INTRODUCTION TO LASERS

EE 236C
Electrical Engineering Department
Stanford University

Spring Quarter 2020

Tony F. Heinz
Professor Applied Physics, Photon Science, and
(by courtesy) of EE

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 1

 Information about Our Class

EE236C: Lasers, Spring 2020

Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University
Instructor contact info: Tony F. Heinz
Professor of Applied Physics, Photon Science, & EE
Spilker Building, Room 313
Email: [email protected]
Lectures: Tuesdays and Thursday, 10:30 AM - 11:50 AM
Zoom webinar link https://stanford.zoom.us/j/396487244
Office hours: Tu and Th, 12:00 pm – 1:30 pm and by arrangement
Course assistant: Sze Cheung (Karen) Lau
Email: [email protected]
Office hours: M, W, F, 4:00 – 5:00 PM
Homework: We will have six problem sets
Course homepage: http://canvas.stanford.edu

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 2

 Course Description

EE236C: Introduction to lasers and how they work, including quantum transitions in
atoms, stimulated emission and amplification, rate equations, saturation, feedback,
coherent optical oscillation, laser resonators, and optical beams. Limited primarily to
steady-state behavior; uses semi-classical models for material system. Discussion of
representative laser systems, including rare-earth ion lasers, Ti:sapphire lasers, fiber
and semiconductor lasers.

focused on fundamentals

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 3

 Textbooks
• Required text:
Lasers, A. Siegman, University Science Books, 1986 . Available for free download at
on our class Canvas website under the files heading.
A classic for every laser physicist and engineer. It contains both readable introductory material
for our class and advanced concepts of interest to specialists.
• Recommended text: (On reserve in the Engineering Library)
Principles of Lasers, 5th ed., O. Svelto, Springer Verlag, 2009
A clear, modern treatment, complementary to Siegman in having sections on various real
laser systems in addition to general concepts and alternative approaches.
• Supplemental texts:
Optical Electronics in Modern Communications , A. Yariv, Oxford Univ. Press, 1996
A terse, but clear text, with useful coverage of many specific laser systems, and classic
chapters on additional topics such as detection of optical radiation, noise, and nonlinear
optics not covered in this course.
Quantum Electronics, A. Yariv, John Wiley, 1989
Another classic, well worth owning. Some overlap with Optical Electronics, but with a
quantum mechanical treatment, and more complete discussion of nonlinear effects.
Laser Electronics, 3rd ed., J. T. Verdeyen, Prentice Hall, 1995.
At a more elementary level than others on this list, but covers a useful range of topics.

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 4

 Syllabus

Introduction, paraxial wave equation April 7 & 9

Gaussian beams and ABCD matrices April 14
Optical resonators April 16
Classical electron oscillator model April 21 & 23
Radiative and nonradiative lifetimes April 23 & 28
Laser rate equations April 30
Gain and saturation May 5
Simple model of laser output power May 7
Inhomogeneous broadening and hole burning May 12
High-gain amplifiers and lasers May 14
Oscillation frequencies and dynamic effects May 19
Solid-state lasers I: Rare-earth lasers May 21
Solid-state lasers II: Ti:sapphire laser May 26
Fiber amplifiers and lasers May 28 & June 2
Review / special topics June 4 & 9

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 5

 Today’s Lecture

• Introduction to lasers

• Review basic EM and wave equation

– Yariv, section 1.1-1.3

• Derive paraxial wave equation (PWE)

– Siegman, section 16.1
– Yariv, section 2.4 (take his k2 = 0)

• Gaussian beam solution:

– Siegman, section 16.3 , follows the PWE approach used here
– Svelto, section 4.6, introduces solution a different way (may want to wait until
we cover ABCD matrices next lecture)
– Yariv, section 2.5, has another PWE description
– Verdeyen, section 3.3–3.4

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 6

Overview of key concepts for lasers –
and EE 236C

³ Gain medium
³ Pumping mechanisms
³ Feedback cavity
³ Laser properties and types

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 7

 Three Key Elements in a Laser

• Pumping process prepares amplifying (gain) medium in suitable state

(i.e., such that it exhibits gain)
• Optical power increases on each pass through gain medium
• If gain exceeds loss in the resonator, device will oscillate, generating
a coherent output beam of light

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 8

 Amplifying Medium

i si
• Laser amplification relies on stimulated emission
• Rate of absorption and emission are proportional to number of photons, and to
atomic populations
• If stimulated emission rate exceeds absorption rate, net optical gain
To get gain, must have a population inversion (excited state more populated)

