Product Lifecycle Management

Yi-Hsiang, Chang & Tomovic, Mileta

School of Technology
 Outline
• Overview of production scheme
• Fundamentals of manufacturing process
• Calculation of process cost

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 Objectives
Students will be able to
• Understand the practicality of processes in different
production schemes
• Select proper processes and calculate associated
costs
• Evaluate the product design via the study of
process feasibility

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 3-tier relationship
• Conventional built-to-stock relationships between parties within a value
chain: The OEMer is usually the one to select the processes
• When the market moves into built-to-order, the customer has more
power to determine which process to use

Process selection?
C u s to e
m r O r d r
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P r d
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S p
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 Manufacturing models
Make-to-stock Make-to-order
• Characteristics • Characteristics
– Commodity based end products – Configurable end products
– Production prior to sales order – Minor engineering effort during
based on forecast production of end product
– End products sold from inventory – Subassemblies and components
– Controlling of inventory is critical and procured to forecast
distribution – The manufacture of end products
– Warehousing of end product is the driven by customer order.
norm. • Pros & cons
• Pros & cons – Higher profit margin, more flexible,
– Lower unit cost, higher entrance low equipment cost
level – Higher unit cost, lower entrance level
– high equipment investment, lower
profit margin, less flexible

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 Production scheme
• Process selection has a very
Job Shop close relationship with
Production production volume
Increasing product variety

• Same process may be used

Mass in a job shop and the mass
Customization production environment, but
the machines used to built the
Batch product will be different.
Production

Mass
Production

Increasing volume of production

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 Production methods
• Part fabrication
– Use various processes to create or modify the geometry of the part
– General processes include machining, forming, casting, molding, and non-
traditional processes
• Part treatment
– Use various processes to enhance the properties or appearance of the part
– General processes include heat treatment, surface treatment, and coating
• Part assembly
– Use various processes to establish spatial relationships between parts
– General processes including joining process and assembly processes

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 Machining
• Materials
– All metal, some plastics, elastomers and ceramics
• Economic considerations
– Low material utilization; economical quantities are 1000+; high tooling cost for
automated machining; high labor cost for manual machining; low finishing cost
• Design issues
– Limited complexity; can be broken into several operations on the same machine; size
ranging from φ0.5mm-φ2m+
• Quality issues
– Multiple setup can be a source of variability; selection of cutting tool, coolant, feed rate,
depth of cut, and cutting speed with respect to material is critical; surface roughness
ranging from 0.05-25μm Ra are obtainable
• Variety
– Turing, boring, milling, planing and shaping, drilling, broaching, reaming, grinding,
honing, and lapping

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• Materials
Forming
– Mostly all metals; however, not all metals are suitable for every forming
process; it depends on the process characters and the metal’s ductility at
specific temperature
• Economic considerations
– Moderate material utilization; economic quantities are 10,000+; high tooling
and equipment cost; moderate labor and finishing cost
• Design issues
– Limited complexity; size ranging depends on processes, either by weight or
dimension
• Quality issues
– Residual stress can be significant; die wearing can be significant; surface
roughness and tolerance depends on the process nature, however
secondary processing usually improve the surface properties
• Variety
– Forging, rolling, drawing, cold forming, cold heading, swaging, superplastic
forming, sheet-metal shearing, sheet-metal forming, spinning, powder
metallurgy, continuous extrusion

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 Casting
• Materials
– Most metals, sometimes plastics, glasses, or ceramics
• Economic considerations
– Low to high material utilization; economical quantities are 100+; low to high tooling
cost; low to high labor and finishing cost
• Design issues
– Moderate to high complexity; possible to make mold from several pieces; need to
consider draft angles and shrinkage rate; size ranging from several grams to 100 kg
• Quality issues
– Material variations may change the part thickness and scrap; part geometry will affect
mold design and surface quality; surface roughness is a function of die condition
• Variety
– Sand casting, shell molding, gravity die casting, pressure die casting, centrifugal
casting, investment casting, ceramic mold casting, plaster mold casting, squeeze
casting

