ELL 100-Introduction to Electrical Engineering

CHAPTER : DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES

LECTURE 36
Prof. Bhim Singh
Course Coordinator
CEA Chair Professor
FNAE, FNA, FNASc, FASc, FTWAS,FIEEE, FIET, FIETE, FIE (I),
C. ENGR
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
New Delhi-110016-India
Phone: (+91)-11-2659-1071(O)
+91-11-2659-1890(R), (+91)-9811502125(M)
Fax No. (+91)-11-2659-6199
 Outline

 Introduction: working principle and construction

 Armature and field connections

 A DC machine as generator or motor

 Calculation of EMF generated in an armature winding

 Speed of a motor

 Torque of an electric motor

2
 Outline

 Speed characteristics of electric motors

 Torque characteristics of electric motors

 Speed control of DC motors

 Exercise/Numerical Analysis

3
 INTRODUCTION

• The direct current (dc) machine can be used as a motor or as a

generator.

• DC Machine is most often used for a motor.

• The major advantages of dc machines are the easy speed and torque
regulation.

4
 INTRODUCTION

• However, their application is limited to mills, mines and trains. As

examples, trolleys and under ground sub way cars may use dc
motors.

• In the past, automobiles were equipped with dc dynamos to charge

their batteries.

5
 INTRODUCTION

Blower Small toy motor

6
 INTRODUCTION

Lathe Machine Milling Machine

7
 INTRODUCTION

DC Motors

8
 INTRODUCTION

Cranes Hoists
9
 INTRODUCTION

Conveyor Belt Electric tram

10
 INTRODUCTION
We are surrounded by various source/form of energy around us like

Elevators

11
 INTRODUCTION

Rolling Mill Shearing Machine

12
 Introduction

Drones

13
 INTRODUCTION

Drones

14
 INTRODUCTION

Robots

15
 INTRODUCTION

Robots

16
 INTRODUCTION

Robots

17
INTRODUCTION

18
INTRODUCTION

Robots

19
 INTRODUCTION

DC Motors

20
 INTRODUCTION

Drilling Machine Centrifugal Pump

21
INTRODUCTION

Rotor of a dc motor
22
 INTRODUCTION

An electrical motor consists of a cylindrical rotor that spins inside a stator

23
 INTRODUCTION
Construction and working principle
of dc machine
Figure shows the general arrangement
of a four-pole d.c. motor or generator.

Fixed part consists of four steel cores

C, referred to as pole cores attached
to a steel ring R, called the yoke.

Each pole core carries a winding F so

connected as to excite the poles
dc Machine
alternately N and S. 24
 INTRODUCTION
Construction of dc machine

The armature core A consists of steel

laminations, about 0.4–0.6 mm thick

The purpose of laminating the core is to

reduce the eddy-current loss.

Slots are stamped on the periphery of the

laminations, partly to accommodate and
provide mechanical security to the
dc Machine armature winding
25
 INTRODUCTION
Construction of dc machine

Give a shorter air gap for the magnetic flux to

cross between the pole face and the armature
‘teeth’.

The term conductor, when applied to armature

windings, refers to the active portion of the
winding, namely that part which cuts the flux,
there by generating an e.m.f.
dc Machine
26
 INTRODUCTION
Construction of dc machine

If an armature has 40 slots and if each slot

contains 8 wires, the armature is said to have 8
conductors per slot and a total of 320
conductors.

The dotted lines represent the distribution of

the useful magnetic flux.

Flux passes into the armature core and is

therefore cut by the armature conductors when
dc Machine the armature revolves. 27
 INTRODUCTION
Construction of dc machine

The magnetic flux which emerges from N1

divides, half going towards S1 and half towards
S2.

Similarly, the flux emerging from N2 divides

equally between S1 and S2.

If the armature to revolve clockwise, as shown

by the curved arrow in Figure.
dc Machine
28
 INTRODUCTION
Construction of dc machine

Applying Fleming’s right-hand rule.

We find that the e.m.f. generated in the

conductors is towards the paper in those
moving under the N poles and

Outwards from the paper in those moving

under the S poles.
dc Machine

29
 INTRODUCTION
Construction of dc machine

If the air gap is of uniform length, the e.m.f.

generated in a conductor remains constant
while it is moving under a pole face.

Then decreases rapidly to zero when the

conductor is midway between the pole tips of
adjacent poles.

dc Machine
30
 INTRODUCTION
Construction of dc machine
Figure shows the variation of the e.m.f.
generated in a conductor while the latter is
moving through two pole pitches.

pole pitch being the distance between the

centres of adjacent poles.

Thus, at instant O, the conductor is midway

between the pole tips of, say, S2 and N1, and
CD represents the e.m.f. generated while the
conductor is moving under the pole face of N1.
31
 INTRODUCTION
Construction of dc machine

The e.m.f. being assumed positive when its

direction is towards the paper in Figure.

At instant E, the conductor is midway between

the pole tips of N1 and S1, and portion EFGH
represents the variation of the e.m.f.

while the conductor is moving through the

next pole pitch.
32
 INTRODUCTION
Construction of dc machine

The variation of e.m.f. during interval OH in

Figure is repeated indefinitely, so long as the
speed is maintained constant.

d.c. machine, however, has to give a voltage

that remains constant in direction and in
magnitude.

It is therefore necessary to use a commutator to

enable a steady or direct voltage.
33
 INTRODUCTION
Construction of dc machine

Figure shows a Longitudinal or axial section

and an end elevation of half of a relatively
small commutator.

It consists of a large number of wedge shaped

copper segments or bars C, assembled side by
side to form a ring.

