Introduction to Linguistics

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

CYRIL POTTER
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

ASSOCIATE DEGREE
IN EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS

Table of Contents
Page

Course Overview ……………………………............................

Module 1: Introduction to Linguistics..........................

 What is Linguistics?..................................................

Module 2: Phonetics and Phonology..............................

Introduction to Linguistics

 Unit 1: An Introduction to Phonetics.......................

 Unit 2: Phonological Analyses..................................

Module 3: Morphology.................................

 Unit 1: An overview of morphology............................

 Unit 2: Types of Bound and Free morphemes...........
 Unit 3: Word formation processes..............................
 Unit 4: Morphs and allomorphs..................................

Module 4: Syntax....................................................

 Unit 1: Introduction to a theory of syntax. ................

 Unit 2: Syntax and phrase structure rules.................
 Unit 3: Some rules of generative grammar.................
 Unit 4: Syntax and types of sentences........................

Module 5: Semantics and Pragmatics................................

 Unit 1: Semantics and linguistic meaning...................

 Unit 2: Semantics and multiple word meaning...........
 Unit 3: Pragmatics and context....................................
 Unit 4: Pragmatics and speech act theory...................

Module 6: Language and Society.....................................

 Unit 1: Social Variation in Language......................

 Unit 2: Language in Use...........................................

Module 7: Language Acquisition.......................................

 Unit 1: Nature or Nurture? ........................................

 Unit 2: Second Language Acquisition.........................

Module 8: Language and Cognition...................................

 Unit 1: An overview of theories of cognition.................

 Unit 2: Vygotsky and Social Constructivism................
Introduction to Linguistics

 Unit 3: The Brain and Language..................................

 Unit 4: Acquired and developmental language disorders

Module 9: Creole Languages

o Unit 1: Overview of Creole Languages
o Unit 1: Language in Guyana

Module 10: Linguistic Human Rights..................................

 Linguistic Discrimination in Different Sectors............

 Solutions to Combat Linguistic Discrimination.............

GUYANA

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

CYRIL POTTER COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

Introduction to Linguistics

ASSOCIATE DEGREE IN EDUCATION

COURSE OUTLINE

NAME OF COURSE: Introduction to Linguistics

Number of Credits: 3

COURSE OVERVIEW

Introduction:
The name of this course is Introduction to Linguistics. It is a three-credit course
which is intended for teachers who operate in Early Childhood, Primary and
Secondary levels. You will study the course on your own but a course tutor will
help you to clarify any areas of difficulty which you may experience as you go
through the course. When you attend the face to face tutorials, you should seek
clarifications from the tutorial tutor. Your option tutor will also provide additional
support with respect to applying the different methods / strategies / approaches to
your particular option area.

The course will help you to become a more effective teacher if you apply what
you learn to your classroom. It provides information on how to approach teaching.
It also offers suggestions on planning and implementing lessons.

Course Description:

The course is written for students studying at a distance. Hence it is presented in a

manner for you to work independently. However, if someone lives close by it
would be useful to work in pairs or in small groups if that can be arranged. The
entire course is divided into ten modules. The modules comprise 1 to 4 units.
There are 27 units in all. Module1 deals with Introduction to Linguistics; Module
2 discusses Phonetics & Phonology. Module 3 focuses on Morphology. Module 4
Introduction to Linguistics

deals deals with Syntax. Module 5 focuses on Semantics and Pragmatics. Module
6 is concerned with Language & Society. Module 7 deals with Language
Acquisition while Module 8 discusses Language and Cognition. Module 9
discusses Creole Languages, and Module 10, the final module, deals with
Linguistic Human Rights.

Rationale:

This course recognizes that linguistics offers concepts, methods of description,

analysis and factual data about language resulting from nearly four decades of
systematic inquiry, and that these could provide useful knowledge for the teacher
who could apply some of this knowledge to the teaching of Language arts. It
recognizes too that linguistically sound principles can be expected to produce
satisfactory results only when they are used by teachers who are linguistically
knowledgeable.

This course therefore, seeks to provide teachers with the opportunity to deepen
their understanding of the work of linguistics, to examine some linguistic
findings, and to determine the relevance of these findings to the teaching of
language arts. It is hoped that this course would also provide a base for teachers
who would later extend or expand their knowledge in this area.

It is essential for every language teacher to become equipped with linguistically

informed teaching strategies. However, it is not only enough to be equipped with
teaching strategies, but to understand the intricate and dynamic nature of language
especially related to our Guyanese linguistic context. Being linguistically
equipped and enlightened, therefore, translates into the benefit for all involved in
the language teaching and learning processes.

Course Objectives:

By the end of this course you will be able to:

 Be knowledgeable about linguistic principles

Introduction to Linguistics

 Examine findings of linguistic research

 Discuss relevance of linguistic principles to language teaching
 Develop programmes and methods for effective use of linguistic principles
 Develop a deeper awareness and understanding of language.

Time Required:

You will need at least 45 hours to go through all the units in the nine modules of
this course.

Special notes / tips to tutors and students:

 Some of the terms which are used in the modules of this course may not
be familiar to you. A dictionary will help to clarify those terms.
 Additional study materials have been provided in a separate booklet for
you.
 Tutors and students may decide the order in which the modules could be
studied. Whatever you decide, ensure that Module 1 is studied before the
others.

COURSE CONTENT
WEEK 1- Module 1: Introduction to Linguistics

 What is Linguistics?


WEEK 2: Module 2 - Phonetics and Phonology

 Unit 1: An Introduction to Phonetics

 Unit 2: Phonological Analyses

WEEKS 3 & 4: Module 3 – Morphology

 Unit 1: An overview of morphology

Introduction to Linguistics

 Unit 2: Types of Bound and Free morphemes

 Unit 3: Word formation processes
 Unit 4: Morphs and allomorphs

WEEKS 5 & 6: Module 4 - Syntax

 Unit 1: Introduction to a theory of syntax

 Unit 2: Syntax and phrase structure rules
 Unit 3: Some rules of generative grammar
 Unit 4: Syntax and types of sentences

WEEK 7 & 8: Module 5 - Semantics and Pragmatics

 Unit 1: Semantics and linguistic meaning

 Unit 2: Semantics and multiple word meaning
 Unit 3: Pragmatics and context
 Unit 4: Pragmatics and speech act theory

WEEK 9: Module 6 - Language and Society

 Unit 1: Social Variation in Language

 Unit 2: Language in Use

WEEK 10: Module 7 – Language Acquisition

 Unit 1: Nature or Nurture?

 Unit 2: Second Language Acquisition

WEEKS 11 & 12: Module 8 – Language and Cognition

 Unit 1: An overview of theories of cognition

 Unit 2: Vygotsky and Social Constructivism
 Unit 3: The Brain and Language
 Unit 4: Acquired and developmental language disorders
Introduction to Linguistics

WEEKS 13: Module 9 – Creole Languages

 Unit 1: Overview of Creole Languages

 Unit 2: Language in Guyana

WEEK 14: Module 10 - Linguistic Human Rights

 Linguistic Discrimination in Different Sectors

 Solutions to Combat Linguistic Discrimination

WEEK 15: Revision

 Summary of each unit

 Review activities and sample exam questions

FINAL EXAMINATION

Suggested Readings:

Bergmann, Anouschka, Kathleen Currie Hall and Sharon M. Ross, eds. Language
Files (10th Edition). Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2007.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. New York:

Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics, Grammar.
Heinemann, 2004.

Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman and Nina Hymes. An Introduction to

Language. Boston: Thonson Wadsworth, 2007.

Holmes, Janet. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. New York: Pearson Education

Ltd., 1992.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1993.
Introduction to Linguistics

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus: Charles E. Merrill

Pub. Co., 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights, Massachusetts:
Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Radford, Andrew, et al. Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 2009.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Assessment:
The course will be assessed based on course work and on an end of semester
examination. The course grade will be determined through three pieces of course
work including at least one in-class test. The course work will value 50% of the
final mark. The examination will last for two hours and will value 50% of the
final grade. Students will be required to answer three questions.