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 9

 Pumping to Achieve Inversion

• In thermal equilibrium, populations follow Boltzmann ratio

-> it cannot produce a population inversion

E2 N2
N2 −( E − E )/kT
Since E2 > E1, N2 cannot
=e 2 1 exceed N1 (when only
N1
E1 N1 two levels are present)

• Energy input from a pump source is necessary to get inversion

Creating a population inversion

E3 N3
actually Ø Pump excites population selectively to a
Relaxation higher level (level E3)
can'tget E2 N2
Pump

Ø Electron relaxes to upper laser level E2

copulation
inversion by E1 N1
Relative populations depend on relaxation rates
pumping
to
Ez EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 10
 Feedback in an Optical Cavity

suitable
mirrorto
stable
get under
cavity
diffraction

• Below some pump threshold, G < T and lasing does not take place
– Can picture resonator as a standard Fabry-Perot interferometer
• If gain G is larger than “loss” T, at each successive pass the signal grows
– Can picture resonator as a standard Fabry-Perot interferometer in
which the optical signal power increases at each round-trip
• Curved mirrors lead to Gaussian transverse intensity dependence

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 11

 Must Understand Three Broad Topics

 How does radiation interact with matter?

Ø Physics of absorption and emission mechanisms
Ø Conditions for amplification rather than absorption

‚ How do we prepare system to obtain gain?

Ø Dynamics of evolution of population between quantum levels
Ø Pumping to obtain population inversion
Ø Saturation to reach steady-state populations

ƒ How do EM waves propagate in space and resonate in cavities?

Ø Gaussian beams
Ø Resonators (optical feedback cavities)

Combining these basic elements, we can predict

the behavior of laser oscillators and amplifiers

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 12

 What Properties Make Lasers Useful?

• High spatial coherence

³ A laser beam diverges slowly, ideally at “diffraction limit” (θ ~ d/w)
³ Propagates long distances with little lateral spreading
³ Can be focused to small spot (~ λ2)
- Applications: microscopy, photolithography, communications,, etc.

• Temporal coherence
³ Nearly ideal sine wave (single frequency or highly monochromatic)
³ Can measure distances and time very precisely
- Applications: interferometry, optical sensing, metrology, etc.

• Extremely short pulses possible

³ Duration < 5 fs (about one optical cycle) – or shorter at higher frequencies!
- Applications: time-resolved measurements

• Extremely high power possible

³ Petawatt peak power systems demonstrated (> 1015 Watts)
- Applications: Nonlinear optics, high-intensity optical phenomena
³ kilowatt average powers widely used commercially
- Applications: machining, cutting, ablation, melting, laser fusion, etc.
EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 13
 Types of Lasers
Classify by gain medium
• Gas lasers
– pumping: electron impact excites atomic or molecular species
– usually low efficiency (10-4 is typical)
– usually discrete wavelengths (UV to far IR)
– He-Ne, Ar-ion, CO2, etc.
• Solid-state lasers
– pumping: optical source (flash lamp, diode laser) excites dopants in solids
– efficient, high power, often broadly tunable and/or short pulses
– typically NIRjasing host
– Nd:YAG, Ti:sapphire, Er-doped silica fibers, etc.
• Semiconductor diode lasers usuallylessoptimizedproperties
– pumping: current injected into semiconductor junction
– small (< mm3), efficient, easily modulated
– typically near IR, recently far IR and UV
– AlGaAs, InGaAsP, AlGaN, etc.

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 14

 Huge Range of Laser Devices

National Ignition Facility

4 MJ Nd:glass laser
~$4 billion

lowerthreshold higher Q cavity

5-mW semiconductor laser nW quantum-dot lasers
for CD player (< $0.50)

All operate on the same

general principles
EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 15
Example of Far-Reaching Application: Gravity-Wave Detection

• Gravitational waves
– According to general relativity, movements of heavy objects, such as black holes
and dense stars, create waves that change space and time.

• The mission of Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO)

– The existence of gravitational waves is a crucial prediction of the general theory
of relativity, so far unverified by direct observation.
– LIGO was developed to observe and map gravitational-wave sources.

• LIGO interferometers
– Measure the deformation of the Earth’s crust
caused by incoming gravitational waves.
– Use km-long interferometers probed by lasers to
measure tiny changes in the crust dimensions
– Two US LIGOs: Hanford, WA and Livingston, LA
– Recent observation of gravitation waves
– All possible thanks to high-precision lasers
(>100 W, 10-kHz linewidth) - detect motion of
~ 1 fm over > 1 km The 2.5-km interferometer arms
of Hanford’s LIGO.

