Rock

A rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid

matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition and the way in which
it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust. Rocks are usually grouped into
three main groups. They are –

1. Igneous Rock
2. Metamorphic Rock and
3. Sedimentary Rock.

1. Igneous Rock

Igneous rocks are defined as types of rocks that are formed when molten rock (rock
liquefied by intense heat and pressure) cools to a solid-state. Magma is the molten or semi-
molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed and it is found beneath the
surface of the Earth. The rate of cooling of magma is slow and it is formed large crystals. Lava
Rock is an intense mineral that forms when gasses in magma begin to solidify and harden into
rock. These stones are found all around the world and are one of the oldest and most abundant
minerals on Earth. It extrudes on the surface and its cooling rate is rapid and it is formed small
crystals.

Igneous rocks can be divided as follow:

 Extrusive or volcanic rocks – Igneous rocks which form at or very close to the earth’s
surface are called extrusive or volcanic rocks. The cooling rate is for a few rocks is so
quick that they form an amorphous glass and generally have small size. Their
classification depends on the chemistry of the rock, importantly the amount of silicon
dioxide in the rock.
 Hypabyssal rocks – Igneous rocks which form at shallow depths in the earth are known
as hypabyssal rocks. They generally have smaller crystals.
 Instructive or plutonic rocks – Igneous rocks which cool and solidify deep in the earth’s
crust are called instructive rocks or plutonic rocks. The cooling rate is slowly and form
larger crystals.
Characteristics of Igneous rocks

Characteristics of igneous rocks are –

 The igneous form of rocks does not include any fossil deposits. If there are any chances of
fossil deep inside the crust, it erupts out of the Earth’s surface and gets destroyed due to the
sheer heat these rocks produce.
 Most of the igneous forms include more than one mineral deposit.
 They can be either glassy or coarse.
 These usually do not react with acids.
 The mineral deposits are available in the form of patches with different size.

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are those formed by changes in preexisting rocks under the influence
of high temperature, pressure, and chemically active solutions. The changes can be chemical
(compositional) and physical (textural) in character. Metamorphic rocks are often formed by
processes deep within the Earth that produce new minerals, textures, and crystal structures. The
recrystallization that takes place does so essentially in the solid state, rather than by complete
remelting, and can be aided by ductile deformation and the presence of interstitial fluids such as
water. Metamorphism often produces apparent layering, or banding, because of the segregation
of minerals into separate bands. Metamorphic processes can also occur at the Earth’s surface due
to meteorite impact events and pyro metamorphism taking place near burning coal seams ignited
by lightning strikes.

Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks

Characteristics of metamorphic rocks are –

 Foliated textures in metamorphic rocks have lots of layers or bands.

 Tend to have random crystal orientation and uniform grain size.
 Mineral grains tend to grow larger as metamorphism increases.
  They may be contained fossils and have different color and texture.

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed on or near the Earth’s surface, in contrast to metamorphic
and igneous rocks, which are formed deep within the Earth. The most important geological
processes that lead to the creation of sedimentary rocks are erosion, weathering, dissolution,
precipitation, and lithification. Erosion and weathering include the effects of wind and rain,
which slowly break down large rocks into smaller ones. Erosion and weathering transform
boulders and even mountains into sediments, such as sand or mud. Dissolution is a form of
weathering—chemical weathering. With this process, water that is slightly acidic slowly wears
away stone. These three processes create the raw materials for new, sedimentary rocks.

Precipitation and lithification are processes that build new rocks or minerals.
Precipitation is the formation of rocks and minerals from chemicals that precipitate from water.
Finally, lithification is the process by which clay, sand, and other sediments on the bottom of the
ocean or other bodies of water are slowly compacted into rocks from the weight of overlying
sediments.

Sedimentary rocks can be organized into two categories. The first is detrital rock, which
comes from the erosion and accumulation of rock fragments, sediment, or other materials
categorized in total as detritus, or debris. The other is chemical rock, produced from the
dissolution and precipitation of minerals.