The segments being insulated from one

another by thin mica sheets P. 34
INTRODUCTION
The segments are shaped as shown so that they
can be clamped securely between a V-ring B.

which is part of a cast-iron bush or sleeve, and

another V-ring R which is tightened and kept
in place by a nut N.

The bush is keyed to shaft S. The copper

segments are insulated from the V-rings by
collars of mica based insulation M.

35
INTRODUCTION

A composite of mica flakes bonded with epoxy

resin, fabricated to the exact shape of the rings.

At the end adjacent to the winding, each

segment has a milled slot to accommodate two
armature wires W which are soldered to the
segment.

36
 INTRODUCTION
Construction of dc machine

Details of the Commutator of a dc motor

37
 INTRODUCTION

dc motor stator with poles visible

38
 INTRODUCTION
Construction of dc machine

Cutaway view of a dc motor

39
 DC MOTOR OPERATION

In a dc motor, the stator poles

are supplied by dc excitation
current, which produces a dc
magnetic field.

dc motor operation
40
DC MOTOR OPERATION

The rotor is supplied by dc

current through the brushes,
commutator and coils.

The interaction of the magnetic

field and rotor current generates
a force that drives the motor.

41
DC MOTOR OPERATION

42
DC MOTOR OPERATION

43
DC MOTOR OPERATION

The magnetic field lines enter into the rotor

from the north pole (N) and exit toward the
south pole(S).

The poles generate a magnetic field that is

perpendicular to the current carrying
conductors.

44
DC MOTOR OPERATION

The interaction between the field and the

current produces a Lorentz force

The force is perpendicular to both the

magnetic field and conductor.

45
DC MOTOR OPERATION

The generated force turns the rotor

until the coil reaches the neutral point
between the poles.

At this point, the magnetic field

becomes practically zero together with
the force.

46
DC MOTOR OPERATION

However, inertia drives the motor

beyond the neutral zone where the
direction of the magnetic field reverses.

To avoid the reversal of the force

direction, the commutator changes the
current direction, which maintains the
counter clockwise rotation.

47
DC MOTOR OPERATION

The generated force turns the rotor until

the coil reaches the neutral point between
the poles.

At this point, the magnetic field becomes

practically zero together with the force.

48
DC MOTOR OPERATION

However, inertia drives the motor beyond the

neutral zone where the direction of the
magnetic field reverses.

To avoid the reversal of the force direction, the

commutator changes the current direction,
which maintains the counterclockwise
rotation.

49
DC GENERATOR OPERATION
The N-S poles produce a dc magnetic field
and the rotor coil turns in this field.

A turbine or other machine drives the rotor.

The conductors in the slots cut the magnetic

flux lines, which induce voltage in the rotor
coils.

The coil has two sides: one is placed in slot a,

the other in slot b.
50
DC GENERATOR OPERATION

In Figure a, the conductors in slot a are

cutting the field lines entering into the rotor
from the north pole.

The conductors in slot b are cutting the field

lines exiting from the rotor to the south pole.

51
DC GENERATOR OPERATION

The cutting of the field lines generates

voltage in the conductors.

The voltages generated in the two sides of

the coil are added.

52
DC GENERATOR OPERATION

The induced voltage is connected to the

generator terminals through the
commutator and brushes.

In Figure a, the induced voltage in b is

positive, and in a is negative.

53
DC GENERATOR OPERATION

The positive terminal is connected to

commutator segment 2 and to the
conductors in slot b.

The negative terminal is connected to

segment 1and to the conductors in slot a.

54
DC GENERATOR OPERATION

When the coil passes the neutral zone:

Conductor sin slot a are then moving

toward the south pole and cut flux
lines exiting from the rotor

Conductors in slot b cut the flux lines

entering the in slot b.

55
DC GENERATOR OPERATION

This changes the polarity of the

induced voltage in the coil.

The voltage induced in a is now

positive, and in b is negative.

56
DC GENERATOR OPERATION

The simultaneously the commutator

reverses its terminals, which assures
that the output voltage (Vdc) polarity is
unchanged.

In Figure B

–the positive terminal is

connected to commutator
segment 1 and to the conductors
in slot a. 57
DC GENERATOR OPERATION

–The negative terminal is

connected to segment 2 and to
the conductors in slot b.

58
ARMATURE AND FIELD CONNECTIONS
1. Separately excited machines – the field winding
being connected to a source of supply other than the
armature of its own machine.
2. Self-excited machines, which may be subdivided
into:
(a) shunt-wound machines – the field winding being
connected across the armature terminals;
(b) series-wound machines – the field winding being
connected in series with the armature winding;
(c) compound-wound machines – a combination of
shunt and series windings.
59
 Calculation of e.m.f. generated in an armature
winding
 Armature is rotated through one revolution

 Conductor cuts the magnetic flux

 Emanating from all the N poles

 Also that entering all the S poles.

 Consequently, if Φ is the useful flux per pole, in webers

 Entering or leaving the armature

60
 Calculation of e.m.f. generated in an armature
winding

 p the number of pairs of poles

 Nr the speed in revolutions per minute

60
Time of one revolution  seconds
Nr
Time taken by a conductor to move one pole pitch is
60 1
 . seconds
Nr 2 p
61
 Calculation of e.m.f. generated in an armature
winding
Therefore average rate at which conductor cuts the flux is

 60 1  2 N r p
  .   webers per second
 Nr 2 p  60
The average e.m.f. generated in each conductor is
2 N r p
volts
60

62
 Calculation of e.m.f. generated in an armature
winding

If Z is the total number of armature conductors, and c the number of

parallel paths through winding between positive and negative brushes (2
for a wave winding, and 2p for a lap winding)

*Apart from a few special windings, armature windings can be divided

into two groups, depending upon the manner in which the wires are
joined to the commutator, namely:
1. Lap windings
2. Wave windings
63
Calculation of e.m.f. generated in an armature
winding

Lap windings Wave windings

64
 Calculation of e.m.f. generated in an armature
winding
Z
= number of conductors in series in each path
c
 The brushes are assumed to be in contact with segments

 connected to conductors in which no e.m.f. is being generated

 The e.m.f. generated in each conductor

65
 Calculation of e.m.f. generated in an armature
winding
 While it is moving between positions of zero e.m.f. varies as shown by
curve OCDE in Figure.

