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Session 1:

Session Objectives :

1. To introduce the course to students.

2. To explain the role and scope of Theory of machines & its Engineering applications
3. To explain the Different type of Power transmitting Elements
4.To explain Gear Drive & Classification of Gears
5.To describe the salient features & Nomenclature of Spur gear

Instructions: - Students will be studying the course as extension of theory of machine-I so a

brief introduction regarding the importance of the course and the scope also overview of Gear as
Power transmitting Elements in today’s context to be discussed.

Announcements:-
1. Gear Drive
2. Classification of Gear Drive.
3. Selection of Type of Gears
4.Spur Gear & Terminology .
 Gear Drive
HISTORY OF GEARS
 Indian history as per our mythological stories is more than 12,000 years old. Since then
people living here have been striving to improve the living conditions. We also know that
earlier people were living in the caves and the doors of the caves were made of granite.
How were these heavy doors opened and closed? They were opened and closed by none
other than a system with gear mechanism, wheel, lever and rope drives

Fig.1.1 Primitive gears made of wood

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 The selection of a proper mechanical drive for a given application depends upon following
no of factors,

1.Centre Distance

2.Velocity Ratio

3.Shifting Arrangement

4.Manitence Consideration

5.Cost

 Gear Drive: Gears are defined as toothed wheels which transmit power & motion from
one shaft to another by means of successive engagement of teeth.

 Advantages compared with chain & belt drives:

1.Positive drive & velocity ratio remains constant.

2.Small centre distance, compact construction.

3.large power transmission beyond belt & chain drives.

4.It can transmit motion at very low velocity.

5.Efficiency is high 99% spur gear.

 Disadvantages:-

1.Costly

2.Maintenance cost is also higher.

3.Manufacturing process are complicated & highly specialized.

4.attention for lubrication & cleanliness.

 DEFINITION OF GEARS:

Gears are toothed members which transmit power / motion between two shafts by
meshing without any slip. Hence, gear drives are also called positive drives. In any pair of
gears, the smaller one is called pinion and the larger one is called gear immaterial of
which is driving the other. When pinion is the driver, it results in step down drive in which
the output speed decreases and the torque increases. On the other hand, when the gear

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is the driver, it results in step up drive in which the output speed increases and the torque
decreases.

 CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS :
Gears are classified according to the shape of the tooth pair and disposition into spur,
helical, double helical, straight bevel, spiral bevel and hypoid bevel, worm and spiral gears
and this is shown in Fig.

Fig.1.2 (a) Spur gear, (b) helical gear, (c) Double helical gear or herringbone gear, (d) Internal gear
, (e) Rack and pinion, (f) Straight bevel gear, (g) Spiral bevel gear, (h) Hypoid bevel gear , (i) worm
gear and (j) Spiral gear

 Classification of Gears

Spur Gear Helical Gear Bevel Gear Worm Gear

Teeth are parallel Teeth are cut at an Shape of truncated Consist of Worm &
axis of shaft angle with axis cone worm wheel

Used when shafts are Used when shafts Shafts are at right Worm=Threaded

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Parallel are Parallel angle to each other (< screw which is

or > than 90⁰ meshes with
matching wheel.

Gear tooth profile Gear tooth profile Tooth can be straight Thread on worm
involutes involutes or spiral can be single or
multi start

Impose radial load on Impose radial & Impose radial & thrust Used for shafts
shaft. thrust load on shaft load on shaft which do not
intersect &
perpendicular to
each other .

Magnitude of helix Size of gears includes Worm imposes high

angle of pinion & thickness & height thrust load & worm
gear is same wheel imposes high
radial load on shaft.

Hands of helix is High speed reduction

opposite ratio.

The gears or toothed wheels may be classified as follows :

1. According to the position of axes of the shafts. The axes of the two shafts between which the
motion is to be transmitted, may be
(a) Parallel, (b) Intersecting, and (c) Non-intersecting and non-parallel.
The two parallel and co-planar shafts connected by the gears is shown in Fig. These gears
are called spur gears and the arrangement is known as spur gearing. These gears have teeth
parallel to the axis of the wheel as shown in Fig. Another name given to the spur gearing is helical
gearing, in which the teeth are inclined to the axis. The single and double helical gears
connecting parallel shafts are shown in Fig. 28.3 (a) and (b) respectively. The object of the double
helical gear is to balance out the end thrusts that are induced in single helical gears when
transmitting load. The double helical gears are known as herringbone gears. A pair of spur gears
are kinematically equivalent to a pair of cylindrical discs, keyed to a parallel shaft having line
contact. The two non parallel or intersecting, but coplanar shafts connected by gears is shown in
Fig. These gears are called bevel gears and the arrangement is known as bevel gearing. The bevel
gears, like spur gears may also have their teeth inclined to the face of the bevel, in which case
they are known as helical bevel gears.

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The two non-intersecting and non-parallel i.e. non-coplanar shafts connected by gears is shown in
Fig.1.3 (d). These gears are called skew bevel gears or spiral gears and the arrangement is known
as skew bevel gearing or spiral gearing. This type of gearing also have a line contact, the rotation
of which about the axes generates the two pitch surfaces known as hyperboloids.
2. According to the peripheral velocity of the gears. The gears, according to the peripheral
velocity of the gears, may be classified as :
(a) Low velocity, (b) Medium velocity, and (c) High velocity

(b) The gears having velocity less than 3 m/s are termed as low velocity gears and gears
having
(c) velocity between 3 and 15 m / s are known as medium velocity gears. If the velocity of
gears is more
(d) than 15 m / s, then these are called high speed gears.