Detritus can be either organic or inorganic. Organic detrital rocks form when parts of
plants and animals’ decay in the ground, leaving behind biological material that is compressed
and becomes rock. Coal is a sedimentary rock formed over millions of years from compressed
plants. Inorganic detrital rocks, on the other hand, are formed from broken up pieces of other
rocks, not from living things. These rocks are often called clastic sedimentary rocks. One of the
best-known clastic sedimentary rocks is sandstone. Sandstone is formed from layers of sandy
sediment that is compacted and lithified.
 Chemical sedimentary rocks can be found in many places, from the ocean to deserts to
caves. If limestone is found on land, it can be assumed that the area used to be under water.
Cave formations are also sedimentary rocks, but they are produced very differently. When the
chemical-rich water makes its way into a cave, the water evaporates and leaves behind calcium
carbonate on the ceiling, forming a stalactite, or on the floor of the cave, creating a stalagmite.

Weathering of Rocks

Weathering is a process that breaks down exposed stone and rock, causing it to split apart
or wear away. Weathering leads to erosion, where particles of broken rock are carried away and
deposited elsewhere. There are two types of weathering. They are physical weathering and
chemical weathering. Physical weathering is caused by purely mechanical changes to the rock,
while chemical weathering is caused by chemical reactions.

Physical weathering

Physical weathering, sometimes called mechanical weathering, refers to processes that

break down the structure of rock without changing its components. Agents of physical
weathering are frost action, plant action, abrasion and exfoliation.

1. Frost action

When water sinks into cracks in a rock and the temperature drops low enough, the water
freezes into ice. The ice expands and forms wedges in the rock that can split the rock into smaller
fragments. Ice wedging usually occurs after water repeatedly freezes and melts inside small rock
crevices over time. the result of this type of weathering can be seen on street sidewalks in the
winter. Ice wedges often cause potholes in roads and streets. Ice forms in the cracks of streets,
expands and pushes on the surrounding rock or pavement, widening the cracks until they split
and break apart.

2. Plant action

Plants can cause physical weathering as their roots grow. Seeds of plants or trees can
grow inside rock cracks where soil has collected. The roots then put pressure on the cracks,
making them wider and eventually splitting the rock. Even small plants can cause this kind of
weathering over time.
3. Abrasion

Abrasion is when moving material causes rock to break into smaller rock. Abrasions can
occur to the point that rock becomes very fine, almost like powder. This most commonly occurs
when rock rubs against other rock.

At the beach, waves move rocks over one another, causing them to break into smaller
rocks. This continues until get the very fine rocks that make up the sand that makes the beach.

4. Exfoliation

The first type of weathering is exfoliation, also called unloading, which is when the outer
layers of rock break away from the rest of the rock. Keep in mind that as some rocks form, they
do so in layers. The layers become compact to become a solid rock.

Some types of rocks form beneath the surface of the earth. This causes them to form
under increased pressure than that of rocks that form on the surface. If something happens to
cause the rock to come to the surface (like an earthquake), then the pressure is released and the
rock will expand. As it expands, it pushes the outermost layers of the rock outward until they
break off.

Chemical Weathering

This is the decomposition of rocks due to chemical reactions occurring between the
minerals in rocks and the environment. Agents of chemical weathering are hydration, oxidation,
carbonation and water.

1. Hydration

Hydration is a form of chemical weathering in which the chemical bonds of the mineral
are changed as it interacts with water. One instance of hydration occurs as the mineral anhydrite
reacts with groundwater. The water transforms anhydrite into gypsum, one of the most common
minerals on Earth.

2. Oxidation

Oxidation is another kind of chemical weathering that occurs when oxygen combines
with another substance and creates compounds called oxides. Rust, for example, is iron oxide.
When rocks, particularly those with iron in them, are exposed to air and water, the iron
undergoes oxidation, which can weaken the rocks and make them crumble.

3. Carbonation

Water contains many weak acids such as carbonic acid. This weak acid, but abundant,
acid is formed when carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere mixes with rainwater. Sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen gases create other types of acid rain that act as chemical weathering agents.
Some sources of sulfur dioxide are power plants that burn coal; as well as volcanoes and coastal
marshes. Sulfur gases react with oxygen and rainwater to form sulfuric acid. Although relatively
weak, acid’s abundance and long-term effects produce noticeable damage to vegetation, fabrics,
paints and rocks.

4. Water

Water, and many chemical compounds found in water, is the main agent of chemical
weathering. Feldspar, one of the most abundant rock-forming minerals, chemically reacts with
water and water-soluble compounds to form clay.