 The number of conductors in series in each of the parallel paths

between the brushes remains practically constant;

 hence total e.m.f. between brushes is

66
Calculation of e.m.f. generated in an armature
winding

Average e.m.f. per conductor

× no. of conductors in series per path
2 N r p Z
  volts
60 c
Z Nr p
Therefore, E  2    volts
c 60

67
 Armature Reaction

Field current alone Armature current alone

A two-pole armature winding

Field and armature currents 68
 Armature Reaction

Armature reaction is the effect of

armature ampere-turns upon the value
and the distribution of the magnetic
flux entering and leaving the armature
core.

A two-pole armature winding

69
 Armature Reaction

A two-pole machine having an armature

with eight slots and two conductors per slot,
as shown in Figure.

The curved lines between the conductors

and the commutator segments represent the
front end connections of the armature
winding and those on the outside of the
armature represent the back end
connections.
A two-pole armature winding
70
Armature Reaction
Brushes A and B are placed so that they are
making contact with conductors which are
moving midway between the poles and have
therefore no e.m.f. induced in them.

If the armature moves anticlockwise, the

direction of the e.m.f.s generated in the
various conductors is opposite to that of the
currents, which are indicated in Figure (b)
by the dots and crosses.

71
Armature Reaction

In diagrams where the end connections are

omitted, it is usual to show the brushes
midway between the poles, as in Figure..

72
 Armature Reaction

The distribution of flux when there is no armature current, the flux in

the gap being
practically radial and uniformly distributed.

73
Armature Reaction
Figure (b) shows the distribution of the flux
set up by current flowing through the
armature winding in the direction that it will
actually flow when the machine is loaded as
a motor.

It will be seen that at the centre of the

armature core and in the pole shoes the
direction of this flux is at right angles to that
due to the field winding; hence the reason
why the flux due to the armature current is
termed cross flux.
74
 Armature Reaction

*The pole tip which is first met during revolution by a point on the
armature or stator surface is known as the leading tip and the other as
the trailing pole tip.

75
Armature Reaction

Figure (c) shows the resultant distribution of

the flux due to the combination of the fluxes
in Figure (a) and (b); thus over the trailing
halves of the pole faces the cross flux is in
opposition to the main flux,

thereby reducing the flux density, whereas

over the leading halves the two fluxes are in
the same direction, so that the flux density is
strengthened.

76
Armature Reaction
Apart from the effect of magnetic
saturation, the increase of flux over
one half of the pole face is the same as
the decrease over the other half

The total flux per pole remains

practically unaltered.

Hence, in a motor, the effect of

armature reaction is to twist or distort
the flux against the direction of
rotation.
77
 Split-ring commutator
• It is seen that in the case of the elementary dynamo, a sinusoidal
varying emf is generated.
• To obtain unidirectional generated emf from rotating armature, or to
obtain unidirectional torque from direct current, a rotating mechanical
switch called split-ring commutator is used.
 Speed of a motor

EMF induced in an armature winding

Z Nr p
E2    volts
c 60
For a given machine, Z, c and p are fixed; in such a case we can write
E = kNrΦ
Z p
where k  2 .
c 60

79
 Speed of a motor

The speed of an electric motor is approximately proportional to

the voltage applied to the armature and
inversely proportional to the flux

All methods of controlling the speed involve the use of either or both
of these relationships.

80
 Speed of a motor

Substituting for E in expression we have

V  kN r  I a Ra

V  I a Ra
 Nr 
k
The value of IaRa is usually less than 5 % of the terminal voltage V, so that
V
Nr 
 81
 Torque of an electric motor
If we start with equation
V  E  I a Ra
and multiply each term by Ia, namely the total armature current, we have
VI a  EI a  I Ra
2
a

VIa represents the total electrical power supplied to the armature

I2aRa represents the loss due to the resistance of the armature circuit.

82
 Torque of an electric motor

The difference between these two quantities, namely Eia

Therefore, represents the mechanical power developed by the armature.

All of this mechanical power is not available externally

since some of it is absorbed as friction loss at the bearings and at the
brushes
some is wasted as hysteresis loss
and in circulating eddy currents in the ferromagnetic core.

83
 Torque of an electric motor

If M is the torque, in newton meters, exerted on the armature to develop the

mechanical power just referred to, and if Nr is the speed in revolutions per
minute, then,
2 MN r
Mechanical power developed  watts
60
2 MN r
Hence,  EI a
60

84
 Torque of an electric motor

Z Nr p
2 . . .I a
c 60
Ia
 M  0.318 .Zp newton meters
c
For a given machine, Z, c and p are fixed, in which case

M  Ia 
85
 Torque of an electric motor

The torque of a given d.c. motor is proportional to the product of the

armature current and the flux per pole.