3. According to the type of gearing. The gears, according to the type of gearing, may be classified
as :
(a) External gearing, (b) Internal gearing, and (c) Rack and pinion.

4. According to the position of teeth on the gear surface. The teeth on the gear surface may be
(a) Straight, (b) Inclined, and (c) Curved.
We have discussed earlier that the spur gears have straight teeth whereas helical gears have their
teeth inclined
to the wheel rim. In case of spiral gears, the teeth are curved over the rim surface

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TABLE 1.1: SUMMARY AND EVALUATION OF GEAR TYPES

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 Selection of Type of Gear :

Factors consider for deciding the type of gear,

1.General layout of shaft 2.Speed Reduction

3.Power to be transmitted 4.Input speed

5.Cost

Speed
General layout of
Reduction/Velocity Noise Cost
Shaft
ratio

a)Spur & Helical a)Spur & Helical a)Spur Gear: a)Spur Gear:-
Gears are used Gear: 6:1 to 10:1 Generate noise in Cheapest/Easy to
when shafts are high speed manufacturing
(When V.R increases
Parallel application due to
then size of wheel
sudden contact of
increases)
entire face width.

b)Bevel Gear-Shafts b)Bevel Gear: 1:1 to b)Helical Gear:- Helical/Bevel/Worm:-

are intersecting at 3:1 Contact Between Costly & Specialized
right angle. two meshing teeth Manufacturing.
begins with point &
gradually extends
to tooth, Resulting
in quite operation

c)Worm & worm c)Worm & worm

wheel-Shafts are wheel:- (High Speed
Non intersecting & Reduction) 60:1 to
Perpendicular to

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each other. 100:1

d)Crossed Helical d)Used In Material

Gear-when shafts handling
Non intersecting & equipments.
Non parallel.

 SPUR GEAR NOMENCLATURE

The function of a gear is to work smoothly while transmitting motion or torque. For this the
angular velocity ratio at all times should remain constant. This aspect is explained here using
various gear terminology that are peculiar to gears. Understanding of the definition of these
terminologies helps to grasp the functioning of gears and the design of gears.

 Terms used in Gears :

The following terms, which will be mostly used in this chapter, should be clearly understood at
this stage. These terms are illustrated in Fig. 28.6.
1. Pitch circle. It is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give the same motion
as the actual gear.
2. Pitch circle diameter. It is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size of the gear is usually
specified by the pitch circle diameter. It is also called as pitch diameter.
3. Pitch point. It is a common point of contact between two pitch circles.
4. Pitch surface. It is the surface of the rolling discs which the meshing gears have replaced at the
pitch circle.
5. Pressure angle or angle of obliquity. It is the angle between the common normal to two gear
teeth at the point of contact and the common tangent at the pitch point. It is usually denoted by
φ. The standard pressure angles are 14 1/2° and 20°.
6. Addendum. It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of the tooth.
7. Addendum. It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth.

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8. Addendum circle. It is the circle drawn through the top of the teeth and is concentric with the
pitch circle.
9. Dedendum circle. It is the circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth. It is also called root
circle.
Note : Root circle diameter = Pitch circle diameter × cos φ, where φ is the pressure angle.
10. Circular pitch. It is the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch circle from a
point of one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth. It is usually denoted by pc.
Mathematically,

Circular pitch, pc = πD/T

where D = Diameter of the pitch circle, and

T = Number of teeth on the wheel.

A little consideration will show that the two gears will mesh together correctly, if the two wheels
have the same circular pitch.
Note : If D1 and D2 are the diameters of the two meshing gears having the teeth T1 and T2
respectively; then for them to mesh correctly

11. Diametral pitch. It is the ratio of number of teeth to the pitch circle diameter in millimetres.
It denoted by pd. Mathematically

where T = Number of teeth, and

D = Pitch circle diameter.

Actual tooth size for various diametral pitches is shown in Fig.2.4. The diametral pitches are
standardized and these values are given Table

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Table1.3 : Standard diametral pitches

12. Module. It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter in millimetres to the number of teeth. It is
usually denoted by m. Mathematically,
Module, m = D / T
Note : The recommended series of modules in Indian Standard are 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8,
10, 12, 16,20, 25, 32, 40 and 50.
The modules 1.125, 1.375, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75, 3.5, 4.5,5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 22, 28, 36 and 45 are of
second choice.
In metric system, module is used instead of diametral pitch. It is nothing but the inverse of
diametral pitch. The standard modules for which cutters are readily available in the market are
given in Table
Table 1.4: Standard modules in mm

13. Clearance. It is the radial distance from the top of the tooth to the bottom of the tooth, in a
meshing gear. A circle passing through the top of the meshing gear is known as clearance circle.
14. Total depth. It is the radial distance between the addendum and the dedendum circle of a
gear. It is equal to the sum of the addendum and dedendum.
15. Working depth. It is radial distance from the addendum circle to the clearance circle. It is
equal to the sum of the addendum of the two meshing gears.
16. Tooth thickness. It is the width of the tooth measured along the pitch circle.