In order to pass the course, a student must score a minimum of 55% in both
examination and the course work. If a student scores less than 55% in either the
examination or the course work, that student is considered a referred student and
must repeat either the examination or the course work (whichever is relevant). If
the student fails the re-sit, then that student is considered as having failed the
course and must therefore repeat the entire course.

Using Citations :

In college you will be required to write papers after conducting research on

various topics. However, while you are free to quote and describe these source
Introduction to Linguistics

materials (original texts, literary criticisms, etc.) in your paper, you must give
credit to the author of these materials when you use their words or ideas in your
paper. This involves using citations throughout your paper and including a
Bibliography or Works Cited page with your drafts. In the English major, the
citation style most often used is MLA. MLA style involves using parenthetical
citations. The purpose of documentation is to give due credit to the sources from
which you have drawn ideas, phrasing, quotations, or information, and to allow
others to follow-up the sources you have used for your work, in order to
corroborate and learn from your work as fully as possible. You need to provide
information that is sufficiently clear and complete for others to identify the
specific sources you have made use of. The documentation style developed by the
Modern Language Association of America (MLA style) offers one conventional
system for doing this; in published works, you will also see various other systems
in use (such as that of the Chicago Manual of Style or that of the American
Psychological Association [APA Style]).

Example of MLA style of using citations:

The following examples illustrate the most common type of in-text citation using
MLA format.

It is most common to identify the author in a signal phrase. When you include the
author’s name in the sentence introducing the source, add only the specific page
on which the material appeared, in parentheses following the information.
Example 1:

Carol Clark explains the basic necessities for the creation of a page on the World
Wide Web (77).

Do not include the word “page” or the abbreviation “p” before the number. The
parenthetical reference comes before the period.

Example 2:

When you do not include the author’s name in your text, add it in parentheses
along with the source page number. Do not punctuate between the author’s name
and the page number(s). For example:
Introduction to Linguistics

Provided one has certain “basic ingredients,” the Web offers potential worldwide
publication (Clark 77).

Every in-text citation used will direct the reader to a works cited list which
appears at the end of your paper. Example:

According to Freeman & Freeman, “Linguistics has provided much insight into
the teaching of reading” (47).

Works Cited

Clark, Carol. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. New York, 1995.
Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What you need
to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics, Grammar. Heinemann, 2004.

Your documentation efforts will only be as good as your bibliographic

note-keeping while you are researching a paper. Whenever you undertake
research for a project, you should record the bibliographic information for each
source that you have consulted, as well as page references for each quotation,
idea, or bit of information you draw from that source. You will need this
information, both for in-text citations and for the Works Cited list for your paper.
If you fail to record this information initially, it can often be difficult to retrieve
the necessary information later on.

Students should at all times demonstrate academic integrity and avoid plagiarism
by giving credit to others when their work or ideas is used. You avoid plagiarism
by not falsely claiming someone else’s work or ideas as your own. Material taken
from other sources must be appropriately documented.

Using APA style of citations

Many academic journals use the American Psychological Association (APA)

style. This style is also suggested by many lecturers perhaps because it is more
Introduction to Linguistics

‘international.’ The following guidelines would provide exposure to the APA

style.

In APA style, whenever you quote, paraphrase or summarize material in your

text, give both the author’s last name and the date of the source.

Exotoxins make some bacteria dangerous to humans (Simon, 1945).

For direct quotations, provide specific page numbers. Page references in the APA
system are always preceded, in text or in the reference list by the abbreviation p.
or pp. to designate single or multiple pages.

Supply author’s names, publication dates, and page numbers (when listed) in
parentheses following the cited material. Do not repeat any of these elements if
you identify them in the text preceding the parenthetical citation.

For example:

According to Thomas (1974), “Some bacteria are only harmful to us if they make
exotoxins” (P. 76).

Each in-text citation refers readers to the alphabetical list of “References” at your
paper’s end, listing full publication information about each source.

Use this link to find more information on using APA format of citation.

http://www.smarthinking.com/static/Document_Library/docs/writeman/3_15_02.
cfm
Introduction to Linguistics

MODULE 1: Introduction to Linguistics (1hr)

Overview:

This module presents a general introduction to this course and an overview of

what Linguistics is and its value to the teacher. For the next several weeks you
will embark on an area of study that will open up a wide range of insights into
language. Some of the concepts will not be entirely new to you because you
interact with language issues every day. Nevertheless, this course will provide
opportunities to apply another perspective - a perspective that includes linguistic
analyses. The course will become technical at certain points, but this should not
deter you from engaging in exploring interesting tenets of language. In the end,
you will become a better teacher because of the content covered in this course and
begin to see language through a linguistic eye.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

- Understand the nature of language

- Define Linguistics
- Understand the importance of studying Linguistics to their teaching
profession
Introduction to Linguistics

Module orientation:

This module has one unit with three sections:

 An overview of language
 What is linguistics?
 The value of linguistics to the teacher

Introduction: An Overview of Language (20 minutes)

“To understand humanity, one must understand the nature of language that makes us
human.”

(Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams 2007)

Before any discussion can begin about Linguistics, you should be able to have a
working definition of “language” since language is the primary field in which
linguistic work is conducted. What is language? Different persons have different
answers to this question. Some believe that animals possess language. Some talk
about computer language. Others see arts such as painting and dance to be forms
of language. Yet others believe that language is only spoken or written by human
beings. These questions invariably help to point to a definition of language.
Research in communication among animals such as prairie dogs, chimpanzees
and dolphins point out some interesting capabilities that these animals have in
solving problems and in communicating through the use of symbols. For the
linguist, however, language is essentially a human ability. And there are very
good reasons why they believe so.

Human language is non-instinctive and involuntary, meaning that humans can

choose if, when, where and how to use language. Human language is also
Introduction to Linguistics

creative, meaning that we can expand and change it all the time, and we can say
the same thing indifferent ways. The creative nature of language also includes the
fact that every time we use language, we are not speaking or writing in
memorized chunks, but we creating the sentences and message afresh in our
brains. Because of language, we have the ability of displacement – that is, human
beings can remember the past and plan for the future, We can dream and we can
lie. Language is also open-ended and variable, meaning that it is continually
changing, and also that it varies from person to person, community to community
and place to place, and time to time – there is no one fixed language at any point
in time. But language is not random. It is structured and rule-governed, and it
also systemic, meaning that it is made up of a number of systems, such as the
lexical system and the grammatical system among others which will explore later.

Animals possess the ability to communicate, but their systems of communication

do not allow them to do all these things. Animals only respond to stimuli.
Painting, dance, music and the other arts, fashion, etc are not language but are
ways of communicating ideas and feelings.

The aforementioned discussion indicates that construction of a definition of

language has to include several elements. Language is a very rich and complex
phenomenon. We can conclude that language is a structured system that is limited
to humans who use it to communicate with each other.

Language is spoken, written, and signed (as in the case of American Sign
Language - ASL). All (human) languages contain discrete items (sounds and
gestures/signs) that are combined to form meanings. Language contains universal
elements (like nouns, verbs, etc) that are found in all languages. Speech is the
primary vehicle of language because we acquire it naturally, and long before we
learn how to write. In fact, many persons do quite well without being able to
write, and they can conduct their lives through speech alone.

Language is naturally acquired by all humans - even by those who are born mute.
Introduction to Linguistics
Introduction to Linguistics

What is Linguistics? (20 minutes)

Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a science and not considered as

an Arts subject primarily because it involves scientific exploration and
methodologies. This means that linguists work by examining data and actual use
of language, they construct and test hypotheses about aspects of language, they
investigate the actuality of language in its many forms and usages, they employ
methodologies and procedures of analyzing data. While Linguists start out with
ideas about language and its use, they seek to test their ideas against real data, and
to find evidence to support or disconfirm their ideas. They try to understand the
reasons why languages have their particular character, why there are variations in
a language, why language is used in particular ways in particular societies, and so
on.

For the linguist, there is no “good” or “bad” language. These are social
judgments, and are rooted in social prejudice. The linguist considers all languages
to be equally good means of communicating what members of particular societies
wish to communicate.