86
 Speed characteristics of electric motors

With very few exceptions, d.c. motors are

shunt
series
or compound wound

Shunt Series Compound 87

 Speed characteristics of electric motors
The speed characteristic of a motor usually represents the
variation of speed with input current or input power, and its shape can be
easily derived from expression
V  I a Ra
Nr 
k

In shunt motors, the flux Φ is only slightly affected by the armature

current and the value of IaRa at full load rarely exceeds 5 per cent of V, so
that the variation of speed with input current may be represented by curve
A in Figure. Hence shunt motors are suitable where the speed has to
remain approximately constant over a wide range of load.
88
 Speed characteristics of electric motors
In series motors, the flux increases at first in
proportion to the current and then less rapidly
owing to magnetic saturation.

Ra in the above expression now includes the

resistance of the field winding.

The speed is roughly inversely proportional to

the current, as indicated by curve B in Figure.

It will be seen that if the load falls to a very small value, the speed may
become dangerously high. A series motor should therefore not be 89
Speed characteristics of electric motors

It will be seen that if the load falls to a very

small value, the speed may become
dangerously high.

A series motor should therefore not be

employed when there is any such risk; for
instance, it should never be belt coupled to its
load except in very small machines such as
vacuum cleaners.

90
Speed characteristics of electric motors

Since the compound motor has a combination

of shunt and series excitations, its
characteristic (curve C) is intermediate
between those of the shunt and series motors.

The exact shape depending upon the values of

the shunt and series ampere-turns.

91
Torque characteristics of electric motors

It was shown that for a given motor:

Torque ∝ armature current × flux per pole

M ∝ IaΦ

Since the flux in a shunt motor is practically

independent of the armature current

∴ Torque of a shunt motor ∝ armature current

M ∝ Ia 92
Torque characteristics of electric motors

In a series motor the flux is approximately

proportional to the current up to full load, so
that

Torque of a series motor ∝ (armature current)2, approx.

M ∝ I2a 93
Torque characteristics of electric motors
Above full load, magnetic saturation becomes
more marked and the torque does not increase
so rapidly.

Curves A, B and C in Figure show the

relative shapes of torque curves for shunt,
series and compound motors

having the same full-load torque OQ with the

same full-load armature current OP, the exact
shape of curve C depending upon the relative
value of the shunt and series ampere-turns at
full load. 94
Torque characteristics of electric motors

From Figure it is evident that for a given

current below the full-load value the shunt
motor exerts the largest torque, but for a given
current above that value the series motor exerts
the largest torque.

95
 Torque characteristics of electric motors

The maximum permissible current at starting

is usually about 1.5 times the full-load current.
Consequently where a large starting torque is
required, such as for hoists, cranes, electric
trains, etc., the series motor is the most
suitable machine.

96
Speed control of d.c. motors
A variable resistor, termed a field regulator,
in series with the shunt winding

– only applicable to shunt and compound

motors.

Such a field regulator is indicated by H in

Figure.

When the resistance is increased, the field

current, the flux and the generated e.m.f. are
reduced.
97
Speed control of d.c. motors

Consequently more current flows through the

armature and the increased torque enables the
armature to accelerate until the generated
e.m.f. is again nearly equal to the applied
voltage.

98
Speed control of d.c. motors

This method it is possible to increase the speed

to three or four times that at full excitation, but
it is not possible to reduce the speed below that
value.

Also, with any given setting of the regulator,

the speed remains approximately constant
between no load and full load.

99
Speed control of d.c. motors

A resistor, termed a controller, in series

with the armature.

The electrical connections for a

controller are exactly the same as for a
starter,

the only difference being that in a

controller the resistor elements are
designed to carry the armature current
indefinitely, 100
Speed control of d.c. motors

Whereas in a starter they can only do so for a

comparatively short time without getting
excessively hot.

For a given armature current, the larger the

controller resistance in circuit, the smaller is
the p.d. across the armature and the lower, in
consequence, is the speed.

101
Speed control of d.c. motors

This system has several disadvantages:

(a) the relatively high cost of the controller;

(b) much of the input energy may be dissipated

in the controller and the overall efficiency of
the motor considerably reduced thereby;

(c) the speed may vary greatly with variation

of load due to the change in the p.d. across the
controller causing a corresponding change in
the p.d. across the motor; 102
Speed control of d.c. motors

If the supply voltage is 250 V, and if the

current decreases so that the p.d. across the
controller falls from, say, 100 to 40 V, then the
p.d. across the motor increases from 150 V to
210 V.

103
 Speed control of d.c. motors

 The principal advantage of the system is that speeds from zero upwards
are easily obtainable, and the method is chiefly used for controlling the
speed of cranes, hoists, trains, etc.

 where the motors are frequently started and stopped and where efficiency
is of secondary importance.

104
 Speed control of d.c. motors
 When an a.c. supply is available the voltage applied to the armature can
be controlled by thyristors, the operation of which is explained.

 Briefly, the thyristor is a solid-state rectifier which is normally non-

conducting in the forward and reverse directions.

 It is provided with an extra electrode, termed the gate, so arranged that

when a pulse of current is introduced into the gate circuit, the thyristor is
‘fired’, i.e. it conducts in the forward direction.

 Once it is fired, the thyristor continues to conduct until the current falls
below the holding value. 105
 Thyristor system of speed control

Figure shows a simple arrangement for controlling a d.c. motor from a

single-phase supply.

Thyristor based speed control of a dc motor 106

 Thyristor system of speed control

 Field winding F is separately excited via bridge connected rectifiers J and

armature A is supplied via thyristor T.

 Gate G of the thyristor is connected to a firing circuit which supplies a

current pulse once every cycle.

 The arrangement of the firing circuit is not shown as it is too involved for
inclusion in this diagram.

