbers.

 Click on the upload button or chose upload from the tools menu. Thus the code is uploaded by the
bootloader onto the microcontroller.

Few of basic Adruino functions are:

 digitalRead(pin): Reads the digital value at the given pin.

 digitalWrite(pin, value): Writes the digital value to the given pin.

 pinMode(pin, mode): Sets the pin to input or output mode.

 analogRead(pin): Reads and returns the value.

 analogWrite(pin, value): Writes the value to that pin.

 serial.begin(baud rate): Sets the beginning of serial communication by setting the bit rate.

How to Design your own Arduino?

We can also design our own Arduino by following the schematic given by the Arduino vendor
and also available at the websites. All we need are the following components- A breadboard, a
led, a power jack, a IC socket, a microcontroller, few resistors, 2 regulators, 2 capacitors.

 The IC socket and the power jack are mounted on the board.

 Add the 5v and 3.3v regulator circuits using the combinations of regulators and capacitors.

 Add proper power connections to the microcontroller pins.

 Connect the reset pin of the IC socket to a 10K resistor.

 Connect the crystal oscillators to pins 9 and 10

 Connect the led to the appropriate pin.

 Mount the female headers onto the board and connect them to the respective pins on the chip.

 Mount the row of 6 male headers, which can be used as an alternative to upload programs.

 Upload the program on the Microcontroller of the readymade Adruino and then pry it off and
place back on the user kit.
7 Reasons why Arduino is being preferred these days
 It is inexpensive

 It comes with an open source hardware feature which enables users to develop their own kit using
already available one as a reference source.

 The Arduino software is compatible with all types of operating systems like Windows, Linux,
and Macintosh etc.

 It also comes with open source software feature which enables experienced software developers
to use the Arduino code to merge with the existing programming language libraries and can be
extended and modified.

 It is easy to use for beginners.

 We can develop an Arduino based project which can be completely stand alone or projects which
involve direct communication with the software loaded in the computer.

 It comes with an easy provision of connecting with the CPU of the computer using serial
communication over USB as it contains built in power and reset circuitry.

So this is some basic idea regarding an Arduino. You can use it for many types of applications.
For instance in applications involving controlling some actuators like motors, generators, based
on the input from sensors.

SOFTWARE DETAILS

Software’s used in this project are the following

1. Arduino(for programming)

Arduino (for programming)

The Arduino IDE is a cross-platform Java application that serves as a code editor and compiler
and is also capable of transferring firmware serially to the board.

The development environment is based on Processing, an IDE designed to introduce

programming to artists unfamiliar with software development. The programming language is
derived from Wiring, a C-like language that provides similar functionality for a more tightly
restricted board design, whose IDE is also based on Processing.
CONCLUSION

The proposed method is a solution to the current waste management problem which will efrfectively
segregate metal, glass and plastic .This system can be effectively deployed in industries for material
segregation, scrap shops and urban households. The waste separated material can be used to produce
the desired products thus helps in saving economy and resources.
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