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17. Tooth space. It is the width of space between the two adjacent teeth measured along the
pitch circle.
18. Backlash. It is the difference between the tooth space and the tooth thickness, as measured
on the pitch circle.
19. Face of the tooth. It is surface of the tooth above the pitch surface.
20. Top land. It is the surface of the top of the tooth.
21. Flank of the tooth. It is the surface of the tooth below the pitch surface.
22. Face width. It is the width of the gear tooth measured parallel to its axis.
23. Profile. It is the curve formed by the face and flank of the tooth.
24. Fillet radius. It is the radius that connects the root circle to the profile of the tooth.
25. Path of contact. It is the path traced by the point of contact of two teeth from the beginning
to the end of engagement.
26. Length of the path of contact. It is the length of the common normal cut-off by the
addendum circles of the wheel and pinion.
27. Arc of contact. It is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the beginning to the
end of engagement of a given pair of teeth. The arc of contact consists of two parts, i.e.
(a) Arc of approach. It is the portion of the path of contact from the beginning of the engagement
to the pitch point.
(b) Arc of recess. It is the portion of the path of contact from the pitch point to the end of the
engagement of a pair of teeth.
Note : The ratio of the length of arc of contact to the circular pitch is known as contact ratio i.e.
number of pairs of teeth in contact.
28.Crowning: Grinding of tooth edges to prevent edge loading is known as crowning. This is
shown in Fig

Upon completion Students will be able to: -

1. Explain the importance and scope of Power Transmitting Elements.

2. Gear Drive & Its comparison with other power transmitting Elements.

3. Classification of Gears & its application

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4. Explain silent features & terminology of spur gear.

Teaching Learning Material:-

PPT , Notes

Student Activity:- Knowledge, Understanding

Quizzes: 

1. What is the importance of power transmitting Elements in today’s world?

2. Enlist the various Types of gears with it’s applications.

3. Describe working principle of gears.

4. Enlist the Factors considered for deciding the type of Gear.

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Session 2

Session Objective :

1. To explain in brief the materials for gears & Standard system of gear tooth.
2. To Explain the basic modes of gear tooth failure & Gear lubrication Methods.
3. To Explain Fundamental law of toothed gearing
4. To Explain difference between Involute & Cycloidal tooth profile.

Instructions: - Recap of the Spur gear terminology & Working principle of Gears.

Announcements:-
1. Selection of Materials for Gear & Standard system of Gear tooth
2.Basic modes of Gear tooth failures & Gear Lubrication Methods
3. Fundamental law of toothed gearing
4. Difference between Involute & Cycloidal tooth profile

 LAW OF GEARING
The fundamental law of gearing states that the angular velocity ratio between the gears of a gear
set must remain constant throughout the mesh. This amounts to the following relationship:

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In order to maintain constant angular velocity ratio between two meshing gears, the common
normal of the tooth profiles, at all contact points within mesh, must always pass through a fixed
point on the line of centers, called pitch point.

Consider the portions of the two teeth, one on the wheel 1 (or pinion) and the other on the
wheel 2, as shown by thick line curves in Fig.. Let the two teeth come in contact at point Q, and
the wheels rotate in the directions as shown in the figure.
Let T T be the common tangent and MN be the common normal to the curves at point of contact
Q. From the centers O1 and O2, draw O1M and O2N perpendicular to MN. A little consideration
will show that the point Q moves in the direction QC, when considered as a point on wheel 1, and
in the direction QD when considered as a point on wheel 2.
Let v1 and v2 be the velocities of the point Q on the wheels 1 and 2 respectively. If the teeth are
to remain in contact, then the components of these velocities along the common normal MN
must be equal.

O1 and O2, or the common normal to the two surfaces at the point of contact Q intersects the
line of centers at point P which divides the centre distance inversely as the ratio of angular
velocities
Therefore, in order to have a constant angular velocity ratio for all positions of the wheels, P
must be the fixed point (called pitch point) for the two wheels. In other words, the common
normal at the point of contact between a pair of teeth must always pass through the pitch
point. This is fundamental condition which must be satisfied while designing the profiles for the
teeth of gear wheels. It is also known as law of gearing.

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 GEAR MANUFACTURING

INTRODUCTION: Gear manufacturing can be divided into two categories namely forming and
machining as shown in flow chart in Fig. Forming consists of direct casting, molding, drawing, or
extrusion of tooth forms in molten, powdered, or heat softened materials and machining involves
roughing and finishing operations. They are discussed in the different sections of this chapter

Fig1.4. Categories of gear manufacturing process

GEAR FAILURE:
Gear failure can occur in various modes. In this chapter details of failure are given. If care is taken
during the design stage itself to prevent each of these failure a sound gear design can be evolved.
The gear failure is explained by means of flow diagram in Fig

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Modes of Gear Tooth Failure

Breakage of tooth du to Static/Dynamic Surface destruction

Loads
(Causes )

Complete Breakage of tooth be avoided by 1.Abrasive Wear

adjusting parameters in gear Design
2.Corrosive Wear
1.Module
3.Initail Pitting
2.Face Width
4.Destructive Pitting
3.Increase beam strength
5.Scoring-

 Excessive surface pressure, high

surface speed, inadequate
supply of lubricants, result in
breakdown of oil film.

 Result in frictional
Heat/Overheating of meshing
teeth, scoring is stick slip
phenomenon.

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SCORING: Scoring is due to combination of two distinct activities: First, lubrication failure in the
contact region and second, establishment of metal to metal contact. Later on, welding and tearing
action resulting from metallic contact removes the metal rapidly and continuously so far the load,
speed and oil temperature remain at the same level. The scoring is classified into initial, moderate
and destructive.

WEAR: As per gear engineer’s point of view, the wear is a kind of tooth damage where in layers of
metal are removed more or less uniformly from the surface. It is nothing but progressive removal of
metal from the surface. Consequently tooth thins down and gets weakened. Three most common
causes of gear tooth wear are metal-to-metal contact due to lack of oil film, ingress of abrasive
particles in the oil and chemical wear due to the composition of oil and its additives. wear is classified
as adhesive, abrasive and chemical wear.