107
 Thyristor system of speed control
In Figure, R and L represent the resistance and inductance respectively of the
armature winding and an external inductor that may be inserted to increase
the inductance of the circuit. A diode D is connected across the armature and
the inductor.

Thyristor based speed control of a dc motor 108

 Thyristor system of speed control

The sine wave in Figure (a) represents

the supply voltage and the wavy line
MN represents the e.m.f., er, generated
by the rotation of the armature.

The value of er is proportional to the

speed, which in turn varies with the
armature current.

Wave from of thyristor based speed

control of a dc motor 109
 Thyristor system of speed control

Thus, when the current exceeds the

average value, the armature accelerates,
and then decelerates when the current
falls below the average value.

The speed fluctuation indicated in

Figure (a) is exaggerated to illustrate the
effect more clearly.

Wave from of thyristor based speed

control of a dc motor 110
 Thyristor system of speed control

Suppose a current pulse to be applied to

gate G at instant P in Fig. 42.10(a).

The resulting current through the

thyristor and the armature grows at a
rate depending upon the difference
between the applied voltage, v, and the
rotational e.m.f., er, and upon the ratio
L/R for the circuit.
Wave from of thyristor based speed
control of a dc motor 111
 Thyristor system of speed control
Thus at any instant:
di
v  er  iR  L
dt

 di 
i   v  er  L  R
 dt 
While the thyristor is conducting, the p.d. across the armature and inductor,
and therefore across diode D, varies as shown by the full-line waveform in
Figure (b).
112
 Thyristor system of speed control
At instant Q , er = v, so that
L di
i .
R dt
The current is now decreasing so that di/dt is negative

Hence the current is still positive and is therefore continuing to exert a

driving torque on the armature.

113
Thyristor system of speed control
At instant S, the supply voltage is
reversing its direction.

A reverse current from the supply flows

through D, thereby making the cathode
of the thyristor positive relative to its
anode.

Consequently, the current i1 through the

thyristor falls to zero, as indicated by the
dotted line in Figure (b), so that the
thyristor reverts to its non-conducting
state. 114
 Thyristor system of speed control
Current is now confined to the closed circuit formed by the armature
and diode D. Since the p.d. across D is practically zero,

equation
 di 
i   v  er  L  R
 dt 
can now be written
 di 
i    er  L.  R
 dt 
115
 Thyristor system of speed control
 L · di/dt to exceed er. Since the value of di/dt is negative, the direction
of the current is unaltered.

 Hence the current still continues to exert a driving torque on the

armature,

 The energy supplied to the load being recovered partly from that stored
in the inductance of the circuit while the current was growing and partly
from that stored as kinetic energy in the motor and load during
acceleration.

116
 Thyristor system of speed control
The dotted waveform in Figure (c)
represents current i2 through diode D.

The latter is often referred to as a free-

wheeling diode since it carries current
when the thyristor ceases to conduct.

The later the instant of firing the

thyristor, the smaller is the average
voltage applied to the armature, and the
lower the speed in order that the motor may take the same average current
from the supply to enable it to maintain the same load torque.
117
 Thyristor system of speed control
Thus the speed of the motor can be controlled over a wide range.

An increase of motor load causes the speed to fall, thereby allowing a larger
current pulse to flow during the conducting period.

The fluctuation of current can be reduced by the following:

1. Using two thyristors to give full-wave rectification when the supply

is single-phase.

2. Using three or six thyristors when the supply is three-phase.

118
 Thyristor system of speed control
 An important application of the thyristor is the speed control of series
motors in battery-driven vehicles.

 The principle of operation is that pulses of the battery voltage are

applied to the motor, and the average value of the voltage across the
motor is controlled by varying the ratio of the ON and OFF durations
of the pulses.

 Thus, if the ON period is t1 and the OFF period is t2.

t1
Average motor voltage = battery voltage 
t1  t2
119
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[1] A four-pole wave-connected armature has 51 slots with 12 conductors
per slot and is driven at 900 r/min. If the useful flux per pole is 25 mWb,
calculate the value of the generated e.m.f.

Total number of conductors = Z = 51 × 12 = 612; c = 2; p = 2; N = 900 r/min;

Φ = 0.025 Wb.
Z Nr p
E2    volts
c 60
612 900  2
E2   0.025
2 60
 459 V
120
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[2] An eight-pole lap-connected armature, driven at 350 r/min, is
required to generate 260 V. The useful flux per pole is about 0.05 Wb. If
the armature has 120 slots, calculate a suitable number of conductors per
slot.

For an eight-pole lap winding, c = 8. Hence

Z Nr p
E2    volts
c 60
Z 350  4
260  2   0.05
8 60
Z  890
121
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

and number of conductors per slot = 890/120 = 7.4 (approx.).

This value must be an even number; hence eight conductors per slot
would be suitable.

Since this arrangement involves a total of 8 × 120 = 960 conductors,

and since a flux of 0.05 Wb per pole with 890 conductors gave 260 V,
then with 960 conductors,
the same e.m.f. is generated with a flux
 890 
 0.05     0.0464 Wb/pole
 960 
122
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[3] An eight pole lap wound DC generator has 960 conductors, a flux of 40 m
Wb per pole and is driven at 400 rpm. Find OC emf.
 ZNP
Open circuit emf, Eg 
60 A
Where, φ = 40 m Wb = 40 × 10–3 Wb; Z = 960; N = 400 rpm; P = 8
A = P = 8 (lap winding)

40 103  960  400  8

Eg   256 V
60  8

123
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[4] A 4-pole, DC machine is having 500 wave wound conductors and
running at 1000 rpm. The flux per pole is 30 m Wb. What will be the
voltage induced in the armature winding.