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 Molding
• Materials
– Most plastics, composites, and ceramics
• Economic considerations
– Good material utilization; economical quantities are 10,000+; high tooling and
equipment cost; usually low labor and finishing cost
• Design issues
– Very high complexity; uniform section thickness should be maintained; need to
consider draft angles and shrinkage rate; size ranging from several grams to 25 kg
• Quality issues
– Thick sections can be problematic; control of material and mold temperature are
critical; surface roughness is a function of die condition; excellent surface detail is
obtainable
• Variety
– Injection molding, reaction injection molding, compression molding, transfer molding,
vacuum molding, blow molding, rotational molding, contact molding, continuous
extrusion
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 Non-traditional machining
• Materials
– Feasibility varies according to process natures
• Economic considerations
– Poor material utilization; very low production rate; moderate to high tooling
and equipment cost; low labor and finishing cost
• Design issues
– High shape complexity; undercuts possible with specialized tooling;
possible to machine thin and delicate sections due to minimal machining
forces
• Quality issues
– Burr free part production; virtually no tool wear; surface roughness values
dependent on current density and material being machined; tolerance
capability is not primarily driven by characteristic dimension but the
materials being processed
• Variety
– Electrical discharge machining (EDM), electrochemical machining (ECM),
electron beam machining (EBM), laser beam machining (LBM), chemical
machining (CM), ultrasonic machining (USM), abrasive jet machining (AJM)
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 Secondary treatments
• Heat treatment
– Controlled heating and cooling processes to alter the part’s physical and
mechanical properties
– Categories
• Softening: To reduce strength, remove residual strength, etc.
• Hardening: To increase toughness and wear capability, etc.
• Material modification (Stablizing): To maximize the service life of the part
• Surface treatment
– Controlled mechanical or chemical processes to alter the part’s physical
properties
– Categories (Swift & Booker, 2003)
• Mechanical: Shot peening, rolling, finishing
• Thermochemical: Passivation, diffusion, ion implantation
• Thermal: Flame/induction/electron beam hardening and melting/laser hardening
and melting
• Coating
– Cladding, organic, inorganic chemical, electrochemical, hot dip, thermal
sprayed, weld coatings, vapor deposition
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 Joining
• Materials
– Mostly metals for welding; materials vary for bonding and fastening
• Economic considerations
– Low to moderate production rate; high tooling and equipment cost; moderate to high
labor and finishing cost
• Design issues
– Balance the welds around the fabrication’s neutral axis; intimate contact of joint faces
required; dissimilar thickness difficult
• Quality issues
– No cutting forces, only simple fixture required; localized thermal stresses lead to a
very small heat affected zone; control of the pulse or flame duration is important to
minimize the heat affected zone; surface finish depends on process natures
• Variety
– Welding (TIG, MIG, MMA, SAW, EBW, LBW, PAW, TW, GW, etc), brazing, soldering,
adhesive bonding, mechanical fastening

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 Assembly processes
• Usually include the four aspects
– Feeding
– Handling
– Fitting
– Checking
• Classification
– Manual system
• Single station
• Transfer system
– Continuous work carrier
– Intermittent: Synchronized vs. non-synchronized
– Flexible system
• Single or multiple stations
• Synchronous transfer system
– Dedicated system
• Synchronous/indexing transfer system
• Non-synchronous/free transfer system
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 Common engineering materials
• Metals • Polymers
– Ferrous alloys – Thermoplstics
• Plain carbon steels • Partially crystalline
• Alloy steels • Amorphous
• Cast irons – Natural polymers
– Non-ferrous alloys – Themosets
• Light alloys • Robbers
• Heavy alloys • Epoxies
• Refactory metals • Ceramics
• Precious metals
– Electronic material
• Composites – Constructional ceramics
– Natural – Natural ceramics
– Fiber – Glasses
– Particulate – Engineering ceramics
– Dispersion 16
 Cost calculation
• Cost components
• Manufacturing cost as part of the product – PRODUCTION
cost – Manpower
– Component cost – Raw Materials
– Assembly cost – Electricity, Transport, Rent, Water,
etc.
– Machinery, Equipment and Tools
• Steps to calculate product cost – Others
– Identify cost components • MANAGEMENT
– Systematise costs – Manpower, Entrepreneur’s Salary
– Calculate variable costs – Stationery
– Calculate fixed costs – Telephone, Rent, Electricity,
– Calculate total costs per unit Insurance, etc.
– Set Prices, deduct the breakeven point – Equipment
– Others
• SELLING
– Publicity, Promotion, Commissions,
etc.
• FINANCE
– Interest 17
 Component costing analysis
• (Swift & Booker, 2003)
n
M i = VC mt + ∑ (R
i =1
ci Pc i )

