Transistor

• A semiconductor device that can be

modeled with dependent sources
• Transistor types:
– Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
– Field Effect Transistor (FET)
• A transistor has different operating
modes with different i-v characteristics
INTRODUCTION

2
 TRANSISTORS
A bipolar transistor consists of a three-
layer "sandwich" of doped (extrinsic)
semiconductor materials, either P-N-P
or N-P-N. Each layer forming the
transistor has a specific name (Emitter
- E, Base - B and Collector-C), and
each layer is provided with a wire
contact for connection to a circuit
 TERMINOLOGY AND SYMBOLS

•Both, PNP and NPN transistors can be thought of

as two very closely spaced PN junctions.
•The base must be small to allow interaction
between the two PN junctions.
4
•There are four regions of operation of a BJT transistor

•Since it has three leads, there are three possible amplifiers

5
Qualitative Description of Transistor Operation
•Emitter doping is much
larger than base doping
•Base doping larger than
collector doping
•Current components: IE
= IEp + IEn IC = ICp
+ ICn IB = IE -
I•CI = =
IB1current
+ IB2 +from
IB3 electrons
B1
being back injected into the
forward-biased emitter-base
junction
•IB2 = current due to electrons that replace the recombined electrons
in the base,
•IB3 = collector current due to thermally-generated electrons in the
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 Circuit Definitions
Base Transport Factor aT :
T = ICp /IEp  Ideally it would be equal to unity
(recombination in the base reduces its value)
Emitter Injection Efficiency :
 = IEp /(ICp + IEp) = IEp /IE  Approaches unity if emitter
doping is much larger than base doping
Alpha-dc:
dc= IC /IE = (ICp+ ICn ) /(Iep + IEn) = ICp /(Iep + IEn ) = dc
Beta-dc:
dc = IC /IB = IC /(IE - IC) = dc /(1- dc)  Current gain is
large when dc approaches unity
Collector-reverse Saturation Current:
IBCo = ICn  IC = ICp + ICn = dcIE + IBCo
7
Collector Current in Common-emitter Configuration:
IC =dc(IC + IB) +IBCo
 IC ={dc /(1-dc)}* IB +IBCo /(1- dc)

 IC =dc +IECo

 IECo =(1+ dc) IBCo

Large Current Gain Capability:
Small base current IB forces the E-B junction to be
forward biased and inject large number of holes which
travel through the base to the collector.

8
 Bipolar Transistor Biasing (NPN)

FB RB

Emitter Collector
- N P N
+
Base +
9
 Bipolar Transistor Biasing (PNP)

FB RB

Emitter P Collector
+
N P
-
Base +

10
 Bipolar Transistor Operation (PNP)
•90% of the current carriers pass through the
reverse biased base - collector PN junction
and enter the collector of the transistor.
•10% of the current carriers exit transistor
through the base.
•The opposite is true for a NPN transistor.

11
 Transistor Characteristic Curve

90 uA IB
IC 80 uA
70 uA
Q-Point
Saturation 60 uA
50 uA
40 uA
30 uA
20 uA
10 uA
0 uA

Cutoff VCE

12
 Bipolar Transistor Amplifiers
•Amplifier Classification
–Amplifiers can be classified in three
ways:
•Type (Construction / Connection)
–Common Emitter
–Common Base
–Common Collector
•Bias (Amount of time during each half-cycle
output is developed).
–Class A, Class B, Class AB, Class C
•Operation
–Amplifier
–Electronic Switch 13
 Common Emitter Schematic

Output Signal Flow Path

RC +VCC +
RB
+
Q1 0
0

Input Signal Output Signal

Input Signal Flow Path

14
 Kirchoff Voltage Law

• DC Kirchoff Voltage Law Equations and Paths

+VCC
Base - Emitter Circuit
RC
RB
IBRB + VBE - VCC = 0

Q1 Collector - Emitter Circuit

ICRC + VCE - VCC = 0

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 Common Emitter Operation

+
Positive Going Signal
RC
0 Base becomes more (+) WRT
RB
Input Emitter  FB   IC  
Signal VRC   VC  
Q1
VOUT  ( Less + )

Negative Going Signal

Base becomes less (+) WRT
Output + Emitter  FB   IC  
Signal VR   VC  
C
VOUT  ( More + )
0
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 Common Base Schematic