Here, P = 4; A = 2 (Wave wound); Z = 728; N = 1800 rpm;

φ = 35 m Wb = 35 × 10–3 Wb
 ZNP
Generated voltage, Eg 
60 A
35 103  728 1800  4
  1528.8 V
60  2
124
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[5] A 4-pole, DC machine has 144 slots in the armature with two coil-
sides per slot, each coil has two turns. The flux per pole is 20 m Wb, the
armature is lap wound and if rotates at 720 rpm, what is the induced emf
(i) across the armature (ii) across each parallel path?

Here, P = 4; A = P = 4 (Lap wound); φ = 20 m Wb = 20 × 10–13

Wb; N = 720 rpm

No. of slots = 144 with 2 coil sides per slot and each coil has two turns
Z = 144 × 2 × 2 = 576
 ZNP
Induced emf across armature, Eg 
60 A
125
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

20 103  576  720  4

  138.24 V
60  4
Voltage across each parallel path = Eg = 138.24 V

[6] A six-pole machine has an armature with 90 slots and 8 conductors

per slot, the flux per pole is 0.05 Wb and rms at 1000 rpm. Determine
induced emf if winding is (i) lap connected (ii) wave connected.

126
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

Here, P = 6; φ = 0.05 Wb; N = 1000 rpm. No. of slots = 90 each slot

with 8 conductors
Z = 90 × 8 = 720
(i) When lap connected: A = P = 6

Induced emf, Eg   ZNP

60 A
0.05  720 1000  6
  600 V
60  6

127
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

Here, P = 6; φ = 0.05 Wb; N = 1000 rpm. No. of slots = 90 each slot

with 8 conductors
Z = 90 × 8 = 720
(ii) When wave connected: A = 2

Induced emf, Eg   ZNP

60 A
0.05  720 1000  6
  1800 V
60  2

128
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[7] A DC generator carries 600 conductors on its armature with lap
connections. The generator has 8 poles with 0.06 Wb useful flux. What
will be the induced emf at its terminals if it is rotated at 1000 rpm? Also
determine the speed at which it should be driven to induce the same
voltage with wave connections?

Here, P = 8; φ = 0.06 Wb; N = 1000 rpm, Z = 600, A = P = 8 (when lap

wound)
 ZNP 0.05  816  N  8
Induced emf, Eg  300   600 V
60 A 60  2

129
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

when wave wound, let the speed be N’ rpm but Eg = 600 V

Eg  60 A 600  60  2
Now, N  '
  250 rpm
 ZP 0.06  600  8
[8] A wave wound armature of an eight-pole generator has 51 slots.
Each slot contains 16 conductors. The voltage required to be
generated is 300 V. What would be the speed of coupled prime
mover if flux per pole is 0.05 Wb. If the armature is rewound as lap
wound machine and run by same prime mover, what will be the
generated voltage.
130
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

Here, P = 8; φ = 0.05 Wb; No. of slots = 51; conductors per slot = 16

Z = 51 × 16 = 816
When the machine is wave wound, A = 2 and Eg = 300 V
 ZNP
Eg 
60 A
0.05  816  N  8
300   600 V
60  2
300  60  2
Speed, N  110.3 rpm
0.05  816  8
131
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

When the machine is rewound as lap winding, A = P = 8 and N = 110.3 rpm.

0.05  816 110.3  8

Eg   75 V
60  8
[9] A six-pole lap wound armature rotating at 350 rpm is required to
generate 260 V. The effective flux per pole is about 0.05 Wb. If the
armature has 120 slots, determine the suitable number of conductors per
slot and hence determine the actual value of flux required to generate the
same voltage.

Here, P = A = 6; N = 350 rpm, Eg = 260 V, φ = 0.05 Wb;

132
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
0.05  Z  350  6
260 
60  6
260  24
Z 
7
Z 260  24
No. of conductors/slot =   7.43  8(an integer)
No.of slots 7 120

For 8 conductors/slot, Z = 120 × 8 = 960

Eg  60 A 260  60  6
Actual value of flux required,     0.0464 Wb
ZNP 960  350  6
133
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[10] The emf generated by a 4 pole DC generation is 400 V, when the
armature is driven at 1200 rpm. Calculate the flux per pole if the wave
wound generator has 39 slots having 16 conductors per slot.
 ZNP
Induced emf, Eg 
60 A
Where, P = 4; Eg = 400 V; N = 1200 rpm; Z = 39 × 16 = 624; A = 2 (wave
winding)

Flux per pole,

Eg  60 A 400  60  2
   0.016 Wb = 16 mWb
ZNP 624 1200  4
134
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[11] A four-pole wave wound DC generator has 51 slots on its armature
and each slot has 24 conductors. The flux per pole is 0·01 weber. At what
speed must the armature rotate to give an induced emf of 220 V. What
will be the emf developed if the winding is lap connected and the
armature rotates at the same speed.
 ZNP
Induced emf, Eg 
60 A
Where, φ = 0·01 Wb; Z = 51 × 24 = 1224; E = 220 V; P = 4; A = 2 (wave
winding).
0.011224  N  4
220   N  539.21rpm
60  2
135
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

0.011224  539.21 4
Eg   110 V
60  4

136
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[12] The armature of a d.c. machine has a resistance of 0.1 Ω and is
connected to a 250 V supply. Calculate the generated e.m.f. when it is
running
(a) as a generator giving 80 A;
(b) as a motor taking 60 A.