In this regard there is an important point to make about linguists. Linguistics, as it

is presented in this course, is largely descriptive in nature and not prescriptive.
In other words, the role of a linguist is different from the prescriptive role of a
language teacher whose role is to enable students to use a certain language
correctly. Linguists do not necessarily know large amount of languages and are
not required to be fluent in several languages (such persons are really polyglots,
not linguists). They are versed in linguistic analyses involving the linguistic
principles which are present in all languages. Linguists try to understand the rules
by which a particular language or any language at all, works.

Since language is part of everything that humans do, it is not surprising that
Linguistics has several sub-fields. These sub-fields are branches of Linguistics
and can be categorised as follows: Structural Linguistics examines the
components of a language (sounds, sentences, word-formation, and meanings);

Cyril Potter College of Education

Introduction to Linguistics

Psycho-linguistics is the study of how the mind creates language; Sociolinguistics

involves studying how society (and social factors) influences language; Applied
Linguistics is the application of Linguistics to practical fields such as language-
teaching, translation, speech therapy, speech-language pathology, and forensic
linguistics; and Anthropological Linguistics explores how culture and language
integrate. This course will incorporate a little bit of each sub-field.

The value of linguistics to the teacher (15 minutes)

Perhaps the most important value of Linguistics to the teacher is that it increases
his or her awareness about language. Language is central to all things that humans
do, but we pay little attention to it. Linguists make us aware of the richness of
language and its importance in human life.

Linguistics has many benefits to a teacher, especially a language teacher.

However, all teachers will appreciate a different insight into language use,
especially as it relates to their students’ use of language in the classroom. As
mentioned earlier, Linguistics is the scientific study of language and thus the
contents of this course are designed in such a way to enable holistic interaction
with introductory linguistic concepts including language acquisition, social
factors influencing language, sound distribution and word-structure, language and
the cognition, and language rights.

A teacher trained in Linguistics is more acutely aware of rules influencing his/her

students’ language use. Such a teacher is better able to understand the underlying
rules that shape a language’s grammar. For example, the most common way of
marking English past-tense is to add an “-ed” to the verb. However, you will
realise that “-ed” has three different sounds: [d] in “called” and “played”, [t] in
“cooked” and “talked”, and [ɪd] “hunted” and “created”. There are linguistic rules
governing the different pronunciations of the past-tense marker “-ed” as you will
discover and learn more about in the Phonetics and Phonology modules.

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Introduction to Linguistics

Knowledge of second-language learning theories, will help a teacher to

understand the processes of language acquisition (of especially students in
nursery, primary and early secondary levels). Sociolinguistic theories will
enlighten him/her about and the reasons for language variation, especially in
Guyana’s multi-linguistic environment.

Importantly, the study of Linguistics will impact on a teacher’s philosophy of

education and teaching in a positive way that places more value on the students’
language needs. For example, in Language-Arts subjects, the method of
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is used, and such a model is
linguistically influenced.

A grammar teacher has a prescriptive approach since s/he aims to enable students
to use a language correctly. On the other hand, a Linguist has a largely descriptive
approach since s/he is more interested in the rules and reasons. A linguistically
trained teacher is more conscious of the variations in his/her students’ written and
spoken language. This understanding aids tremendously in respecting the
language rights of each student, while at the same time helping them to use
language more proficiently.

In the case of the English-speaking Caribbean and Guyana, a linguistically trained

teacher is more cognizant of the reasons for English mistakes, and realizes that
those mistakes may very well be correct forms in a Creole language and not
mistakes. S/he also understands the benefit of learning English in Guyana as a
second language both on the coastal region and in the interior regions. Such a
teacher is more acutely aware of the linguistic differences that are present around
him/her in the community and country at large; and those differences should be
used to embolden a sense of national identity rather than a tool of embarrassment.
Teachers, therefore, can and should help students to be more aware of their
linguistic environment and the value of their own language.

You can use such knowledge to become a linguist, and expand on your interests
in the field by pursuing a degree in Linguistics at a university here in Guyana

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Introduction to Linguistics

and/or abroad. Essentially, studying linguistics will enable you to become a better
teacher because you will be able to value students’ language and understand the
underlying linguistic processes that are involved.

Summary (5 minutes)
Language is the structured system of communication that is limited to humans. It
is a social construct that has spoken, written, and signed structure along with
meaning. Linguistics is the scientific study of those structures present in language.
There are several branches of Linguistics. Teachers will benefit from the study of
Linguistics because it will aid them in understanding the underlying rules that
govern how their students use language in the classroom and community.
Teachers will and should understand and respect the linguistic differences that are
present among their students.

Suggested References
Bergmann, Anouschka, Hall, Kathleen and Ross, Sharon. eds. Language Files
(10th Edition). Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2007.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. NY. 1995.

Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman and Nina Hymes. An Introduction to

Language. Boston: Thonson Wadsworth, 2007.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Pub.
Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A Primer with
Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham Heights, Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon,
2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

Cyril Potter College of Education

Introduction to Linguistics

Module 2: Phonetics and Phonology (4hrs)

Overview:

This module presents an introduction to phonetics and phonology in language as

far as it is relevant to Guyana. It is not meant to be exhaustive, and should be seen
as introductory discussions into the subject. Spoken languages consist of sounds,
and each sound has its individual properties. Understanding how speech sounds
are produced is very important to teachers, since they are the ones who are
actively involved in the classroom especially in the formative years of their
students’ language learning experiences. Understanding the processes and rules
that govern the distribution of sounds is also necessary. Such an understanding
can equip teachers to employ more linguistic pedagogical strategies in order to
make their students more competent in language use. While the latter part of this
module may become very technical (as is the case with this branch of
Linguistics), the goal is for teachers to employ such knowledge of not only
surface rules of language but the underlying processes that govern speech to their
teaching methods.

Module Objectives:
By the end of this module you will be able to:

- Distinguish between phonetics and phonology

- Understand the mechanics of speech production
- Transcribe words and sentences
- Understand how phonological processes/rules are applied

Module orientation:

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Introduction to Linguistics

This module has two units:

Unit 1: An Introduction to Phonetics

Unit 2: Phonological Analysis

It is advisable to study the units in sequential order. Try to complete each one of
them as they would help you to remember the information which you have
learned.

Some units have activities which would help you to test yourself. The answers for
these units have been included but you are advised to check them only after you
have completed the activities.

Time Requirement:

You will need about 2 hours to complete this module including the activities.

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Introduction to Linguistics

Unit 1: Phonetics - An introduction (1 hr)

Introduction

Have you ever considered that we acquire and learn spoken language before we
learn to write it? Every spoken language is composed of consonants, vowels,
tones, stress, and rhythms. Phonetics is the study that is concerned with the
production and description of speech sounds. Even in sign languages, some
theorists claim that there are “signed sounds” because of the variation in
expressionsi. There are essentially three branches of phonetics: auditory
phonetics, the study of the perception of speech sounds; acoustic phonetics, the
study of the physical properties of speech sounds; and articulatory phonetics, the
study of how sounds are produced. For this module, and especially this section,
we will focus on articulatory phonetics. You will also need to be au fait with
terminology used in phonetics.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

1. Understand the difference between phonetics and phonology;

2. Learn about the International Phonetic Alphabet

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Introduction to Linguistics

3. Become familiar with phonetic terminology

4. Transcribe words using the IPA.

Phonetics and the IPA

Consider the words “cat” and “cymbal”. Both begin with the letter “c” but it
makes the sound /k/ in (“kat”) and /s/ in (“symbal”). There are also variations of
vowel sounds with some being “long” and “short” sounds as in tomato:
“tomahto”, “tomayto”, or even “tomahtee . These examples clearly prove that the
English alphabet does not capture the actual sounds we make when we speak.
There is therefore need for a system to allow us to record the actual sounds of a
language. Such a system would be a phonetic system, which has a number of
symbols each representing a particular sound and only that sound.

Linguists have devised such a system that represents every speech sound
regardless of the language. Such a system is called the International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA) and is something that you may have encountered before. You
may recall seeing symbols like /dɪktʃənɛri/ next to words in some dictionaries.
The IPA makes use of symbols of the English alphabet, and other unique
symbols.