ABRASIVE WEAR : Abrasive wear is the principal reason for the failure of open gearing and closed
gearing of machinery operating in media polluted by abrasive materials. Examples are mining
machinery; cement mills; road laying, building construction, agricultural and transportation
machinery, and certain other machines. In all these cases, depending on the size, shape and
concentration of the abrasives, the wear will change. Abrasive wear is classified as mild and severe.

CORROSIVE WEAR: Corrosive wear is due to the chemical action of the lubricating oil or the additives.
Tooth is roughened due to wear and can be seen in the Fig. 6.10 (a). Chemical wear of flank of
internal gear caused by acidic lubricant is shown in Fig

Fig1.5. Corrosive wear

PITTING OF GEARS:

Pitting is a surface fatigue failure of the gear tooth. It occurs due to repeated loading of tooth surface
and the contact stress exceeding the surface fatigue strength of the material. Material in the fatigue
region gets removed and a pit is formed. The pit itself will cause stress concentration and soon the
pitting spreads to adjacent region till the whole surface is covered. Subsequently, higher impact load
resulting from pitting may cause fracture of already weakened tooth. However, the failure process
takes place over millions of cycles of running. There are two types of pitting, initial and progressive.
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PROGRESSIVE OR DESTRUCTIVE PITTING

During initial pitting, if the loads are high and the corrective action of initial pitting is unable to
suppress the pitting progress, then destructive pitting sets in. Pitting Machine Design II Prof.
K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram Indian Institute of Technology Madras spreads all over the
tooth length. Pitting leads to higher pressure on the unpitted surface, squeezing the lubricant
into the pits and finally to seizing of surfaces.

Fig1.5. Tooth surface destroyed by extensive pitting

TOOTH FRACTURE : Tooth fracture is the most dangerous kind of gear failure and leads to
disablement of the drive and frequently to damage of other components (shafts, bearings, etc.) by
pieces of the broken teeth. Tooth breakage may be the result of high overloads of either impact or
static in nature, repeated overloads causing low-cycle fatigue, or multiple repeated loads leading to
high cycle fatigue of the material.

TOOTH BREAKAGE – BENDING FATIGUE

Bending fatigue failure occurs over a long period of time. The initiation of crack takes place at the
weakest point, normally at the root of the tooth or at the fillet where high stress concentration
exists together with highest tensile stress from bending or from the surface defects as shown in
Fig. The crack slowly propagates over 80 to 90% of the life

Fig1.6. Root crack

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 Causes of Gear Tooth Failure :

The different modes of failure of gear teeth and their possible remedies to avoid the failure, are
as follows :
1. Bending failure. Every gear tooth acts as a cantilever. If the total repetitive dynamic load
acting on the gear tooth is greater than the beam strength of the gear tooth, then the gear tooth
will fail in bending, i.e. the gear tooth will break.
In order to avoid such failure, the module and face width of the gear is adjusted so that the beam
strength is greater than the dynamic load.
2. Pitting. It is the surface fatigue failure which occurs due to many repetition of Hertz contact
stresses. The failure occurs when the surface contact stresses are higher than the endurance limit
of the material. The failure starts with the formation of pits which continue to grow resulting in
the rupture of the tooth surface.
In order to avoid the pitting, the dynamic load between the gear tooth should be less than the
wear strength of the gear tooth.
3. Scoring. The excessive heat is generated when there is an excessive surface pressure, high
speed or supply of lubricant fails. It is a stick-slip phenomenon in which alternate shearing and
welding takes place rapidly at high spots.
This type of failure can be avoided by properly designing the parameters such as speed, pressure
and proper flow of the lubricant, so that the temperature at the rubbing faces is within the
permissible limits.
4. Abrasive wear. The foreign particles in the lubricants such as dirt, dust or burr enter between
the tooth and damage the form of tooth. This type of failure can be avoided by providing filters
for the lubricating oil or by using high viscosity lubricant oil which enables the formation of
thicker oil film and hence permits easy passage of such particles without damaging the gear
surface.
5. Corrosive wear. The corrosion of the tooth surfaces is mainly caused due to the presence of
corrosive elements such as additives present in the lubricating oils. In order to avoid this type of
wear, proper anti-corrosive additives should be used.

Selection of Material:
The material used for the manufacture of gears depends upon the strength and service
conditions like wear, noise etc. The gears may be manufactured from metallic or non-metallic
materials. The metallic gears with cut teeth are commercially obtainable in cast iron, steel and
bronze. The nonmetallic materials like wood, rawhide, compressed paper and synthetic resins like
nylon are used for gears, especially for reducing noise. The cast iron is widely used for the
manufacture of gears due to its good wearing properties, excellent machinability and ease of
producing complicated shapes by casting method. The cast iron gears with cut teeth may be
employed, where smooth action is not important. The steel is used for high strength gears and
steel may be plain carbon steel or alloy steel. The steel gears are usually heat treated in order to
combine properly the toughness and tooth hardness.

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The phosphor bronze is widely used for worm gears in order to reduce wear of the worms which
will be excessive with cast iron or steel. The following table shows the properties of commonly
used gear materials.