(a) Voltage drop due to armature resistance = 80 × 0.1 = 8 V. From equation

E  V  I a Ra
Generated e.m.f. = 250 + 8 = 258 V

137
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

(b) Voltage drop due to armature resistance = 20 × 0.1 = 6 V. From equation

V  E  I a Ra

Generated e.m.f. = 250 − 6 = 244 V

[2] A four-pole motor is fed at 440 V and takes an armature current of

50 A. The resistance of the armature circuit is 0.28 Ω. The armature
winding is wave-connected with 888 conductors and the useful flux
per pole is 0.023 Wb. Calculate the speed.

138
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

From expression we have

440 = generated e.m.f. + 50 × 0.28

∴ Generated e.m.f. = 440 − 14 = 426 V

Substituting in the e.m.f. equation, we have

888 N r  2
426  2    0.023
2 60
N r  626 r/min
139
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[13] A motor runs at 900 r/min off a 460 V supply. Calculate the
approximate speed when the machine is connected across a 200 V supply.
Assume the new flux to be 0.7 of the original flux.

If Φ is the original flux, then from expression

V 460
Nr  900   k  0.511
 k
new voltage
and New speed =
k  original flux  0.7
200
Nr   559 r/min
0.511 0.7
140
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[14] A d.c. motor takes an armature current of 110 A at 480 V. The
resistance of the armature circuit is 0.2 Ω. The machine has six poles and
the armature is lap-connected with 864 conductors. The flux per pole is
0.05 Wb. Calculate
(a) the speed;
(b) the gross torque developed by the armature.

(a) Generated e.m.f. = 480 − (110 × 0.2) = 458 V

Since the armature winding is lap-connected, c = 6.

Z Nr p
Substituting in expression E  2    volts , we have
c 60 141
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
864 N r  3
458  2   0.05
6 60
N r  636 r/min
(b) Mechanical power developed by armature is (110 × 458) = 50 380 W

Substituting in expression we have,

636
2 M   50380
60
 756 Nm
142
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

Alternatively, using expression we have

Ia
M  0.318 .Zp Nm
c
110
M  0.318  864  3  0.05
6
 756 Nm

143
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[15] The torque required to drive a d.c. generator at 15 r/s is 2 kN
m. The core, friction and windage losses in the machine are 8.0 kW.
Calculate the power generated in the armature winding.

Driving torque = 2 kN m = 2000 N m

From expression, power required to drive the generator is
2π × 2000 [N m] × 15 [r/s]
= 188 400 W = 188.4 kW
Since core, friction and windage losses are 8.0 kW,

∴ Power generated in armature winding = 188.4 − 8.0 = 180.4 kW

144
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[16] A series motor runs at 600 r/min when taking 110 A from a 250 V
supply. The resistance of the armature circuit is 0.12 Ω and that of the
series winding is 0.03 Ω. The useful flux per pole for 120 A is 0.024 Wb
and that for 50 A is 0.0155 Wb. Calculate the speed when the current has
fallen to 50 A.

Total resistance of armature and series windings is

0.12 + 0.03 = 0.15 Ω

therefore e.m.f. generated when current is 110 A is

250 − 110 × 0.15 = 232 V

145
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Generated e.m.f. = a constant (say k) × speed × flux
Hence with 120 A,
232 = k × 600 × 0.024
∴ k = 16.11
With 50 A,
Generated e.m.f. = 250 − 50 × 0.15 = 242.5 V
But the new e.m.f. generated is
k × new speed × new flux
∴ 242.5 = 14.82 × new speed × 0.0155
∴ Speed for 50 A = 971 r/min

146
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[17] A shunt motor is running at 626 r/min when taking an armature
current of 50 A from a 440 V supply. The armature circuit has a
resistance of 0.28 Ω. If the flux is suddenly reduced by 5 per cent, find:
(a) the maximum value to which the current increases momentarily and
the ratio of the corresponding torque to the initial torque;
(b) the ultimate steady value of the armature current, assuming the
torque due to the load to remain unaltered.

(a) Initial e.m.f. generated = 440 − 50 × 0.28 = 426 V

Immediately after the flux is reduced 5 per cent, i.e. before the speed has
begun to increase:
New e.m.f. generated = 426 × 0.95 = 404.7 V
147
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Therefore corresponding voltage drop due to armature resistance is
440 − 404.7 = 35.3 V
and corresponding armature current is
35.3
 126 A
0.28
Torque of a given machine ∝ armature current × flux

New torue new current new flux

= ×
Initial torque intial current intial flux
126
  0.95  2.394
50
148
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Hence the sudden reduction of 5 per cent in the flux is accompanied by a
more than twofold increase of torque; this is the reason why the motor
accelerated.

(b) After the speed and current have attained steady values, the torque
will have decreased to the original value, so that
New current × new flux = original current × original flux

1
New armature current  50   52.6 A
0.95

149
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
[18] A 12 kW, six-pole DC generator develops an emf of 240 at 1500 rpm.
The armature has a lap connected winding. The average flux density
over the pole pitch is 1.0 T. The length and diameter of the armature is
30 cm and 25 cm respectively. Calculate flux per pole, total number of
active armature conductors. Power generated in the armature and
torque developed when the machine is delivering 50 A current to the
load.

