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BIOLOGY THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Nervous System

Our nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sense receptors and nerves.

Functions of the Nervous System

  Keeps us informed about the outside world through sensory organs. 

  Controls and harmonises all voluntary muscular activities, e.g. running and writing. 
 Enables us to remember, think and reason. 

Neuron: The Unit of the Nervous System

Structure of the Neuron

The three main parts of the neuron are as follows:

  Cell Body: It has a well defined nucleus and granular cytoplasm. 
  Dendrites: They are branched cytoplasmic projections of the cell body. 
  Axon: 
 o It is a long process of the cell body. 
 o The axon is covered by a myelin sheath. 
o The myelin sheath has gaps throughout its length known as the Nodes of Ranvier. 

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Some Basic Terms

Stimulus: An agent or sudden change in the external or internal environment which results
in a change in an organism or any of its body parts.
Response: The change in organisms resulting from a stimulus.
Impulse: A wave of irritability i.e. an electrical disturbance, which sweeps over the nerve
cell.
Receptors: The nerve cells which set up waves of impulses towards the central nervous
system on receiving the stimulus.
Effectors: Muscles or glands which contract or secrete substances on receiving an impulse
from the brain or the spinal cord.

Synapse

 A synapse is the point of contact between the terminal branches of the axons of a neuron and the
dendrites of another neuron. 

 As the nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal of one neuron, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is
released by the bulbs present in the axon. 

 Acetylcholine is then broken down by an enzyme to ensure that the synapse is ready for the
transmission of the next nerve impulse. 

Transmission of Nerve Impulse

+
 In the resting condition, the outer side of a nerve fibre carries a positive charge, i.e. more Na ions are
present outside the axon membrane. This is called the polarised state or polarisation of the nerve
 fibre. 
+
 On stimulation, the axon membrane at the site of stimulation becomes more permeable to Na ions.
+
Thus Na ions move inwards and this results in the loss of polarisation which is known as depolarised
 state or depolarisation of the nerve fibre. Such a region of the nerve fibre is known as the excited
region. 

 The point of depolarisation becomes the stimulus for the next region of the axon membrane which in
 turn becomes depolarised. 
+
 The earlier region on the membrane becomes repolarised due to the active transport of Na ions
outside the membrane. 

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Types of Neurons

 Sensory Neurons: Convey the impulse from the receptors (sense organs) to the main nervous
 system (the brain or spinal cord). 
  Motor Neurons: Carry impulse from the main nervous system to an effector, i.e. muscle or gland. 
 Associated Neurons: They interconnect sensory and motor neurons. 

Types of Nerves

 A nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres (axons) of separate neurons enclosed in a tubular sheath. 

 Ganglia are an aggregation of the nerve cells (cell bodies) from which the nerve fibres may arise or
enter. 

Types of Nerves

Mixed Nerves
Sensory Nerves Motor Nerves
(contain sensory as well
(contain sensory fibres) (contain motor fibres)
as motor fibres)

Division of the Nervous System

Nervous
System

Central Peripheral
Nervous Nervous
System (CNS) System (PNS)
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The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord.
A. The Brain
  The human brain is well protected by the cranium or the skull. 
  In adults it weighs about 1.35 kg. 
 It is protected by three meninges − dura mater, arachnoid and pia mater. 

 The space between the covering membranes, central spaces of the brain and the central canal of
the spinal cord consists of cerebrospinal fluid which protects the brain from shocks. 

Three Primary Regions of the Brain

 Forebrain 

o The cerebrum is the centre of intelligence, memory, consciousness, will power and voluntary
 actions. 
 o The thalamus relays pain and pressure impulses to the cerebrum. 
o The hypothalamus controls the body temperature and activity of the pituitary gland. 

  Midbrain 
o This small tube-like part is responsible for reflexes involving the eyes and ears. 

  Hind Brain 
o The cerebellum coordinates muscular activity and balance of the body. 

o The pons carries impulses from one hemisphere to the other hemisphere and coordinates
 muscular movements on both sides of the body. 
o The medulla oblongata controls the activities of internal organs, heartbeat, breathing etc. 

Parts of the Brain

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1. Cerebrum  The largest portion of the brain.

 It is divided into two cerebral hemispheres connected to each other by
the corpus callosum.
 The cortex contains cell bodies of the neuron and is greyish in colour,
and so called grey matter.
 The grey matter has many folds (i.e. gyri) and grooves (i.e. sulci).
 The medulla consists of axons of nerve fibres and is called white
matter.

2. Cerebellum  Located at the base of the cerebrum.

 In a median section, its white matter appears like a branching tree.
3. Medulla  Located at the base of the skull.
Oblongata  It is roughly triangular.
 It continues behind the brain as the spinal cord.
 Injury to the medulla oblongata results in death.

The Spinal Cord

  Lies within the neural canal of the vertebrae. 