Q1
Input Signal Flow Path

RE RB RC
+ +
CC
0 +VCC
0

Output Signal Flow Path

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 Kirchoff Voltage Law
• DC Kirchoff Voltage Law Equations and Paths
Q1

Base - Emitter Circuit

RE RB RC IBRB + VBE + IERE - VCC = 0

CC
+VCC Collector - Emitter Circuit
ICRC + VCE + IERE - VCC = 0

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 Common Base Operation
Q1
Positive Going Signal

RE RB RC Base becomes more (+) WRT

Emitter  FB   IC  
CC VR   VC  
C
+VCC
VOUT  ( More + )

Negative Going Signal

+ Base becomes less (+) WRT
Emitter  FB   IC  
0 0 VR   VC  
C
Input Output VOUT  ( Less + )
Signal Signal
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 Common Collector Schematic

Output Signal Flow Path

+VCC

+ RB
Q1
0
Input Signal +
RE 0
Input Signal Flow Path
Output Signal

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 Kirchoff Voltage Law
• DC Kirchoff Voltage Law Equations and Paths

+VCC
Base - Emitter Circuit
IBRB + VBE + IERE - VCC = 0
RB
Q1
Collector - Emitter Circuit
ICRC + VCE + IERE - VCC = 0
RE

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 Common Collector Operation
+VCC Positive Going Signal
RB Base becomes more (+) WRT
Emitter  FB   IE  
Q1
VRE   VE  
VOUT  ( More + )
RE
Negative Going Signal
Base becomes less (+) WRT
+ +
Emitter  FB   IE  
0 0 VRE   VE  
Input Output VOUT  ( Less + )
Signal Signal
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 Transistor Bias Stabilization

Used to compensate for temperature

effects which affects semiconductor
operation. As temperature
increases, free electrons gain energy
and leave their lattice structures
which causes current to increase.

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 Types of Bias Stabilization
•Self Bias: A portion of the output is fed back to the
input 180o out of phase. This negative feedback will
reduce overall amplifier gain.
•Fixed Bias: Uses resistor in parallel with Transistor
emitter-base junction.
•Combination Bias: This form of bias stabilization
uses a combination of the emitter resistor form and
a voltage divider. It is designed to compensate for
both temperature effects as well as minor
fluctuations in supply (bias) voltage.
•Emitter Resister Bias: As temperature increases,
current flow will increase. This will result in an
increased voltage drop across the emitter resistor
which opposes the potential on the emitter of the
transistor. 24
 Self Bias Schematic

+VCC
+

o
++o RC

Initial Self Bias +

Input Feedback RB

Q1
o
+
VOUT
=
o
Resulting
Input
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 Emitter Bias Schematic
+VCC
DC Component

AC Component
RC

RB ++ +
+ + Q1
o
o - VOUT
Initial +
Input RE CE
-

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 Combination Bias Schematic
+VCC
DC Component

AC Component
RC

RB1 ++ +
+
+ Q1
o
o RB2
Initial
- VOUT
Input + CE
RE
-

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Amplifier Frequency Response
•The range or band of input signal frequencies
over which an amplifier operates with a
constant gain.
•Amplifier types and frequency response
ranges.
•Audio Amplifier
–15 Hz to 20 KHz
•Radio Frequency (RF) Amplifier
–10 KHz to 100,000 MHz
•Video Amplifier (Wide Band Amplifier)
–10 Hz to 6 MHz

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 Class ‘A’ Amplifier Curve

IC 90 uA IB
80 uA
70 uA

Saturation 60 uA
50 uA
40 uA
30 uA
20 uA
Q-Point
10 uA
0 uA

Cutoff VCE

29
 Class ‘B’ Amplifier Curve

IC
90 uA IB
80 uA
70 uA

60 uA
Saturation
50 uA

40 uA

30 uA

20 uA
Q-Point 10 uA

0 uA

VCE
Cutoff

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 Class ‘AB’ Amplifier Curve
Can be used for guitar distortion.