Given, P = 6; V = 240 V; N = 1500 rpm; A = P = 6;

B = 1.0 T; D = 0.25 m; l = 0.3 m; Ia = IL = 50 A

150
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
D
Flux per pole,   B  l
P
  0.25
 1  0.3  0.0393 Wb
6
 ZNP
Now, Eg 
60 A
Eg  60 A 240  60  6
Z   244
 NP 0.0393 1500  6

Power developed in the armature, Pg = EgIa = 240 x 50 = 12000 W

151
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Pg Pg 12000  60
Torque developed, T     76.4 Nm
 2 N / 60 2 1500

[19] A DC generator is connected to a 220 V DC mains. The current

delivered by the generator to the mains is 100 A. The armature resistance
is 0.1 ohm. The generator is driven at a speed of 500 rpm Calculate (i)
the induced emf (ii) the electromagnetic torque (iii) the mechanical
power input to the armature neglecting iron, winding and friction losses,
(iv) Electrical power output from the armature, (v) armature copper
loss.

152
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

(i) The induced emf, Eg = V + IaRa = 220 + 0.1 × 100 = 230 V (Ans.)

(ii) Using the relation, ωT = EgIa

Electromagnetic torque,
Eg I a Eg I a
T   60
 2 N
230 100  60
  439.27 Nm
2  500

153
 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

(iii) Neglecting iron, winding and friction losses,

Input to armature = ωT (or EgIa)
2 NT 2  500  439.27
   23000 W
60 60
(iv) Electrical power output = VIa = 220 × 100 = 22000 W

(v) Armature copper losses = I2aRa =(100)2x0.1 = 1000 W

154
 PROBLEM SETS
1.The field and armature resistance of a four-pole shunt generator with lap
connected armature is 50 ohm and 0.1 ohm respectively. It is supplying a
2400 W load at a terminal voltage of 100 V. Calculate the total armature
current, the current per armature path and the generated emf.
(Ans. 26A; 6.5 A; 102.6 V )
2. A DC shunt generator supplies a load of 100 A at 200 V. The generator
has four-pole and its shunt field and armature resistance is 80 ohm and 0.1
ohm respectively. Find (i) total armature current (ii) current per conductor
and (iii) generated emf.
(Ans. 102.5 A, 25.6A; 210.25 V )

155
 PROBLEM SETS
3. A six-pole, 12 kW, 240 V DC machine is wave-connected. If the same
machine is lap-connected, all other data remaining same, calculate its
voltage, current and power ratings.
(Ans. 80V; 150 A; 12 kW)
4. A six-pole armature is wound with 498 conductors. The flux and the
speed are such that the average e.m.f. generated in each conductor is 2 V.
The current in each conductor is 120 A. Find the total current and the
generated e.m.f. of the armature if the winding is connected: (a) wave; (b)
lap. Also find the total power generated in each case.
(Ans. 240 A, 498 V; 720 A, 166 V; 119.5 kW)

156
 PROBLEM SETS
5. A four-pole armature is wound with 564 conductors and driven at 800
r/min, the flux per pole being 20 mWb. The current in each conductor is 60
A. Calculate the total current, the e.m.f. and the electrical power generated
in the armature if the conductors are connected: (a) wave; (b) lap.
( Ans. 120 A, 301 V, 36.12 kW; 240 A, 150.5 V, 36.12 kW)
6. An eight-pole lap-connected armature has 96 slots with 6 conductors per
slot and is driven at 500 r/min. The useful flux per pole is 0.09 Wb.
Calculate the generated e.m.f. (Ans. 432 V)

7. A four-pole armature has 624 lap-connected conductors and is driven at

1200 r/min. Calculate the useful flux per pole required to generate an
e.m.f. of 250 V. (Ans. 0.02 Wb)
157
 PROBLEM SETS
8. A six-pole armature has 410 wave-connected conductors. The useful flux
per pole is 0.025 Wb. Find the speed at which the armature must be driven
if the generated e.m.f. is to be 485 V. (Ans. 946 r/min)

9. The wave-connected armature of a four-pole d.c. generator is required to

generate an e.m.f. of 520 V when driven at 600 r/min. Calculate the flux
per pole required if the armature has 144 slots with two coil slides per slot,
each coil consisting of three turns. (Ans. 0.0274 Wb)

10. The armature of a four-pole d.c. generator has 47 slots, each containing
six conductors. The armature winding is wave-connected, and the flux per
pole is 25 mWb. At what speed must the machine be driven to generate an
e.m.f. of 250 V? (Ans. 1065 r/min) 158
 PROBLEM SETS
11. A shunt machine has armature and field resistances of 0.04 Ω and 100 Ω
respectively. When connected to a 460 V d.c. supply and driven as a
generator at 600 r/min, it delivers 50 kW. Calculate its speed when running as
a motor and taking 50 kW from the same supply. Show that the direction of
rotation of the machine as a generator and as a motor under these conditions
is unchanged. (Ans. 589 r/min)
12. A DC series motor draws 50 A at 230 V. Resistance of armature and
series field winding is 0.2 ohm and 0.1 ohm respectively. Calculate (i) brush
voltage (ii) back emf, (iii) power wasted in armature, and mechanical power
developed. (Ans. (i) 215 V, (ii) 205V, (iii) 500W, (iv) 13.74hp)

159
 PROBLEM SETS
13. A 240 V series motor takes 40 A when giving its rated output at 1500
rpm. Its resistance is 0.3 ohm. Find what resistance must be added to
obtained rated torque (a) at stating, (b) at 1000 rpm.
(Ans. (i) 5.7ohm, (ii) 1.9ohm)

14. A 440 V motor has a regulating resistance R in series. The motor

resistance is 0.3 ohm. When R = 0 and the current is 20 A, the motor runs at
1200 rpm. Find the speed when R = 3 ohm and I = 15 A; also the ratio of the
total mechanical output in the two cases. Given that the flux with I = 15 A is
80% of the flux with I = 20 A. ( Ans. 1350rpm, 1.48)

160
Thanks