Mi: Manufacturing cost

V: Volume of material needed
Cmt: The cost of the material per unit volume
Rc : Relative cost coefficient of a specific process
i
Pc : The basic processing cost for an ideal design by a specific process
i

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 Basic processing cost (Pc)
• Pc represent the minimum likely costs associated with a
particular manufacturing process at a given annual
production quality

Pc = α T + β N

α: the cost of setting up and operating a specific process

T: The process time in seconds for processing an ideal design
β: The process specific total tooling cost for an ideal design
N: The total production quantity per annum
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 Relative cost coefficient (Rc)
• Rc is used to determine how much more expensive it will be
to produce a component with more demanding features than
the “ideal design”

R c = C mp C c C s C t C f

Cmp: Material to process suitability

Cc: Shape complexity
Cs: Section coefficient
Ct: Tolerance coefficient
Cf: Finish coefficient
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 Assembly cost
• A similar cost model can be applied to the automated assembly
processes
• For manual assembly costing
– The total cost comprises the sum of the total handling and fitting times
multiplied by the labor rate in pence per second.

C ma = C l ( F + H )
Cma: Total cost of manual assembly
H: Component handling index (seconds)
F: Component fitting index (seconds)
Cl: Labor rate, including tooling costs, direct labor, supervision, and overhead

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 Process selection
• Key drivers
– Product quantity – Material to process compatibility
– Equipment costs – Components form and
– Tooling costs dimensions
– Processing times – Tolerance requirements
– Labor intensity and work – Surface finish needs
patterns – Bulk treatment and surface
– Process supervision engineering
– Maintenance – Process to component variability
– Energy consumption and other – Process wastes
overhead costs – Components recycling
– Material costs and availability

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Process selection flowchart

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 PRIMAs (PRocess Information
MAps)
• Process selection strategy • Swift & Booker, 2003, Part II
– Obtain an estimate of the annual • Each PRIMA is divided into seven
production quantity categories
– Choose a material type to satisfy – Process description
product design specification
– Materials
– Select candidate PRIMAs
– Process variations
– Consider each PRIMA against the
engineering and economic – Economic considerations
requirements – Typical applications
– Consider the economic positioning of – Design aspects
the process and obtaining – Quality issues
component cost estimates for • PRIMA selection matrix (next page)
alternatives
is divided based on two variables
– Review the selected manufacturing
process again business – Material type
requirements – Production quantity

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 Design for Manufacturing &
Assembly
• The activities of DFM • The three phases of improving
– Early and accurate cost estimating product designs while reducing
– Supplier negotiation and costs (Boothroyd Dewhust,
communication tool DFMA.com)
– Process and material selection – Product simplification
– Customizable for your organization – Should-costing
• The activities of DFA – Supplier bid verification
– Product simplification
– Competitive benchmarking tool
– Assembly cost and time estimation
– Integration with DFM for total
product cost

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 Rules and objectives for DFMA
• Roles and objectives for DFMA (Swift & Booker, 2003, Fig. 1.10)
– Identify critical characteristics
– Identify factors that influence the manufacture of critical characteristics
– Estimate manufacturing costs
– Minimize component costs
– Establish maximum tolerance for each characteristic
– Determine process capability of characteristics early
– Avoid tight tolerances
– Design the part to be easily inspected
– Minimize number of machining surfaces
– Minimize number re-orientations during manufacture
– Use standard manufacturing processes when possible
– Use generous radii/fillets on castings, moldings and machined parts
– Avoid secondary processes
– Design parts for easy tooling/jigging using standard systems
– Utilize special characteristics of processes (moduled inserts, colors)
– Use good detail design for manufacture and conform to drafting standards
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Outline process for DFMA

Swift & Booker, 2003, Fig. 1.18

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 Reference
• Cross, N. (2000). Engineering design methods: Strategies
for product design. (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons
• Kalpakjian, S. & Schmid, S.R. (2002). Manufacturing
processes for engineering materials. (4th ed.). Prentice Hall.
• Skakoon, J.G. (2000). Detailed mechanical design: A
practical guide. ASME Press.
• Swift, K.G. & Booker, J.D. (2005). Process selection: From
design to manufacture. (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Butterworth-
Heinemann

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 Additional Reading
• SEED: The engineering design guide
• Estimation and calculation principles
• DFMA reference articles

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 Acknowledgments
The author wishes to acknowledge the support from
the Society for Manufacturing Engineers -
Education Foundation, SME-EF Grant #5004 for
“Curriculum Modules in Product Lifecycle
Management.”

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