  The grey matter is on the inner side and the white matter is on the outer side of the spinal cord. 
  Like the brain, it is covered with three meninges − dura mater, arachnoid and pia mater. 
  Functions: 
 o Responsible for reflexes below the neck. 
 o Conducts sensory impulses from the skin and muscles to the brain. 
 o Conducts motor responses from the brain to the muscles of the trunk and limbs. 

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Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves which carry impulses to and from the central nervous
system.

Peripheral
Nervous
System

Somatic Nervous
Autonomic
System (Cranial and
Nervous System
Spinal Nerves)

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
System Nervous System

Somatic Nervous System

 Cranial Nerves: 12 pairs emerge from the brain. 

 Spinal Nerves: 31 pairs: 8 pairs in the neck region, 12 pairs in the thorax, 5 pairs in the lumbar region,
5 pairs in the sacral region and 1 pair in the coccygeal region. 

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system controls the involuntary actions of the internal organs.

Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System

 Nerves arise from the spinal cord  Located anteriorly in the head and neck,
between the neck and waist regions. and posteriorly in the sacral region.
Sympathetic and parasympathetic systems have functions which are opposite to each
other.

Opposite Effects of the Two Systems

Organs Sympathetic System Parasympathetic System

Heart Accelerates heart beat Decreases heart beat
Intestines Peristalsis decreased Peristalsis increased
Lacrimal (Tear) Glands Stimulates secretion Inhibits secretion
Pupil of Eyes Dilation Constriction
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Reflexes

 A reflex action is an automatic, quick and involuntary action in the body brought about by a stimulus. 

 A reflex action must be immediate to deliver a quick response. Therefore, the pathway for receiving
 and sending information must be short. 
  A reflex arc can be represented as follows: 
   
Stimulus Receptor in the sense organs Afferent (sensory) nerve fibre CNS (spinal cord/ brain)
 
Efferent (motor) nerve fibre Muscle/ gland Response 
Difference between Reflexes/ Involuntary Actions and Voluntary Actions

Reflexes (Involuntary Actions) Voluntary Actions

 Initiated by some stimulus such as touch,  Initiated by a willing thought.
pain, pressure, heat, light etc.
 Commands originate in the spinal cord,  Commands originate in the brain.
autonomic nervous system and a few in
the brain as well.

Some examples of reflexes:

  Shivering when it is cold or sweating when it is hot. 
  Increased heart rate. 
  Instant withdrawal of the hand when it accidently touches a hot iron. 
 Dilation of the pupils of the eyes when looking in the dark. 

Types of Reflexes

Natural (Inborn) Reflex Conditioned (Acquired) Reflex

 Previous experience or learning is not  Develops during lifetime due to
required. experiences.
 Similar in all humans.  Differs from individual to individual as it
depends on experience and learning.
 Example- Salivation, peristalsis,  Salivation just by the smell of food.
swallowing.
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Pavlov’s Experiment

The Sense Organs

Sense organs enable us to be aware of the condition of the environment.

A receptor is any specialised tissue or cell sensitive to a specific stimulus.

Mechanoreceptors Receptors of touch, i.e. pressure on the skin due to mechanical

change.
Chemoreceptors Receptors of taste of the tongue and smell of the nose due to chemical
influence.
Photoreceptors Receptors of light present in rods and cones of the retina of eyes.
Thermoreceptors Heat and cold receptors in the skin due to change in temperature.

A. The Eyes
  The eye is a photoreceptor or visual receptor. 
 The eyeball consists of three layers—the sclera, choroid and retina. 
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 The sclera is the outermost layer and provides firmness to the eye ball. Its transparent portion is
 called cornea. 
  The middle layer is the choroid layer which supplies nourishment to the eye. 
  Behind the cornea is a circular dark part of the choroid called iris. 
  The pupil is the aperture present in the iris through which the light enters the eye. 
 Behind the pupil is the convex lens held by the ligaments. 

 Retina is the innermost photosensitive layer which contains two light sensitive cells—the cones for
 colour vision and rods for black and white vision. 
  The fovea (yellow spot) is the region of best vision where more cone cells are present. 
 The blind spot region does not consist of any cone cells; hence it is the region of no vision. 

 The aqueous chamber is the chamber between the lens and the cornea filled with watery
aqueous fluid. 

 The vitreous chamber is the chamber between the lens and the retina which is filled with jelly-like
vitreous humour. 

 The lens is transparent, biconvex and crystalline; it is held by a suspensory ligament which
attaches the lens to the ciliary body 

Four Major Steps in Seeing an Object

 Light rays reflected from the object enter the eyes through transparent structures. 

 First, the curvature of the cornea converges the rays to some extent, and then the lens converges
 them further. 
 The image on the retina is inverted and real. 