90 uA IB
IC 80 uA
70 uA

60 uA
Saturation
50 uA

40 uA

30 uA

20 uA

Q-Point 10 uA

0 uA

Cutoff VCE

31
 Class ‘C’ Amplifier Curve

90 uA IB
IC 80 uA
70 uA

60 uA
Saturation
50 uA

40 uA

30 uA

20 uA

10 uA

0 uA

Q-Point
Cutoff VCE

32
 Transistor Fundamentals
Semiconductor devices that have-three or more elements
are called transistors. The term transistor was derived
from the words transfer and resistor. This term best
describes the operation of the transistor.

There are many different types of transistors, but their

basic theory of operation is all the same. The three
elements of the two-junction transistor are:

(1)Emitter, which gives off, or emits," current carriers

(electrons or holes);
(2) Base, which controls the flow of current carriers; and

(3) Collector, which collects the current carriers.

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Introduction to BJT Small Signal

Analysis
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

• BJTs are made up of alternating layers of n

and p semiconductor materials joined
metallurgically
• Two types of BJTs:
– pnp-type: Principal conduction by positive
holes
– npn-type:Principal conduction by negative
electrons
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
• BJT is a three terminal device:
– Emitter (E)
– Collector (C)
– Base (B)
vBE : Base-Emitter voltage
vCE : Collector-Emitter voltage
iC : Collector Current
iB : Base Current
iE : Emitter Current
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
• Applying KCL to BJT:
iE  iC  iB
– Finding two currents can yield the third one
• Three operating modes of the BJT
transistors:
– Active mode
– Cutoff mode
– Saturation mode
 Active Mode
• In active mode collector current is controlled by
base current and base-emitter voltage is constant:

iC   iB
iC v iB V
BE 
vBE: Vforward
 current gain
 :Vforward
: current
threshold gain
voltage

V : threshold voltage
 Disadvantage

 Re model
• Fails to account the output impedance
level of device and feedback effect from
output to input
 Hybrid equivalent model
• Limited to specified operating condition
in order to obtain accurate result

39
 Amplification in the AC domain

• The transistor can be employed as an

amplifying device. That is, the output
sinusoidal signal is greater than the
input signal or the ac input power is
greater than ac input power.
• How the ac power output can be
greater than the input ac power?

40
 Amplification in the AC domain
 Conservation; output
power of a system
cannot be large than its
input and the efficiency
cannot be greater than 1
 The input dc plays the
important role for the
amplification to
contribute its level to the
ac domain where the
conversion will become
as η=Po(ac)/Pi(dc) 41
 Amplification in the AC domain

• The superposition theorem is applicable for the

analysis and design of the dc & ac components of a
BJT network, permitting the separation of the
analysis of the dc & ac responses of the system.
• In other words, one can make a complete dc analysis
of a system before considering the ac response.
• Once the dc analysis is complete, the ac response
can be determined using a completely ac analysis.

42
 BJT Transistor Model
• Use equivalent circuit
• Schematic symbol for the device can be replaced by this
equivalent circuits.
• Basic methods of circuit analysis is applied.
• DC levels were important to determine the Q-point
• Once determined, the DC level can be ignored in the AC
analysis of the network.
• Coupling capacitors & bypass capacitor were chosen to
have a very small reactance at the frequency of
applications.

43
 BJT Transistor Model
The AC equivalent of a network is
obtained by:
1. Setting all DC sources to zero & replacing them by a
short-circuit equivalent.
2. Replacing all capacitors by a short-circuit equivalent.
3. Removing all elements bypassed by short-circuit
equivalent.
4. Redrawing the network.

44
45
46
Example

47
Example

48
Example

49
 The re transistor model

• Common Base PNP Configuration

50
Common Base PNP Configuration
• Transistor is replaced by a
single diode between E & B,
and control current source
between B & C
• Collector current Ic is
controlled by the level of
emitter current Ie.
• For the ac response the diode
can be replaced by its
equivalent ac resistance.

51
 Common Base PNP Configuration
• The ac resistance of
a diode can be
determined by the
equation;
26mV
re 
IE

Where ID is the dc
current through the
diode at the Q-point.