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 16

 The Paraxial Wave Equation

³ Derivation of PWE from basic EM relations

³ Solving the PWE

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 17

 Electromagnetism Foundations

• Maxwell’s equations in MKSA units (including material response)

∇ ⋅d = ρ ∇ ⋅b = 0
∇ × e = −∂b / ∂t ∇ × h = j + ∂d / ∂t
• Material properties enter through constitutive relations:

host d = ε 0ε e + p a b = µ0 (h + m) j=σ e
Dielectric constant Material conductivity
“Atomic” polarization density:
Usually take m = 0 ε 0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m
p a = ε 0 χ e + ε 0 χ e + ...
(1) (2) 2
(nonmagnetic media)
µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m
lasers nonlinear optics

lasing material in this course usuallyjust linearresponse

• All the interactions we need to consider in EE236C can be described by pa
– Lump most of the dielectric response into dielectric constant ε.
Any portion we want to consider separately we treat pa
e.g., laser gain, resonant dispersion
• In free space: ε = 1 and pa = 0.

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 18

 Wave Equation (1)

• After a little vector algebra (using ∇ × (∇ × E) = ∇(∇ ⋅ E) − ∇ 2E ):

∂e ∂2 e ∂2p a
−∇(∇ ⋅ e) + ∇ e = + µ0σ + µ0 ε 0 ε 2 + µ0 2
2

∂t ∂t ∂t

• For now, consider a lossless (σ = 0), source-free (pa = 0) medium of

refractive index n = ε 1/2. For a homogeneous medium, ε is independent of
spatial location and

∇ ⋅ d = ∇ ⋅ (εε0e) ⇒ εε0∇ ⋅ e = 0 (Does not hold in a waveguide or

other inhomogeneous media)
We thus arrive at free-wave equation

n2 ∂2 e
∇ e− 2 2 =0
2

c ∂t

where the speed of light in vacuo is

c = 1/ ε 0 µ0
EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 19
 Wave Equation (2)

• For most problems, the fields are harmonic in time (if not, they can always
be decomposed into Fourier components)
ð we look for a single-frequency phasor solution at some frequency ω of
the form:
e(r,t) = Re[E(r) eiω t ] jwtconvention
• This converts the free-wave equation into the Helmholtz equation:

∇2E + k 2E = 0

with the usual dispersion relation:

k = nω / c

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 20

 Plane Waves (1)

• Best-known solution: plane wave

E(r) = E0 exp(−ik ⋅r)
Wave vector: k = kk̂ = (n ω c)k̂
k Wavelength in medium: λ = 2π k = λ0 n
λ0 is the wavelength in vacuum
l
• From EM relation ∇ × e = −∂b / ∂t , associated magnetic field is given by:
k
−ik × E = −i ω µ0 H or H= E exp(−ik ⋅r) k̂ × Ê0 = H0 exp(−ik ⋅r)
ωµ0 0
• Solution is a transverse wave with a fixed ratio of electric to magnetic field
amplitudes:
E0
H 0 = E0 / η
H0 k, S
where η is the wave impedance
µ0
ωµ 1 η η0 = = 377 ohms
η= 0 = µ0 / ε 0 = 0 ε0
k n n
= impedance of vacuum
EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 21
 Plane Waves (2)
• Cycle-averaged power flow of the plane-wave solution is given by the
Poynting vector:
2
E × H * E0
S = Re[ ]= k̂
2 2η
• It relates the intensity (power per unit area) to the field (V/m) of a laser beam
through:
n 2
I=S= E0
2η0
• Typical intensity and field of common lasers in air:

Laser Intensity Field

He-Ne 1 mW /1 mm2 870 V/m

}
Q-switched
100 MW/10 μm2 87 GV/m For comparison:
Nd:YAG
Dielectric breakdown of air
Ti:sapphire 1 TW/10 μm2 8.7 TV/m occurs at ~3 MV/m

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 22

H
 Scalar Wave Equation

• Other solutions of vector Helmholtz equation are difficult to find:

– vector spherical waves: spherical Bessel functions x vector spherical harmonics
– not required for EE236C (for the bold, see Jackson Ch. 16)
• To make progress without too much math
– ignore vector nature of fields by assuming linear polarization
– add in polarization in ad-hoc fashion
which leads to the scalar wave equation (SWE):
Ø More tractable mathematically
∇2 E + k 2 E = 0 Ø Works remarkably well
• Simple solutions:
i( ω t− k⋅r ) E0 i(ω t− k r )
Plane wave: E(r,t) = E0 e Spherical wave: E(r,t) = e
r

• Neither describes transversely confined waves

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 23

 Paraxial Wave Equation (1)

• Laser beams have a finite transverse extent.