Every language has a store of sounds – the sounds that are significant in that
language (of course, we can make all kinds of sounds with our mouths, but only
some of these are used as language). This store contains the ideal sounds that are
used in the language, and the speakers of the language have these sounds “in their
heads” so to speak.

These ideal sounds that the speakers know are called phonemes, and we represent
them in slashes / /. On the other hand, the sounds we actually articulate are
called phones and these are shown in square brackets, [ ]. We also know how to
combine these sounds and utter them as actual words and sentences. To
understand this difference between phoneme and phone, consider someone who is
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“tied tongue”. Although that person’s pronunciation is different from normal, he

or she knows the ideal sounds they intend to make. You might not realise it, but
even among normal persons, there is variation of pronunciation. You do not
pronounce “k” or “m” or “e” or any other sound of the language exactly the same
way every time.

Phonemes are minimal units of sound, and every word we articulate is made up of
these segments of sounds. For example, the word “cats” is made up of four
phonemes; “food” is made up of three phonemes, since the two “o” letters are
articulated as one sound, one phoneme. As we can see from the last example,
phonemes are not the same as “letters” of the alphabet. They are the sounds that
we make in speech.

Phonetic symbols for English (IPA) (15 minutes)

Below you will find IPA symbols and sample words that are examples of the
sounds of English used in Guyana. In your reading of Linguistics text books, you
will find that the sounds differ in different dialects of English. For example,
words in Standard American English are pronounced differently than the way
they would be pronounced in Guyana. The IPA is comprised of consonants and
vowels.

Consonants

/p/ please, appeal

/b/ beat, bubble
/t/ tap, brittle, stink
/d/ dive, mud
/k/ kite, critical, critique, coughs
/g/ give, finger
/f/ toffee, fish
/v/ very, convoy, of

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/θ/ bath, teeth, three

/ð/ the, this, teethe
/s/ symbol, race
/z/ dogs, zero, Xerox, reside
/ʃ/ fish, racial, petition
/ʒ/ casual, division
/dʒ/ judge, Jerry, plunge
/tʃ / chicken, puncture
/m/ mango, sample, dumb
/n/ resign, never
/ŋ/ mango, finger, young, ankle
/h/ house, hiccup
/l/ lost, world
/r/ cart, warrior
/w/ wow, twist
/j/ yesterday, young
/ʔ/ uh-oh

Vowels
Vowels are divided in two sections: monopthongs, which are said to be simple
vowels; and diphthongs, which are said to be complex vowels. Diphthongs are
considered to be one sound even though it is represented by two symbols.

i. Monopthongs

/e/ ape, rate, bait

/i/ eat, people, donkey

/ɪ/ tip, business, injustice

/ɛ/ egg, pest, them

/o/ over, throat, scope

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/u/ moot, truth, through

/ʊ/ book, would, put

/ɔ/ umbrella, pot, wrong

/ʌ / potato

/ə/ Asia, error

ii. Diphthongs

/ai/ right, isolate, try

/ɔɪ/ boil, toy, rejoice

/ɔu/ cow, now

We use these symbols to transcribe speech. For example, “cheese” would be

transcribed this way: [tʃiz], “bread” would be [brɛd], “tea” would be [ti] and
butter would be [bʌtə].

Phonemes and Allophones (5 minutes)

We said above that the phonemes of a language are ideal sounds. In actuality
when we speak, we use these sounds in combination with other sounds, and we
move very quickly from one phoneme to another. For instance, in saying “car”
we do not say one phoneme at a time - [k-a-r] - but we say all the phonemes as
one flowing sound [kar]. When this happens, the articulation of one sound
sometimes affects or influences the articulation of another sound, causing a
variation from the ideal sound. Another way in which allophones may be seen is
because of variations in pronunciation. A good example is the way Guyanese say
words that contain “th’ sounds. Instead of “think” we say “tink”. But we all know
that for Guyanese, these two words are exactly the same – there is no difference in

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meaning between them. A Guyanese can choose to articulate the “th’ sounds or
not. Therefore, the variation between “th” and “t” is only a phonological
variation, and we say that “th” and “t” are allophones.

Suprasegmentals (5 minutes)

In addition to symbols given above, speech has other features that “ride on top” of vowels
and consonants. These are called suprasegmentals (or prosodic features) and include
stress, tone, and length. For example, “father” may have two meanings in Guyana
depending on how it is pronounced. The word, “father”, can either refer to a male parent;
or a priest- the “faather”. A stress on the vowel [a] indicates the change in meaning. To
represent stress, the symbol used is [ ' ] and would be written over the [а́].

Diacritics, which the IPA also uses, can be added to the existing phone to indicate a
slight change in that sound.

Some diacritics used are:

a. [:] which indicates length. Example, the vowel [a] in “yard” can be lengthened to
“yaard”. Phonetically, we would transcribe that as [ja:rd].

b. [~] indicates nasalisation, or when air flows through the nose to pronounce the word.
For example, if a vowel becomes nasalized we write it as [õ]. Hold your nose and
say “move”. You will notice that air is supposed to travel through the nasal passage
to pronounce [o]. Nasalisation will be discussed later in more details in the unit on
Phonology.

c. [ʰ] indicates aspiration, or a puff of air, that is inserted along with other phonemes. If
you put your hand in front of your mouth, you will feel a puff of air when you begin

to say the word “test”. We can transcribe that as [tʰɛst]. Another example is when

some persons aspirate the word “egg” which would be transcribed as [ʰɛg].

Phonetic Transcription (15 minutes)

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A linguist from any part of the world would be able to read and pronounce words
transcribed in any language because the IPA allows the sounds of the language to be
captured. Phonetic transcription is therefore a system of writing that represents each
segment of sounds in words with one symbol at a time depending on how it is
articulated by a speaker. Phonemic transcription is the representation of the ideal or
standard sound. In this section, you will be required to transcribe words and sentences.

Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Phonemically transcribe the words listed below. Remember to enclose your

transcription in slashes- / /. The first one is done for you.

1. “useful” - [jusfəl]

2. “UG”

3. “teacher”

4. “judge”

5. “Corentyne has a thriving fishing industry.”

6. “Linguistics is an exciting subject.”

Now try the reverse.

Activity 2: (5 minutes)

Give the English sentence for the phonetic transcription below. [gaijanə Iz ʃɛdʒjuld tʊ

hav ilɛktʃɔnz ðIs jer and pipəl ar bigInIŋ tʊ wɔndər wɔt It wIl bi laik kɔnsɪdərɪŋ ðI tɛnʃən

ðat nɔrmʌli ɔkrz]

Feedback
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You would notice that you had to forget the English orthography and concentrate on the
phonemes of the words. It would be good to have a dictionary that has IPA symbols next
to the words. You can try to phonetically transcribe the words too. Pronounce the words
below and listen to your pronunciation; or ask someone to say the words and transcribe
what you hear. A phonetic transcription would have to be done using square brackets [ ].

Activity 1

2. /jugi/

3. /titʃər/ or /titʃə/

4. /dʒʌdʒ/

5. /kʌrɛnti:n haz a θraivɪŋ fɪʃɪŋ ɪndɔstʃri/

6. /lɪŋgwɪstɪks ɪz an ɛksaitɪŋ sɔbdʒɜkt/

Activity 2

“Guyana is scheduled to have elections this year and people are beginning to wonder
what it would be like considering the tension that normally occurs.”

Summary (5 minutes)

Phonetics is the study of sounds - the qualities of sound and how sounds are produced.
Phonology is the study of sounds in use. Phonetics and Phonology make use of the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which contains symbols for consonants, vowels,
and suprasegmentals to represent individual sounds of speech since traditional
orthography does not capture sounds entirely. Phonetic transcription is used to record
how sounds are articulated.

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Suggested References
Bergmann, Anouschka, Hall, Kathleen and Ross, Sharon. eds. Language Files
(10th Edition). Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2007.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. NY. 1995.

Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman and Nina Hymes. An Introduction to

Language. Boston: Thonson Wadsworth, 2007.