 The light energy produces chemical changes in rods and cones which send the nerve impulse. This
nerve impulse is sent to the cerebrum through the optic nerve. The cerebrum gives the sensation of
 sight. 
 The brain interprets the inverted image on the retina, and the obect is seen upright. 

Accommodation Vision
The process of focusing the eyes at different distances is called accommodation.
This is brought about by change in the curvature of the lens.
  For distant vision, the lens is more flattened. 
The lens remains stretched by the suspensory ligaments. 
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 For near vision, the lens becomes convex and rounded. 


The ciliary muscles contract and pull the ciliary body forward. This releases the tension of suspensory
ligaments making the lens convex and rounded. 

Light and Dark Adaptation

 When we move from a brightly lit area to a dark area, we experience difficulty in seeing the objects for
a short while. This is called dark adaptation 

 When we move from a dark area to a brightly lit area, we experience a dazzling effect for a short
period. This is called light adaptation. 

Common Defects of the Eyes

Defects of the Eyes

1. Myopia (Short-  Near objects are seen clearly, but distant objects
sightedness) appear blurred.
 The lens is too curved.
 Myopia is corrected by suitable concave lens
2. Hyperopia  Difficulty in seeing nearer objects.
(Hypermetropia/long-  The lens is too flat.
sightedness)
3. Astigmatism  Some parts of the object are seen in focus, while
others appear blurred.
4. Presbyopia  Observed in older people. Near objects cannot be
seen clearly.
5. Cataract  The lens turns opaque and vision is reduced.
6. Colour blindness  Colour blind people cannot distinguish between
certain colours such as red and green.
 7. Night blindness  Difficulty in seeing in dim light.
 Due to non-formation of rhodopsin in rod cells.
8. Squint  The eyes converge leading to cross eyes.

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Stereoscopic Vision
Humans, monkeys and apes can perceive depth or the relative distance of objects. This is due to
simultaneous focusing of an object in both eyes. The images of both eyes are overlapping and give a 3-
dimensional effect.

After-images
When one looks at a brightly coloured object and then looks at a dark surface, an image of the object in
the same colour will persist. This is known as persistence image or after-image.

B. The Ear
The human ear has the three following main divisions:

1. Outer Ear
 Consists of pinna/ auricle and auditory canal. 

2. Middle Ear
 Contains three ear ossicles — malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup)—and the
 eustachian tube. 
 The eustachian tube connects the cavity of the middle ear with the throat. 

3. Inner Ear
  Also known as membranous labyrinth. 
 Contains cochlea and the semicircular canals. 

 The cavity of cochlea is divided into three parallel canals. The middle canal consists of the organ
 of corti which is responsible for hearing. 
  Ends of the semicircular canals widen to form an ampulla. 
  The ampulla contains sensory cells. 
  The short stem joining the bases of semicircular canals to the cochlea is called the vestibule. 
 The vestibule contains two sacs—utriculus and sacculus. 

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Working of the Ear

1. Hearing:
 The Eustachian tube equalises air pressure on either side of the ear drum, allowing it to vibrate
freely. 

 The vibrating ear drum sets the three ear ossicles into vibration. The vibration of the first two
ossicles i.e. malleus and incus magnifies the vibration of stapes. Vibrations set in the fluid in the
cochlea stimulate the hair-like processes of the sense cells of the cochlea. The impulses are then
transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve. 

 The sensory cells in the the semicircular canals are concerned with dynamic equilibrium, i.e.
equalising air pressure when the body is in motion.. The sensory cells in utriculus and sacculus are
 concerned with maintaining equilibrium when the body is in static condition. 
 The hair cells then send the nerve impulse to the brain via the auditory nerve. 

2. Body Balance:
 The sensory cells in the semicircular canals are concerned with dynamic equilibrium, i.e. equalising
air pressure when the body is in motion. 

 The sensory cells in utriculus and sacculus are concerned with static equilibrium, i.e. equalising air
pressure when the body is stationary. 

Hearing Impairment
  Sensorineural Hearing Loss – damage to the cochlea or the auditory nerve. 
 Conduction Hearing Loss – sound waves are blocked either in the outer or middle ear. 

C. The Sense of Taste

  The sense of taste is located in the taste buds of the tongue. 
  A taste bud consists of sensory cells. 
  Sensory cells have hair-like processes and nerve fibres extending from their bases. 
  Substances enter the pores located on the tongue and stimulate the sensory hairs. 
  There are specific areas on the tongue which identify particular tastes. 
 The four primary tastes recognised are sweet, salty, bitter and sour. 


D. The Sense of Smell
  The sense of smell is located in the epithelial layer of the nasal chamber. 
  The sense cells for smell have hair-like projections. 
  These hair-like projections respond to particles dissolved in the mucous secretion of the nose. 
 The impulse from these cells is then transmitted to the brain via the olfactory nerve. 

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