Table1.2 :Properties of commonly used gear materials

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 Standard system of Gear tooth:

The following four systems of gear teeth are commonly used in practice.
1. 14 ½° Composite system, 2. 14 ½° Full depth involute system, 3. 20° Full depth involute
system, and 4. 20° Stub involute system.
The 14 ½° composite system is used for general purpose gears. It is stronger but has no
interchangeability.
The tooth profile of this system has cycloidal curves at the top and bottom and involute curve at
the middle portion. The teeth are produced by formed milling cutters or hobs. The tooth profile
of the 14 ½° full depth involute system was developed for use with gear hobs for spur and helical
gears.
The tooth profile of the 20° full depth involute system may be cut by hobs. The increase of the
pressure angle from 14½° to 20° results in a stronger tooth, because the tooth acting as a beam is
wider at the base. The 20° stub involute system has a strong tooth to take heavy loads.

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Standard Proportions of Gear Systems

The following table shows the standard proportions in module (m) for the four gear systems as
discussed in the previous article.

Gear Lubrication Methods :

A proper lubrication of gear is essential for satisfactory performance & durability of gears.

Grease Straight Mineral oil or EP lubricants

As lubricant for gears of hand operated mechanism 1.For medium velocities gears are enclosed in a box
where pitch line velocity is low & operation is & dipped in mineral oil(Splash lubrication)
intermittent. Mineral oil grade SAE 80,SAE 90,SAE 140
2.In some cases gears are lubricated by spraying the
lubricating oil in which jet of oil is directed towards
meshing teeth.
3.For heavy duty applications EP Lubricants are used
in automobile gear box & heavy duty industrial gear
boxes.
4.For splash & spray lubrication gear box has
additional features like oil seals for shaft, a gasket for
cover ,Plug for inserting oil drain at the bottom oil
level indicator

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Forms of Teeth
We have discussed , that conjugate teeth are not in common use. Therefore, in actual practice
following are the two types of teeth commonly used :
1. Cycloidal teeth ; and 2. Involute teeth.
We shall discuss both the above mentioned types of teeth in the following articles. Both these
forms of teeth satisfy the conditions as discussed .
Cycloidal Teeth
A cycloid is the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls without
slipping on a fixed straight line. When a circle rolls without slipping on the outside of a fixed circle,
the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle is known as epi-cycloid. On the other
hand, if a circle rolls without slipping on the inside of a fixed circle, then the curve traced by a
point on the circumference of a circle is called hypo-cycloid

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The construction of the two mating cycloidal teeth is shown in Fig. A point on the circle D will trace
the flank of the tooth T1 when circle D rolls without slipping on the inside of pitch circle of wheel 1
and face of tooth T2 when the circle D rolls without slipping on the outside of pitch circle of wheel
2. Similarly, a point on the circle C will trace the face of tooth T1 and flank of tooth T2. The rolling
circles C and D may have unequal diameters, but if several wheels are to be interchangeable, they
must have rolling circles of equal diameters.

Involute Teeth

An involute of a circle is a plane curve generated by a point on a tangent, which rolls on the circle
without slipping or by a point on a taut string which in unwrapped from a reel as shown in Fig. In
connection with toothed wheels, the circle is known as base circle. The involute is traced as
follows : normal at any point of an involute is a tangent to the circle.

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 Comparison between Involute and Cycloidal Tooth profile:

Sr.No Involute Tooth Profile Cycloidal tooth profile

1 The profile of involute gears is the single curvature The profile of cycloidal gears is the double
curvature
2 Due to single curvature profile its manufacturing is Due to double curvature profile its manufacturing
easy is difficult
3 In these gears the line of action of path of contact In these gears the line of action of path contact is
is a straight line curvilinear
4 At each point of contact pressure angle is constant At each point of contact pressure angle is variable
5 These gears are suitable for motion and power These gears are suitable only for motion
trasmission transmission
6 The Involute gears have the problems of The Cycloidal gears do not have any problem of
interference interference
7 Due to sliding action there is more wear of tooth Due to less sliding action wear of tooth surface is
surface less
8 A little variation in the centre distance is allowed Exact centre distance is required to transmit a
constant velocity ratio.

Upon completion Students will be able to: -

1. Explain the Selection of materials for Gears.

2. Explain standard system of Gear tooth.

3. Explain basic modes of gear tooth failure & Gear lubrication
4.Explain importance law of gearing
5. Differentiate between Involute and Cycloidal gear tooth profile.

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Teaching Learning Material:-

PPT, Notes

Student Activity – Knowledge, Understanding

Quizzes: 
1. Discuss the necessity Gear lubrication .

2. What are the criteria’s for selection of gear material?

3. What are basic modes of gear failure?.

4. Discuss the necessity Standard systems of gear tooth ?

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Session 3

Session Objectives :

1. To Explain the derivation of Path of contact, arc of contact, contact ratio

2. To Explain above concept with help of numerical.

Instructions: - Explain the spur gear nomenclature & law of gearing in short.

Announcements:-
1. Path of contact
2. Arc of Contact
3. Contact Ratio.
 Length of Path of Contact
Consider a pinion driving the wheel as shown in Fig. 12.11. When the pinion rotates in
clockwise direction, the contact between a pair of involute teeth begins at K (on the flank near
the base circle of pinion or the outer end of the tooth face on the wheel) and* ends at L (outer
end of the tooth face on the pinion or on the flank near the base circle of wheel). MN is the
common normal at the point of contacts and the common tangent to the base circles. The point K
is the intersection of the addendum circle of wheel and the common tangent. The point L is the
intersection of the addendum circle of pinion and common tangent.