Jenkins, Jennifer. The Phonology of English as an International Language.

Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Knight, Rachael-Ann. Phonetics. A Coursebook. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 2012.
Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A Primer with
Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights, Massachusetts. Allyn &
Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

Unit 2: Phonological Analysis (1 hr)

Introduction
Speech could be regarded as a physical manifestation of sound. Of course, apart

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from uttering physical sounds, there is much more going on “behind the scenes”
every time we speak: our minds and brain are thinking and planning what to say
and how to say it, out nerves are controlling our lips and tongue and lungs, and so.
In this module, however, we will focus on speech as sound, and we will discuss
the other elements in other modules. As sound, speech offers a number of
interesting and important areas for us to consider.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

1. Understand the physical properties of speech sounds

2. Understand and identify changes that happen to sounds in the stream of speech

3. Conduct phonological analysis

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

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Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

In this section, we look at the physical properties of speech sounds. We will restrict our
investigation to the sounds of English and Guyanese Creole, although the sounds of all
human languages possess similar qualities.

Human Vocal Apparatus (5 minutes)

The diagram (source: clas.mq.edu.au) below shows the areas of the human body
that are involved in the production of speech sounds:

The diagram shows the areas of our body – primarily the mouth, nostrils and
throat – which are involved in the physical production of speech. We use different
parts our vocal apparatus in different ways to produce the sounds of speech. In
doing this, each sound is produced by a particular set of movements, made in
particular ways, and at particular places in our vocal tract.

Distinctive Features

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We can make use of these particularities of sound production to identify each

sound that we make as part of our language. These particularities are called
distinctive features, and they occur in all languages. In fact, a survey of distinctive
features across all languages will show a relative small set of such features. Some
languages, of course, will produce sounds in somewhat different ways and in
some different places in the vocal tract than other languages. Speakers of Arabic,
for example, make sounds at the very back of the mouth, which speakers English
do not. Speakers of Spanish have an ordinary /r/ phoneme and a rolled /r/
phoneme.

For the consonant phonemes, the distinctive features that we use in phonology
may be grouped into three kinds: (2) those that result from where in the vocal
tract the phoneme is made: (2) those that result from how the phoneme is
produced and (3) those that indicate whether the phoneme is produced with
vibration of the vocal chords or not.

A similar system is used to describe the distinctive features of vowels. We will

look first at the consonant phonemes.

Distinctive Features of Consonants (10 minutes)

Place of Articulation

The first kind of distinctive features are called place of articulation features. Each
phoneme is articulated at a particular point in our articulatory tract. The table
below shows these areas of articulation:

Area of Articulation Explanation

and Phonemes
1. Bilabial by the joining of the two lips

/p, b, m, w/
2. Inter-dental with tip of tongue between the teeth

/θ, ð/
3. Labio-dental// with the top teeth on the bottom lip

/f, v/
4. Alveolar with the tongue touching the alveolar ridge

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/t, d, s, z, n/
5. Alveo-palatal with tongue between the alveolar and palatal areas

/ ʃ, ʒ, dʒ, tʃ/
6. Palatal with the tip of the tongue on the hard palate

/l, r, j/
7. Velar with back of tongue at the velum

/k, g, ŋ/
8. Glottal at the glottis.. air passes through

/ h, ?/
`
Manner of Articulation Distinctive Features

These refer to the ways in which the sounds are produced. We use our lips, tongue and
other parts of our speech apparatus to shape the stream of air from our lungs. We do this
shaping of the air in different ways, and these we classify as the manner of articulation
features. These are shown in the table below: deals with the restriction or non restriction
or partial restriction of air flow.

/p/ voiceless(no vibration) bilabial stop

Manner of Explanation
Articulation
and Phonemes
1. Plosives or Stops stopping the stream of air then releasing it
/p, b, t, d, k, g, ?/

2. Nasals directing the air through the nose

/m, n, ŋ/
3. Laterals directing the air along the sides of the tongue
/l/
4. Fricatives releasing the air in a hissing manner
/f, v, h, s, z, θ, ð, ʃ, ʒ/
5. Affricates a combination of Stop and Fricative articulation
/dʒ, tʃ/
6. Glides starting the articulation at one point then smoothly ending
/w, j/ it at another point
7. Retroflex with the tongue curled backwards
/r/

Voicing

Voicing refers to whether the vocal chords are vibrated or not during the
production of a phoneme. Phoneme that are produced with such vibration are
called voiced phonemes while those that are not are called voiceless phonemes.

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The following consonant phonemes are voiced: /b, d, g, m, n, ŋ, ð, ʒ, v, w, r, j, l,

z, ʒ/

The other consonants are voiceless.

Distinctive Features of Vowels (10 minutes)

The distinctive features for vowels are described in terms of (1) place of articulation, (2)
manner of articulation and (3) shape of lips.

All the vowels are voiced.

Place of articulation

Vowels are described as high, mid or low, and front, central or back depending on where
in the oral cavity they are produced. This is shown in the chart below.

Manner of Articulation

Vowels are described as either tense or lax. Tense vowels are those which are produced
with some effort and energy. Lax vowels have the opposite qualities – they are produced
with less effort and energy.

Shape of Lips

The rounding or spreading of the lips is another distinctive feature in the identification of
different vowel phonemes. These different shapes of the lips are clearly seen when
vowels are uttered (check them for yourself in a mirror!).

Front Centre Back

(round) (spread)
High (tense) /i/ /u/
(lax) /ɪ/ /ʊ/
Mid (tense) /e/ /ʌ / /o/
(lax) /ɛ/ /ə/ /ɔ/
Low (tense)
(lax) /a/

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Diphthongs

Diphthongs are classified as rising or falling. Using the /ai/ as an example, you can see
that it begins with a low vowel but ends with a high vowel. It is therefore a rising
diphthong. Classify the others:

/ia/ _____________________________

/ɔɪ/ _____________________________

/ɔu/ _____________________________

Using these features, we can accurately describe phonemes, for instance:

a voiced bilabial stop: /b/

a voiceless inter-dental fricative: / θ/

a velar nasal: /ŋ/

a high, tense front vowel: /i/

a mid, back, lax vowel: /ɔ/

a falling diphthong: /ia/

Using these distinctive features, we can describe phonemes, we can compare them and
we can contrast them. For example, we can recognize that some phonemes are generally
the same, but they differ only on one feature. For example, /p/ and /b/ are both bilabial
stops, but one is voiced and the other is voiceless. This kind of insight helps us when we
do phonological analysis.

Phonological Processes (10 minutes)

The distinctive features give us an ideal description of each phoneme. However, as we

saw in the previous unit, when we speak, we do so in strings of connected phonemes, and

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we move from phoneme top phoneme very quickly. In this process, changes can happen
to phonemes or to parts of words.

We call these changes phonological processes, and they are of different kinds: the
distinctive features of one phoneme may influence or affect those of another phoneme;
some phonemes may be dropped; phonemes may be added; the features of some
phonemes may change, parts of words may be omitted and so on. Here is a list of some
common phonological processes:

1. Conditioning – this happens when the features of one phoneme influence

another. The two phonemes therefore become more similar to one another.
e.g. In English, we write “incomplete” /ɪnkɔmplit/ but we pronounce
it [ɪŋkɔmplit] - the alveolar nasal /n/ changes to a velar nasal [ŋ]. This
happens because of the influence of the sound /k/ which follows it. If
you check the distinctive features, you will see that /k/ is a velar sound.
Thus, in saying the word, your mouth prepares to make the /k/ sound
while it is making the nasal sound – it is easier to make two sounds of
the same kind instead of making an alveolar sound then a velar sound.

2. Degemination – when two similar sounds are made in succession, they

may be fused into one sound, or one of them might be dropped.
e.g. many persons blend the /n/ and the /m/ into one sound in the word
“environment” so it is articulated as “enviroment”

3. Palatalisation - the addition of a /j/ sound between two phonemes

e.g. in Guyanese Creole, many persons say “gyarden” instead of
“garden”.