ê since plane and spherical waves do not, we need to solve the SWE in this more
general case
• Key idea: recognize that most laser beams are paraxial, i.e., they spread out
(or diffract) at a rate much slower than a wavelength. It means that on axis,
the wave is nearly planar.
ê we can apply the slowly varying envelop approximation (SVEA) and factor out
rapid phase variation in exp(-ikz):

E(r) = u(r) e− ikz

Ø such “envelope” techniques appear frequently in EM problems
Ø always a good idea, whether doing analytical or numerical work

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 24

 Paraxial Wave Equation (2)
∂2 E ∂2 E ∂2 E
• Insert envelope form into scalar wave equation + 2 + 2 + k2E = 0 :
∂x 2
∂y ∂z
⎛ ∂2 ∂⎞
∇ u + ⎜ 2 − k 2 − 2ik ⎟ u + k 2u = 0
2

Transverse Laplacian:
⊥
⎝ ∂z ∂z ⎠
∇ 2⊥ = ∂ 2 / ∂x 2 + ∂ 2 / ∂y 2
• Simplify by again recognizing that the field envelope u changes slowly on the
scale of a wavelength (SVEA).
– It means that ∂ ∂z << k , and hence ∂ 2u ∂z 2 can be neglected compared to 2ik∂u ∂z:

∂u
∇ 2⊥ u − 2ik =0 paraxial wave equation (PWE)
∂z
Like 2D Schroedinger
equation with z <--> t
N Approximation breaks down when beam dimension approaches the wavelength
Must be cautious, although the approximation is actually quite strong

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 25

 Methods for Solving the PWE

• Two approaches are typically used to solve PWE:

¬ Standard diffraction theory (Kirchoff integral):
Ø Fairly general solutions can be obtained
Ø See, for example, Siegman 16.2-16.3, Svelto 4.6–4.7
­ Direct solution:
Ø Quick way to get to correct results for Gaussian beams
Ø Classic paper: Kogelnik and Li, Proc. IEEE 54, 1312 (1966)
Ø See Siegman 16.4, Verdeyen 3.3–3.4, or Yariv 2.5
• Either way, solutions of PWE are difficult to find without prior knowledge
of the general form of the answer
• Method of deducing Gaussian modes?
– Since a spherical wave is a solution of the scalar wave equation, we expect that a
suitable paraxial form of the spherical wave will be a solution of the paraxial the
PWE.
– So what is the paraxial form of a spherical wave?

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 26

 Trial Solution for the PWE (1)

• Spherical wave:
E0
E(x, y, z) = exp(−i k x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
x2 + y2 + z2
• In the paraxial approximation, recall that the wave diffracts slowly. This
means that x2 + y2 << z2, and hence
⎛ x2 + y2 ⎞ x2 + y2
x + y + z = z 1+ (x + y ) / z ≈ z ⎜ 1+
2 2 2 2 2 2
= z+
⎝ 2z 2 ⎟⎠ 2z
Inserting in spherical wave field gives
E0 ⎛ ⎛ x2 + y2 ⎞ ⎞
E(x, y, z) ≈ exp ⎜ −i k ⎜ z +
x2 + y2 ⎝ ⎝ 2z ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠
z+
2z
Factoring out the rapid phase variation in exp(-ikz) (see p. 1-24) gives the
paraxial form of the field envelope
u0 ⎛ r2 ⎞
u(r) ≈ exp ⎜ − i k ⎟ , with transverse distance r = (x 2 + y 2 )1/2
z + r 2 / 2z ⎝ 2z ⎠
EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 27
 Trial Solution for the PWE (2)

• In the amplitude term, ρ = (x2 + y2)/z is small compared to z and can be

neglected.
– For example, if z = 1 m and beam transverse size is x ≈ y ≈ 1 mm, ρ ≈ 10-6 m << z
• In the phase term, however, ρ cannot be neglected
– For example, if z = 1 m in air (n = 1) and wavelength is l = 2π/k = 1 µm,
the phase term is kρ/2z = p, which is far from negligible!
• Applying approximation to amplitude term gives
u0 r2
u(r) ≈ exp(−i k )
z 2z
which is a spherical wave with radius of curvature R = z
ê Use this expression as the trial solution, replacing z by an unknown radius q.
In addition:
(1) to account for beam spreading, q must be a function of z
(2) to account for radial beam shape, q must be complex
(3) Since beam spreads, to conserve power the intensity must decrease with z; but u0/z
cannot be the correct form (diverges at z = 0), so replace u0/z by general form u0(z)

can have exp f iterated for example

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 28
 Gaussian Beams (1)