Fig. Length of Path of Contact

We have discussed ,that the length of path of contact is the length of common normal cutoff by
the addendum circles of the wheel and the pinion. Thus the length of path of contact is KL which
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is the sum of the parts of the path of contacts KP and PL. The part of the path of contact KP is
known as path of approach and the part of the path of contact PL is known as path of recess.

Let, rA=O1L = radius of addendum circle of pinion

RA=O2K= radius of addendum circle of wheel
r= O1P= radius of pitch circle of pinion
R=O2P= Radius of pitch circle of wheel.

 Length of Arc of Contact

We have already defined that the arc of contact is the path traced by a point on the pitch
circle from the beginning to the end of engagement of a given pair of teeth. In Fig. the arc of
contact is EPF or GPH. Considering the arc of contact GPH, it is divided into two parts i.e. arc
GP and arc PH. The arc GP is known as arc of approach and the arc PH is called arc of recess.
The angles subtended by these arcs at O1 are called angle of approach and angle of recess
respectively

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 Contact Ratio (or Number of Pairs of Teeth in Contact)

The contact ratio or the number of pairs of teeth in contact is defined as the ratio of the
length of the arc of contact to the circular pitch. Mathematically,

Notes :

1. The contact ratio, usually, is not a whole number. For example, if the contact ratio is 1.6, it
does not mean that there are 1.6 pairs of teeth in contact. It means that there are
alternately one pair and two pairs of teeth in contact and on a time basis the average is
1.6.
2. The theoretical minimum value for the contact ratio is one, that is there must always be
at least one pair of teeth in contact for continuous action.
3. Larger the contact ratio, more quietly the gears will operate

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Q.1. A pinion having 30 teeth drives a gear having 80 teeth. The profile of the gears is involute
with 20° pressure angle, 12 mm module and 10 mm addendum. Find the length of path of
contact, arc of contact and the contact ratio.

Solution. Given : t = 30 ; T = 80 ; Ø= 20° ; m = 12 mm ; Addendum = 10 mm

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 Number of Teeth (Z) :

Minimum Number of teeth to avoid interference

Zmin = 2/sin2α

Pressure angle(α) 14.5⁰ 20⁰ 25⁰

Zmin(Therotical) 32 17 11

Zmin(Practical) 27 14 9

For 20⁰ full depth involutes- it is always safe to assume no. of teeth on pinion as 18 or 20.

No. of teeth on Gear is calculated by V.R (i=Zg/Zp)

Concept of Hunting tooth for uniform distribution of wear.

 FACE WIDTH (b) :

It is required to express the face width in terms of module.

If face width is too large- Face width is too small-

Possibility of concentration of load at one end 1)Have poor capacity to resist shock &
of gear tooth. vibration.

Due to 1)misalignment 2)Elastic Deformation 2)Faster wear rate.

of shaft 3) Warping of Gear teeth

Optimum range of Face Width= 8m < b < 12m

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Upon completion Students will be able to: -

1. Describe the Path of contact, Arc of contact, contact ratio

2. Calculate Path of contact, Arc of contact, contact ratio .

Student Activity - Understanding, Applying

Teaching Learning Material:-

PPT, Notes

Quizzes: 
1. What do you mean by Interference & Methods to avoid it ?

2. Explain the meaning of Following,

a)Module b)Circular Pitch c) Diametric Pitch d) Length of Contact e)Arc of Contact.

3. Explain Selection procedure of module ,no of teeth ,pitch from table?

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Session 4

Session Objectives:

1. To describe the concept of interference and under cutting in gears

2. To describe the concept of conjugate action

Instructions: - Recap of previous session as Path of contact, arc of contact, contact ratio so
that students can understand Spur gear problems.

Announcements:-

1. Interference and under cutting in gears

2. Concept of conjugate action
 Interference in Involute Gears

A pinion gearing with a wheel is shown in Fig. MN is the common tangent to the base circles and
KL is the path of contact between the two mating teeth. A little consideration will show, that if
the radius of the addendum circle of pinion is increased to O1N, the point of contact L will move
from L to N. When this radius is further increased, the point of contact L will be on the inside of
base circle of wheel and not on the involute profile of tooth on wheel. The tip of tooth on the
pinion will then undercut the tooth on the wheel at the root and remove part of the involute
profile of tooth on the wheel. This effect is known as interference and occurs when the teeth are
being cut. In brief, the phenomenon when the tip of a tooth undercuts the root on its mating
gear is known as interference.

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Similarly, if the radius of the addendum circle of the wheel increases beyond O2M, then the tip
of tooth on wheel will cause interference with the tooth on pinion. The points M and N are called
interference points. Obviously interference may be avoided if the path of contact does not
extend beyond interference points. The limiting value of the radius of the addendum circle of the
pinion is O1N and of the wheel is O2M. From the above discussion, we conclude that the
interference may only be avoided, if the point of contact between the two teeth is always on the
involute profiles of both the teeth. In other words, interference may only be prevented, if the
addendum circles of the two mating gears cut the common tangent to the base circles between
the points of tangency.

 Methods of elimination of Gear tooth Interference :

In certain spur designs if interference exists, it can be overcome by:
(a) removing the cross hatched tooth tips i.e., using stub teeth
(b) increasing the number of teeth on the mating pinion.
(c) increasing the pressure angle
(d) tooth profile modification or profile shifting
(e) increasing the centre distance

Fig. shows a pinion with centre O1, in mesh with wheel or gear with centre O2. MN is the
common tangent to the base circles and KL is the path of contact between the two mating teeth

A little consideration will show, that if the radius of the addendum circle of pinion is increased to
O1N, the point of contact L will move from L to N. When this radius is further increased,the point
of contact L will be on the inside of base circle of wheel and not on the involute profile of tooth
on wheel. The tip of tooth on the pinion will then undercut the tooth on the wheel at the root
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and remove part of the involute profile of tooth on the wheel. This effect is known as
interference, and occurs when the teeth are being cut. In brief, the phenomenon when the tip of
tooth undercuts the root on its mating gear is known as interference.