4. Syncope/Ellipsis- omission of part of a word.

e.g. many persons say “compulsry” instead of “compulsory”

5. Prothesis - addition of a sound or syllable at the beginning of a word.

e.g. some Guyanese say “hevry” instead of “every” - they add an
/h/ sound to the beginning of words that begin with some vowels.
This kind of prosthesis is called Aspiration.

6. Apocope - the loss of sound(s) from the end of a word

e.g. in Guyanese Creole, we usually say “roun” rather than “round”

7. Raising - the change in point of articulation of vowels from a low point to

a higher one

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e.g. Guyanese “trimble” from English “tremble”

8. Metathesis - the transposition of sounds in a word

e.g. GCE “aks” from English ‘ask”

Phonological Analysis (15 minutes)

We conduct phonological analysis in order to identify the sounds of a language, to help

persons who have difficulties in articulating sounds, to help students to understand the
differences between words that are similar, to understand how the phonology of a
language works, and for many other reasons.

Basically, phonological analysis is a comparative and contrastive process, but it is

informed by the principles of phonetics and phonology. Here is an example:

Question:

Examine the examples below of the prefix (underlined) meaning “not”. Does this mean
that English has five different ways of indicating “not”?

(a) immature, impossible

(b) inaccurate, indecent
(c) irresponsible, irreplaceable
(d) incompleteingratitude
(e) illegal illogical

Analysis:

To answer this question, you need to first examine the affixes. They all begin with
the same phoneme /ɪ/. The next phoneme, a consonant, however, varies. We now
examine the distinctive features of these consonants. We notice that:

- the first consonant is /m/ and this is a bilabial nasal

- the second consonant is /n/ and this is a alveolar nasal
- the third consonant is /r/ and this is a retroflex

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- the fourth consonant in actually /ŋ/ (even though it is spelled “n”) and it is
a velar nasal
- the final consonant is /l/ a liquid sound.

We now examine the environments (i.e., the phonemes before it and the
phonemes after it) in which each of the different forms of the prefix occurs. We
try to see whether there is a similarity between the distinctive features of the
consonants in the prefix and the consonants in their environment.

When we do this we see that:

- im occurs with words that begin with /m/ and /p/ and these are bilabial
sounds
- in occurs with words that begin with /a/ and /d/. /a/ is a vowel and /d/ is an
alveolar sound
- ir and il occur with words that begin with the same consonants as in the
prefixes
- iŋ occurs with words that begin with /k/ (‘c’ is pronounced /k/) and /g/.
These are velar sounds.

What we notice is that when there is a correspondence between the consonant in the
prefix and the first consonant in the word. For example,

- The prefix im goes with words that begin with bilabial phonemes
- The prefix in goes with vowels and alveolar phonemes
- The prefix ir and il go with words that begin with similar consonants
- The prefix iŋ goes with words that begin with velar phonemes.

Answer:
English does not have five different prefixes to indicate “not”. It has one prefix
which varies phonologically depending on the nature of the environment to which

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it is attached. The prefix is phonologically conditioned to match the first

consonant in the word to which it is attached.

Activity 2 (5 minutes)

This time we will look at a foreign language. The principles of analysis remain
the same, even though the phonemes may be different. Understanding of
distinctive features and careful comparison and contrasting of the data will always
help you when doing phonological analysis.

Question: Are [s] and [ʃ] allophones or separate phonemes in Korean?

Korean

[ʃi] poem [miso] smile

[ʃilsu] mistake [kasəl] hypothesis

[oʃip] fifty [sal] flesh

Analysis: We again compare the environments in which the two sounds occur,
and the distinctive features of the phonemes involved.

[ʃ] is a alveo-palatal fricative

[s] is an alveolar fricative

If you look at the diagram of the vocal tract, you will see that [s] is
articulated closer to the front of the mouth while [ʃ] is articulated a little
further back in the mouth.

We notice that vowels always follow these two phonemes, but interestingly,

- [ʃ] always occurs before [i]

- [s] never occurs before [i]

Clearly, [s] and [ʃ] occur in different environments. Also, we note that [s] and [ʃ]
are two similar sounds. Add to this the fact that [s] never occurs before [i], which
suggests that [s] and [ʃ] are really one sound that is changed whenever [i] follows
it.

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Conclusion: [s] and [ʃ] are allophones of the same phoneme. When [i] comes
after [s], the speakers have to raise their tongue some more to make the high front
vowel. This causes [s] to be articulated as [ʃ].

Suggested further activity:

1. Collect words which show phonological processes. NOTE: Some words

may show more than one process.

- write the words in English

- transcribe the standard form of the word, then the form of the word
as it is pronounced. Use the IPA alphabet to do both of these
- identify the process/processes.

Summary (5 minutes)

Phonetics and Phonology deal with the sounds of speech and what happens when
these sounds combine to make units. The phoneme is the basic unit of Phonetics
and Phonology and there are also phonological processes that arise in the stream
of speech. We can use the tools and principles of phonetics and phonology to
analyse the speech sounds of any language.

Suggested References

Bergmann, Anouschka, Hall, Kathleen and Ross, Sharon. eds. Language Files
(10th Edition). Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2007.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. NY. 1995.

Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman and Nina Hymes. An Introduction to

Language. Boston: Thonson Wadsworth, 2007.

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Introduction to Linguistics

Jenkins, Jennifer. The Phonology of English as an International Language.

Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Knight, Rachael-Ann. Phonetics. A Coursebook. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 2012.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A Primer with
Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham Heights, Massachusetts. Allyn &
Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

MODULE 3: Morphology (4 hrs)

Overview:

This module presents an introduction to morphology in language as far as it is

relevant to the content of this course. It is not meant to be a rigorous discussion of

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all aspects of morphology. Morphology – or the study of patterns in the formation

of words – is very important in the study of language. The goal of morphological
analysis is to determine the rules that speakers actually follow for forming words
in a particular language. This knowledge enhances many areas of speech and
writing inclusive of word selection, spelling and sentence formation.

Module Objectives:
By the end of this module you will be able to:

- Define morphology
- Distinguish between bound and free morphemes
- Distinguish between lexical and functional morphemes
- Distinguish between inflectional and derivational morphemes
- Understand how affixes function in words
- Understand morphs and allomorphs

Module orientation:
This module has four units:

Unit 1: An overview of morphology

Unit 2: Bound and free morphemes

Unit 3: Word Formation process

Unit 4: Morphs and Allomorphs

It is advisable to study the units in sequential order. Try to complete each one of
them as they would help you to remember the information which you have
learned.

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Some units have activities which would help you to test yourself. The answers for
these units have been included but you are advised to check them only after you
have completed the activities.

Time Requirement:

You will need about 4 hours to complete this module including the activities.

Unit 1: An Overview of Morphology (1 hr)

Introduction:

This unit will help you to understand how words are formed. It will help you to
discern differences in the formation and meaning of words, and to take words
apart and put them together. English word forms must consist of one element, but
may have other elements or affixes.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

- Define morphology

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- Define morpheme
- Identify bound morphemes
- Identify free morphemes
- Identify affixes (prefixes and suffixes)
- Define simple, complex and compound words

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

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English Morphology Module 4

Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

Words are the basic building blocks of the messages we communicate to one
another through spoken or written language. But when we think some more about
what exactly is a word, we realise that words are not always simple units. For
example, we all will agree that hard and drive are words. But what about hard
drive? Is this one word or two words? Does it mean “a drive that is hard”? I think
you will agree that the two words in hard drive function as one unit of meaning,
and also that this meaning is different from the individual meanings of the two
words by themselves. Think about other examples such as workman, Office of
the President, motel, and mother-in-law.

On the other hand, consider words such as books, walked, talking and disappear.
Again you recognize these as simple words, but that there is something more. We
now have some units (s, ed, ing and dis) which are smaller than words. Yet, these
small units do signal meaning (plurality, past tense, opposite and continuity)
when we add them to words.

All of these examples should make you think some more about the concept of
“word”. We see, therefore, that a “word” can be a single independent unit such as
book, hard, appear, and drive. Or, it can be a combination of words, e.g., hard
drive. Or, it can be a word and units (e.g. dis, ed, ese) that are smaller than words,
e.g., Guyana + ese (Guyanese). Further, we can create combinations such as hard
drives (hard + drive + s).