• Insert trial solution ⎛ r2 ⎞

u(r, z) = u0 (z)exp ⎜ − i k in general complex
⎝ 2q(z) ⎟⎠ qz
in the PWE expressed in cylindrical coordinates (assuming cylindrical
symmetry):
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ ∂u
⎜ r ⎟ − 2i k =0 ∇ 2⊥ = r −1∂ / ∂r (r ∂ / ∂r)
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ∂z
1 2

• To simplify algebra, define u0 (z) ≡ exp[−i F(z)] and find:

⎡⎛ −k 2 2 i 2k ⎞ ⎛ dF 2 k dq ⎞
⎤
⎢⎜ 2 r − − i2k −i
⎜⎝ dz + i r ⎥u = 0
⎢⎣⎝ q q ⎟⎠ 2q 2 dz ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
1 2

• For this to be true for all r, coefficients in front of r2 and r0 terms must be
equal to zero, which gives remarkably simple result:
dq dF −i
r 2: =1 r 0: =
dz dz q
EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 29
 Gaussian Beams (2)
• First equation gives
dq
= 1 ⇒ q(z) = q0 + z where q0 ≡ q(z = 0)
dz
Without loss of generality take q0 to be imaginary

• From the second consistency condition

dF −i −i Integration
= = ⇒ iF(z) = ln(1+ z / q0 )
dz q z + q0

• so the field envelope is

1 eiΦ( z )
u0 (z) ≡ exp[−iF(z)] = =
1+ z / q0 1− (z / q0 )2
where
Φ(z) = tan −1 (iz / q0 ) Guoy phase

• Separate 1/q into real and imaginary part

1 1 2
≡ −i 2 where k is the magnitude of the wavevector
q(z) R(z) kw (z)
EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 30
 Gaussian Beams (3)
• What does this solution look like physically?

r2 r2
u(r, z) = u0 (z)exp( − i k )exp(− 2 )
2R(z) w (z)

Spherical wave front Gaussian radial profile

ê Solution has a spherical phase front

with a z-dependent radius w(z) r R(z)

R(z) z
0
and a Gaussian transverse profile u
with a z-dependent 1/e radius
w(z)
w(z) r

Expressions for z dependence of 1 1 2

= −i 2
the parameters are given below q(z) R(z) kw (z)

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 31

 Gaussian Beams (4)
• Relating the beam radius of curvature and waist back to q(z), it is convenient to
introduce the Rayleigh range parameter zR:

q(z) = z + iz R

• where zR = kw2(0)/2 = kw02/2 is the Rayleigh range:

π w02 π nw02
zR = =
λ λ0
• From
1 1 2
q(z) = z + izR and = −i 2
q(z) R(z) kw (z)
it is easy to show that

w(z) = w0 1+ (z / z R )2 R(z) = z + z R2 / z Φ(z) = tan −1 (z / z R )

Gaussian profile radius Phase front radius Guoy phase shift

1
infinite radius of
curvature at E o planewave
EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 32
 Summary of Gaussian Beam
• Combining latest definitions in u(z), find that electric field of a Gaussian is
E0 r2 r2
E(r, z) = exp( − i k )exp(− 2 )exp(− iΦ(z))
2 2
1+ z / z R 2R(z) w (z)
w0 r2 r2
= E0 exp( − i k )exp(− 2 )exp(− iΦ(z))
w(z) 2R(z) w (z)

Normalization
Gaussian Guoy
Power radial phase
conservation profile shift

Spherical
wave front with
z-dependent
radius

• Final (trivial) step is normalization: find E0 in terms of power in the beam P0

– Next lecture

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 33

 Next Time
• Finish deriving solutions for Gaussian beam in free space
– Siegman 16.4
– alternative: Yariv 2.5 , or Verdeyen 3.3–3.4
• General properties of fundamental Gaussian beams
– Siegman 17.1–17.4
– alternative: Svelto 4.7.1–4.7.2, Yariv 2.5, or Verdeyen 3.4
• Connection to diffraction (much more detailed than in class)
– J. Goodman Fourier Optics, very clear discussion of formal diffraction theory
– Siegman 16.2–16.3 , useful general discussion of diffraction
• Higher order Gaussian beams
– Siegman 16.4 and 17.5
– Svelto 4.7.4, Yariv 2.8, or Verdeyen 3.5
• Ray optics and ray matrices
– Siegman 15.1–15.2
– Svelto 4.2, Yariv 2.1 (up to ~ Eq. 2.14), or Verdeyen 2.1–2.3
• Gaussian beams and ABCD matrices
– Siegman 20.2, Svelto 4.7.3, Yariv 2.6, or Verdeyen 3.6

EE236C Lasers Spring 2020, Lecture #1, Slide 34