Similarly, if the radius of the addendum circle of the wheel increases beyond O2M, then the tip of
tooth on wheel will cause interference with the tooth on pinion. The points M and N are called
interference points. Obviously, interference may be avoided if the path of contact does not
extend beyond interference points. The limiting value of the radius of the addendum circle of the
pinion is O1N and of the wheel is O2M.

From the above discussion, we conclude that the interference may only be avoided, if the point
of contact between the two teeth is always on the involute profiles of both the teeth. In other
words, interference may only be prevented, if the addendum circles of the two mating gears cut
the common tangent to the base circles between the points of tangency.
When interference is just avoided, the maximum length of path of contact is MN when the
maximum addendum circles for pinion and wheel pass through the points of tangency N and M
respectively as shown in Fig.. In such a case,

 Undercutting :-
 In some cases, the base circle of pinion is more than the dedendum circle of gear as
shown in fig.
 Therefore, the portion of tooth below the base circle will not be involute and it will
interfere with the tip of tooth on the mating pinion which is involute.
 If the gear or pinion is cut with a standard tool like gear hob which will also interfere with
the portion of tooth below the base circle and will cut away the interfering material, then
this process is called as undercutting and corresponding tooth is undercut tooth.

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Upon completion Students will be able to: -

1. Explain interference phenomenon occurs during meshing of gears

2. Explain Undercutting phenomenon occurs during meshing of gears

3. Describe various methods for eliminating interference.

4. Explain the impact of interference on efficiency of meshing & power transmission.

Teaching Learning Material:-

PPT, Notes

Student Activity : Understanding, Applying

Quizzes : 
1. State the various gear materials?.
2. How gear blank construction is done ?.

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Session 5
Session Objective:

1. To explain the derivation of minimum number of teeth on pinion to avoid interference.

2. To explain the derivation of minimum number of teeth on pinion to avoid interference.

Instructions: - A brief recap Interference & Undercutting phenomenon.

Announcements:-

1. minimum number of teeth on pinion to avoid interference

2. minimum number of teeth on pinion to avoid interference

 Minimum Number of Teeth on the Pinion in Order to Avoid Interference

We have already discussed in the previous article that in order to avoid interference, the
addendum circles for the two mating gears must cut the common tangent to the base circles
between the points of tangency. The limiting condition reaches, when the addendum circles of
pinion and wheel pass through points N and M (respectively)

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This equation gives the minimum number of teeth required on the pinion in order to avoid
interference.

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 Minimum Number of Teeth on the Wheel in Order to Avoid Interference

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Upon completion Students will be able to: -

1.Derive equation for calculating minimum no. of teeth on pinion and gear to avoid interference.

2.Calculate the minimum no. of teeth required on gear & pinion to avoid interference..

Teaching Learning Material:-

PPT, Notes

Student Activity: Understanding , Applying

Quizzes: 
1. What are the various Forces acting on spur Gear tooth during meshing?

2. What do you mean by beam strength of gear? Derive the Lewis equation for
calculating beam strength of gear.

3. Why tangential component of gear tooth force is called useful component?

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4. State assumptions made of Lewis equation.

5. What is Lewis form factor?

6. When pinion & gear are made of same material which component is to be designed?
Why?

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Session 6
Session Objective :

1. To Force analysis in gears during meshing.

2. To explain Friction in gears during meshing.

Instructions: - Ask the students if they have any prior knowledge of Forces acting on gear
during meshing also role of friction in gear meshing .

Announcements:-
1. Force analysis in gears during meshing.
2. Friction in gears during meshing

 SPUR GEAR – TOOTH FORCE ANALYSIS

Power is transmitted by means of force exerted by tooth of driving gear on meshing tooth of
driven gear.

Fig.1.14 Spur gear – tooth force analysis

As shown in Fig, the normal force F can be resolved into two components; a tangential force F
t
which does transmit the power and radial component F which does no work but tends to push
r
the gears apart. They can hence be written as,

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Fig. 1.15 Gear tooth force F, shown resolved at pitch point. The driving pinion and driven gear are shown
separately.

F = F cos Ø ……(1)
t

F = F sin Ø……(2)
r

F = F tan Ø………(3)
r t

The pitch line velocity V, in meters per second, is given as

V = d*n/6000……(4)
W= F *V /1000 ……..(5)
t

where d is the pitch diameter of the gear in millimeters and n is the rotating speed in rpm and W
power in kW.
Ft=2Mt/d’

 Friction in Gears

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Upon completion Students will be able to:

1. Derive force analysis on spur gear. -

2. Explain the direction of forces acting on gear pair. -

3. Explain the friction in gear during meshing . -

Teaching Learning Material:-

PPT, Notes

1. Students Activity - Knowledge, Understanding

Quizzes : 
1. Why permissible bending stress for gear tooth is taken as one third of ultimate tensile
strength?
2. What is velocity factor for gear tooth load?
3. What is dynamic load? what are its causes ?
4. Define a)Service factor b)Deformation factor C)Load concentration factor

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Session 7
Session Objectives:

1. To describe Numerical treatment on Path of contact, arc of contact, contact ratio

2. To describe Numerical treatment on Minimum no. of teeth to avoid interference

Instructions: - Recap the previous discussion related to path of contact, arc of contact ,contact
ratio formulae .