In some cases, these combinations create words that had never existed before (e.g.
hard drive). In other cases, the combinations are necessary for grammatical
purposes (e.g. adding s to indicate plurality or ed to indicate past tense).

Overview of Morphology (5 minutes)

All of these units that can stand by themselves as words, or can be combined to
create words, or can be added to words for grammatical purposes are called
morphemes.

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A morpheme is defined as “a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function

which is used in a language.” This means that if we take away any part of the
morpheme, the entire meaning will be lost. Therefore, mother-in-law may be
made of three words, but it is one morpheme. Similarly, the smaller units such as
s, ed and ing which we use to indicate plurality, tense and other grammatical
functions, also cannot be reduced.

The study of morphemes, and how they are used to form new words or indicate
grammar, is called morphology.

Morphology is a sub-discipline of linguistics that studies word structure. The term

morphology literally means “the study of forms.” It was originally used in
biology, but since the middle of the 19th century, has also been used to describe
that type of investigation which analyses all those basic ‘elements” in a word. .

Morphemes can vary in size: neither the number of syllables nor the length of a
word can indicate what is a morpheme and what isn’t. For example, Albatross is a
long word but it is a single morpheme – it cannot be reduced without losing its
meaning. Similarly, -y (as in dreamy) is also a single morpheme.

(Mini-lecturette) (5 minutes)

The importance of Morphology

Morphology or the study of patterns in the formation of words has a great deal of
value. Morphology helps students to understand how words are formed, and
subsequently how they may be used in sentences. Morphology is important to
speech and fluency. The definability of linguistic units (word parts) and how they
take part in sentence structure allows a speaker to manipulate the units.
Morphology enhances many areas of speech and writing inclusive of word
selection, spelling and sentence formation. Making smart word choices, spelling
words correctly, and forming sentences properly each contribute to an overall
mastery of language.

Identifying Morphemes (5 minutes)

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Morphemes are identified by their shape or form, pattern of distribution, and

meaning.

Shape or form refers to how the morpheme is written or spoken. For example, ed
is the shape or form of the past tense morpheme in English, while s is the shape
or form of the plural morpheme. These shapes or forms may vary – for example,
sometimes the plural morpheme in English is pronounced “s” as in “cats”,
sometimes it is pronounced “z” as in “cars” and sometimes it is pronounced “iz”
as in “buses”. Sometimes, there is no discernable shape at all, as is the case with
the plural of “sheep”. We will discuss this further in Unit 4.

The pattern of distribution refers to how a morpheme is used. You already know
that ed is used in a specific manner – it is added to verbs, not nouns, and it is
added to the ends of verbs. This, then, is the pattern of distribution of the past
tense morpheme in English. If an s is added to the end of a noun such as book ,
you know it indicates plurality; ing added to verbs such as read to indicates
continuity; and ed added to verbs such as talk indicates past tense.

This raises another important point about morphemes. Sometimes, different

morphemes may have the same shape or form. For example, if we add s to the end
of a noun, it indicates plurality. If we add s to the end of a verb, what happens? In
this pattern of distribution, s now indicates third person singular. If we attach it
after an apostrophe at the end of a proper noun, it indicates possession (e.g.
Balram’s). These, therefore, are three different morphemes, even though they all
have the same shape or form.

Morphemes are used systematically. For example, you know that you cannot
combine the small units (e.g. ed and ing) to make a new word, but you can
combine whole words to create new words - for example, we have combined hard
and drive to create the new word hard drive.

Finally, since morphemes are meaningful units, they are identified by their
meaning function. For example, the s at the end of the word books indicates
plurality and is therefore a morpheme. On the other hand, the s at the end of the

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word Charles is not a morpheme because it does not indicate plurality (Charles is
not the plural of Charl!). Also, the er at the end of teacher indicates someone who
teaches, but the er at the end of danger does not indicate something that
“danges”!

Word Construction and Analysis (10)

The morphemes we have been discussing can be put into two groups: bound
morphemes and free morphemes. Free morphemes are those which can stand by
themselves (e.g. book, walk, talk), while bound morphemes are those such as s,
ing, and ed that cannot stand alone.

Words in English are made up of free and bound morphemes. Using this
information, we can now approach words and meaning in a more systematic
manner. Many of the words we use are morphologically complex – they are
composed of more than one morpheme. In our analysis, we look for the
constituent which may be considered as the basic one, the core of the form, with
the others treated as being added on.

Example 1: The word ‘reopened’ consists of three morphemes. We recognize

the basic, core constituent “open” and other constituents “re” (meaning ‘again’),
and another minimal unit “ed” which indicates a grammatical function (past
tense).

The basic or core morpheme is referred to as the stem, root, or base, while the
add-ons are affixes. Affixes that precede the stem are of course prefixes, while
those that follow the stem are suffixes.

When doing morphological analysis, we use braces or curly brackets { } to

indicate morphemes. Square brackets [ ] indicate a semantic characterization.
Italics indicate a lexical item. We will therefore rewrite our word analysis this
way:

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Example 2: The word ‘tourists’ contains three morphemes: a stem and two
affixes, both of which are suffixes. The stem is {tour} [a journey through a place
or country], and the suffixes are {ist}, [‘person who does something’], and {s}
[which serves the grammatical function of indicating plurality].

Words may be morphologically simple, compound, or complex. Words with just

one free morpheme, for example, ‘tree’ are simple words. Words that consist of
two or more free morphemes for example, ‘teacup’ are compound words. Words
with a free morpheme and one or more bound morpheme, like ‘trees’ are complex
words.

Simple word Compound word Complex word

One free morpheme Two free morphemes One free morpheme and one
or more bound morphemes
Example: {tree} Example: Blackboard
{black} + {board} Example: {re} {arrange} {d}

Prefixes and suffixes are almost always bound morphemes.

Example Prefix (bound) Stem (free) Suffix (bound) Suffix (bound)

undressed {un} {dress} {ed}

carelessness {care} {less} {ness}

teacher {teach} {er}

Base, stem and root

In order to make the segmentation of words into smaller parts a little clearer, we
differentiate between the base, the stem and the root of a word in morphological
terms. BASE = an element (free or bound, root morpheme or complex word) to

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which additional morphemes are added.  Also called a STEM, a base can consist
of a single root morpheme, as with 'kind' in the word 'kindness'. But a base can
also itself contain more than one morpheme. For example, we can use the word
'kindness' as a base to form the word 'kindnesses'; to make 'kindnesses', we add
the plural morpheme, spelled '-es' in this case, to the base 'kindness'.

ROOT = a (usually free) morpheme around which words can be built up through
the addition of affixes. The root usually has a more-specific meaning than the
affixes that attach to it. For example, the root 'kind' can have affixes added to it to
form 'kindly', 'kindness', 'kinder', 'kindest'. The root is the item you have left when
you strip all other morphemes off of a complex word. In the word dehumanizing,
for example, if you strip off all the affixes -- -ing, -ize, and de-, human is what
you have left. It cannot be divided further into meaningful parts. It is the root of
the word.

But what about the stems, are they always free?

There are a number of English words in which the element which seems to be the
stem, is not, in fact a free morpheme. In words like receive, reduce, repeat, we can
recognize the bound morpheme re, but the elements –ceive, -duce, and –peat, are
clearly not free morphemes.

Forms like, -ceive, -duce, and –peat are bound stems.

Forms like “dress,” “care,” and “teach” are free stems.

The Tutor introduces activity 1

 Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Reflect on bound and free morphemes before you complete the following
exercise.

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1. State the number of morphemes in the following words: actor, strongest,

precede, cupboard, anthill, dogs, house.
2. State whether each of the above words is simple, compound, or complex.
3. List the “bound” morphemes to be found in the following words:
misleads, previewer, fearlessly, precede, disentangled.

Feedback to activity 1 (5 minutes)

Actor has two morphemes ‘act-or.’ It is a complex word.

Strongest has two morphemes ‘strong-est.’ It is a complex word.

Precede has two morphemes ‘pre –cede.’ It is a complex word.