52
Common Base PNP Configuration
• Input impedance is
relatively small and output
impedance quite high.

Z i  re CB
• range from a few Ω to
max 50 Ω

Zo   CB
• Typical values are in the
MΩ

53
The common-base characteristics

54
 Voltage Gain
output voltage : Vo   I o RL
 ( I C ) RL
 I e RL
input voltage : Vi  I i Z i
 Ie Zi
 I e re
VO I e RL
voltage gain : AV  
Vi I e re
 RL

re
RL
 AV 
re 55
 Current Gain
I o  I C  I e
Ai   
Ii Ie Ie
Ai    1
• The fact that the polarity of the Vo as determined by the
current IC is the same as defined by figure below.
• It reveals that Vo and Vi are in phase for the common-base
configuration.

56
 Common Base PNP Configuration

Approximate model for a common-base npn transistor configuration

57
Example 1: For a common-base configuration in figure
below with IE=4mA, =0.98 and AC signal of 2mV is
applied between the base and emitter terminal:
a) Determine the Zi b) Calculate Av if RL=0.56k
c) Find Zo and Ai

Ie Ic
e c

re Ic  α Ie
b b

common-base re equivalent cct

58
Solution:
26m 26m
a) Zi  re    6.5
IE 4m

RL 0.98(0.56k )
b) Av    84.43
re 6.5

c) Zo  Ω
Io
Ai      0.98
Ii

59
Example 2: For a common-base configuration in previous
example with Ie=0.5mA, =0.98 and AC signal of 10mV is
applied, determine:
a) Zi b) Vo if RL=1.2k c) Av d)Ai e) Ib

Solution :
d) Ai    0.98
Vi 10m
a) Zi    20
Ie 0.5m
e) Ib  Ie - Ic
 Ie - Ie
b) Vo  IcRL  IeRL
 0.98(0.5m)(1.2k)  0.5m(1   )
 588mV  0.5m(1  0.98)
 10A

Vo 588m
c) Av    58.8
Vi 10m

60
 Common Emitter NPN Configuration
• Base and emitter are
input terminal
• Collector and emitter
are output terminals

61
 Common Emitter NPN Configuration
• Substitute re
equivalent circuit

I c  I b
• Current through diode

I e  I c  I b  I b  I b
I e  (   1) I b  I b
62
 • Input impedance

Vi Vbe
input impedance : Z i  
Ii Ib
input voltage : Vi  I e re
 (   1) I b re
(   1) I b re
so that Zi 
Ib
 Z i  (   1)re
 usually greater than 1 ; Z i   re

63
The output graph

64
 Output impedance Zo
Ii=Ib
b c

 Ib
re ro Zo
e e
re model for the C-E transistor configuration

Ii=Ib = 0A
b c

Vs=0V Ib  0A
re ro

e e

Zo  ro
if ro is ignored thus the
Zo  Ω (open cct, high impedance)65
 Voltage Gain Current Gain

output voltage : Vo   I o RL
Vo   I c RL I o I C I b
Ai   
  I b RL Ii Ib Ib
input voltage : Vi  I i Z i  Ai  
 I b  re
Vo  I b RL
so that AV  
Vi I b re
 RL
 AV 
re
66
re model for common-emitter

67
Example 3: Given =120 and IE(dc)=3.2mA for a common-
emitter configuration with ro=  , determine:

a) Zi b)Av if a load of 2 k is applied c) Ai with the 2 k load

Solution :
26m 26m
a) re    8.125
IE 3.2m
Zi  re  120(8.125)  975

RL 2k
b)Av      246.15
re 8.125

Io
c) Ai     120
Ii

68
Example 4: Using the npn common-emitter configuration,
determine the following if =80, IE(dc)=2 mA and ro=40 k

a) Zi b) Ai if RL =1.2k  c) Av if RL=1.2k 
Ii=Ib
b c Solution :
Io
26m 26m
 Ib a) re    13
re ro RL IE 2m
Zi  re  80(13)  1.04k
e
re model for the C-E transistor configuration

69
Solution (cont)
Io IL
b)Ai  
Ii Ib
ro( Ib)
IL 
ro  RL
ro( Ib)
ro  RL ro 40k
Ai     (80)
Ib ro  RL 40k  1.2k
 77.67

RL ro 1.2k 40k
c)Av      89.6
re 13

70
 Common Collector Configuration

• For the CC configuration, the model

defined for the common-emitter
configuration is normally applied rather
than defining a model for the common-
collector configuration.

71
 END
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