Announcements:- 1. Numerical treatment on Path of contact, arc of contact, contact ratio

Q.1 Two involute gears of 20° pressure angle are in mesh. The number of teeth on pinion is 20
and the gear ratio is 2. If the pitch expressed in module is 5 mm and the pitch line speed is 1.2
m/s, assuming addendum as standard and equal to one module, find :
1. The angle turned through by pinion when one pair of teeth is in mesh ; and
2. The maximum velocity of sliding.
Solution. Given : Ø= 20° ; t = 20; G = T/t = 2; m = 5 mm ; v = 1.2 m/s ; addendum = 1 module= 5
mm

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Q.2 A pair of gears, having 40 and 20 teeth respectively, are rotating in mesh, the speed of the
smaller being 2000 r.p.m. Determine the velocity of sliding between the gear teeth faces at the
point of engagement, at the pitch point, and at the point of disengagement if the smaller gear is
the driver. Assume that the gear teeth are 20° involute form, addendum length is 5 mm and the
module is 5 mm.Also find the angle through which the pinion turns while any pairs of teeth are in
contact.
Solution. Given : T = 40 ; t = 20 ; N1 = 2000 r.p.m. ; Ø= 20° ; addendum = 5 mm ; m = 5 mm

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Q.3 The following data relate to a pair of 20° involute gears in mesh :Module = 6 mm, Number of
teeth on pinion = 17, Number of teeth on gear = 49 ; Addenda on pinion and gear wheel = 1
module.
Find : 1. The number of pairs of teeth in contact ; 2. The angle turned through by the pinion and
the gear wheel when one pair of teeth is in contact, and 3. The ratio of sliding to rolling motion
when the tip of a tooth on the larger wheel (i) is just making contact, (ii) is just leaving contact
with its mating tooth, and (iii) is at the pitch point.

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Upon completion Students will be able to: -

1. Calculate length of path of contact, length of arc of contact, contact ratio

2. Calculate minimum no. of teeth on pinion and gear to avoid interference.

Teaching Learning Material:-

PPT, Notes

Student Activity – Knowledge, Understanding

Quizzes : 
1. What is wear strength of gear tooth?

2. What is ratio factor in wear strength of gear tooth?

3. What is load stress factor in wear strength of gear tooth?

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Session 8

Session Objective:

1. To describe Numerical treatment on Path of contact, arc of contact, contact ratio.

2. To describe Numerical treatment on Minimum no. of teeth to avoid interference.

Instructions: - Recap of wear strength of gear tooth.

Announcements:-

1. Numerical treatment on Path of contact, arc of contact, contact ratio.

2. Numerical treatment on Minimum no. of teeth to avoid interference.

 1. Numerical treatment on Path of contact, arc of contact, contact ratio.

Q.1 A pair of involute spur gears with 16° pressure angle and pitch of module 6 mm is in mesh.
The number of teeth on pinion is 16 and its rotational speed is 240 r.p.m. When the gear ratio is
1.75, find in order that the interference is just avoided ; 1. the addenda on pinion and gear wheel ;
2. the length of path of contact ; and 3. the maximum velocity of sliding of teeth on either side of
the pitch point.
Solution. Given : Ø = 16° ; m = 6 mm ; t = 16 ; N1 = 240 r.p.m. or w1 = 2× 240/60= 25.136 rad/s ;
G = T / t = 1.75 or T = G.t = 1.75 × 16 = 28

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Q.2 pair of 20° full depth involute spur gears having 30 and 50 teeth respectively of module 4 mm
are in mesh. The smaller gear rotates at 1000 r.p.m. Determine : 1. Sliding velocities at
engagement and at disengagement of pair of a teeth, and 2. contact ratio.
Solution. Given: Ø= 20° ; t = 30 ; T = 50 ; m = 4 ; N1 = 1000 r.p.m. or w1 = 2 × 1000/60 = 104.7
rad/s

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Q.3 Two gear wheels mesh externally and are to give a velocity ratio of 3 to 1.The teeth are of
involute form ; module = 6 mm, addendum = one module, pressure angle = 20°. The pinion
rotates at 90 r.p.m. Determine : 1. The number of teeth on the pinion to avoid interference on it
and the corresponding number of teeth on the wheel, 2. The length of path and arc of contact,
3.The number of pairs of teeth in contact, and 4. The maximum velocity of sliding.
Solution. Given : G = T / t = 3 ; m = 6 mm ; A P = A W = 1 module = 6 mm ; Ø= 20° ;N1 = 90 r.p.m.
or w1 = 2 × 90 / 60 = 9.43 rad/s

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Upon completion Students will be able to: -

1. Calculate length of path of contact, length of arc of contact, contact ratio.

2. Calculate minimum no. of teeth on pinion and gear to avoid interference.

Teaching Learning Material:-

PPT, Notes

Student Activity – Understanding, Analysis

Quizzes : 
1. A 15 kW and 1200 r.p.m. motor drives a compressor at 300 r.p.m. through a pair of spur gears
having 20° stub teeth. The centre to centre distance between the shafts is 400 mm. The motor
pinion is made of forged steel having an allowable static stress as 210 MPa, while the gear is
made of cast steel having allowable static stress as 140 MPa. Assuming that the drive operates 8
to 10 hours per day under light shock conditions, find from the standpoint of strength,

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