Cupboard has two morphemes. It is a compound word.

Anthill has two morphemes. It is a compound word.

The word “Dogs” has two morphemes. It is a complex word.

House has one morpheme. It is a simple word.

In ‘misleads’ the bound morphemes are ‘mis, s’

In previewer the bound morphemes are ‘pre, er’

In fearlessly the bound morphemes are less, ly.’

In precede, the bound morpheme is ‘pre.’

In disentangled the bound morphemes are ‘dis’ and ‘d.’

The Tutor introduces activity 2

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 Activity 2: (10 minutes)

Imagine that as a classroom teacher, you have to teach word parts to your students.
What are some ways you could do this? Write at least three ideas or ways you
could use your knowledge of word parts in the classroom.

Feedback mini-lecturette (5 minutes)

There are many ways a teacher could utilize to teach word-parts. (1) The teacher
can make games to help students identify word parts, and become familiar with
the form and spelling of words. For example, in a word like ‘dehumanizing, the
teacher can strip all the affixes (de-, -ing, -ize) and place the root ‘human’ and
affixes on word cards. The teacher shuffles the words and the student finds the
correct word cards and spells the words. (2) Students should use a dictionary to
ensure they know word meanings, then they could use words in sentences. (3)
Students can also make the word card game competitive to see which group wins.
Students can also use the root of the words to form new words.

Summary (2 minutes)

A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit or part of a word. Identifying these

units and how they are combined is called Morphology. Words are made up of
free and bound morphemes. Linguists analyze words by their structure. Some
words have one free morpheme. Complex words combine free and bound
morphemes while compound words consist of two or more free morphemes.

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Students can be taught to use their knowledge of word parts to see how prefixes,
stems and suffixes go together to form words.

Suggested References

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. NY. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics, Grammar.
Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.
Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E.
Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A Primer with
Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights, Massachusetts. Allyn &
Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

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English Morphology Module 4

Unit 2: Types of bound and free Morphemes (1hr.)

Introduction:

This unit will sensitize students about types of bound and free morphemes and
how they are used in language. This knowledge will enhance many areas of both
teachers and their students’ speech and writing inclusive of word selection,
spelling and sentence formation.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to define and identify:

- Lexical morphemes
- Functional morphemes
- Derivational morphemes
- Derivational inflectional morphemes
- Function of morphemes in sentences

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

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English Morphology Module 4

Start of the lesson (3 minutes)

In the previous unit you were introduced to morphemes.

A morpheme can be defined as a minimal unit having more or less constant

meaning and more of less constant shape or form. (‘More or less’ because... see
below.)

For example, linguists say that the word buyers is made up of three morphemes
{buy}+{er}+{s}. The evidence for this is that each can occur in other
combinations of morphemes without changing its meaning. We can find {buy} in
buying, buys, and {er} in seller, fisher, as well as buyer. And {s} can be found in
boys, girls, and dogs. The more combinations a morpheme is found in, the more
productive it is said to be.

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes)

As we have seen, there are two types of morphemes: ‘bound’ and ‘free.’

1. Categories of Free Morphemes

Free morphemes are divided into two categories: lexical and functional.

Free morphemes

lexical functional

1. Lexical morphemes are words that have meaning by themselves. This

category is made up of ordinary nouns, adjectives, and verbs which we think of
as the words which carry the ‘content.’ Examples are boy, man, house, sad,

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English Morphology Module 4

long, yellow and break. We can add new lexical morphemes to the language
rather easily, so they are treated as an open class of words. Below are some
examples of lexical morphemes.
Some Examples of Lexical Morphemes in English

Bases

Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs

dog have silly very

chart touch hot too

word be strong now

child stay new again

student go quick then

Functional morphemes are the other group of free morphemes. They consist of the
functional words in the language - conjunctions, prepositions, articles and
pronouns. For example: and, near, above, in, the, but, on, that, etc. Functional
morphemes consist largely of functional words in the language such as
conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Some examples are: and, but,
when, because, on, above, in, the, that, it.

Because we almost never add new functional morphemes to the language, they
are described as a “closed” class of words.

2. Categories of Bound Morphemes

Bound morphemes are the prefixes and suffixes - those morphemes which cannot
stand by themselves, e.g. {re-}, {anti-}, {dis-}, {-er}, {-ed}. Bound morphemes
also fall into two groups: derivational and inflectional:

Bound Morphemes

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derivational inflectional

Derivational bound morphemes are used as prefixes and suffixes to create new
words. Some of them are:

Prefixes Suffixes

anti ness

con ion

di ity

or
pro

ex ize,

re
al

un ic

pre ous

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English Morphology Module 4

dis

We add these to free lexical morphemes, as in anti-government, re-arrange,

stupidity, actor.

Inflectional bound morphemes are used when we need to indicate grammatical

contrasts, for example, the difference between past and present tense, between
singular and plural, and so on.

Types of Morphology (10 minutes)

Bound morphemes and free morphemes are used in two different morphological
processes: derivational morphology and inflectional morphology.

1. Derivational Morphology
Derivational morphology is the process by which we derive or create new words
in a language. This can be done in three ways:

- combining free morphemes

- adding bound morphemes to free morphemes
- adding both free and bound morphemes

There are many examples of derivation using free morphemes: seawall, backdam,
hard drive, gateway and many more.

A list of derivation by bound morphemes will include foolish, badly, untie, re-
examine and many more.

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We can even combine bound and free morphemes: driver, canecutter,

multimillionaire.

The new words we derive in these ways sometimes belong to grammatical categories
that are different from those of the stem. For example, hard is an adjective and drive is
a verb, but the new word hard drive is a noun. The addition of the derivational
morpheme -ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. The noun
-care can become the adjective careful or careless through the derivational
morphemes -full or -less.

2. Inflectional Morphology
The second morphological process is called inflection. Inflections are word
endings which reflect grammatical contrasts. Inflectional morphology studies the
way in which words vary (or inflect) in order to express grammatical contrasts in
sentences, such as singular/plural or past/present tense. In English the inflectional
morphemes are a very limited group of suffixes that can be easily remembered.

Below are examples of some inflectional morphemes:

Morpheme Inflection

-s Plural morpheme (dogs)

Third person singular  (I live, he

-s
lives)

-ed Past  (lived)

-ing Progressive (living)

-er Comparative  (taller)

-est Superlative (tallest)

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English Morphology Module 4

Possessive (Adrian’s
-‘s, -s’
The Jones’

For practice, let us take the word disappearances and analyse its bound
morphemes

Root word: appear

Bound morpheme type Function

-dis derivational Change meaning not

-ance derivational Change verb to noun

-s inflectional Change singular noun to plural

The Tutor introduces activity 1

 Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Reflect on lexical and functional morphemes, then complete the following

exercises.

A. What are the functional morphemes in the following sentence?

The old man sat on a chair and told them tales of long ago.

B. What are the inflectional morphemes in the following phrases:

a. The singer’s songs
b. It’s raining
c. The newest style

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d. The cow jumped over the moon

C. Examine the lexical morphemes in the following list and say what part of
speech each one is.

Lexical Part of speech

Morpheme

Dog

Touch

Strong

Very

Chart

Have

Again

D. Just for fun, take the following long word and analyze its bound
morphemes:

antidisestablishmentarianism

Feedback to activity 1 (10 minutes)

Remember that functional morphemes are conjunctions, prepositions, articles,

pronouns.

Activity A:

The functional morphemes are underlined.

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The old man sat on a chair and told them tales of long ago.

Activity B:

a. –‘s, -s

b. -ing

c. –est

d. -ed

Activity C:

Lexical Part of speech

morpheme

Dog Noun

Touch verb

Strong adjective

Very adverb

Chart noun

Have verb

Again Adverb

Activity D:

Root word: establish

Bound morpheme Type Function

anti- derivational Change meaning against

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English Morphology Module 4

dis- derivational Change meaning not

-ment derivational Change to noun (thing)

arian derivational Change to noun (possession)

-ism derivational Change to noun (philosophy)

The Tutor introduces activity 2

 Activity 2: (10 minutes)

Write a paragraph or two to answer the following questions:

What is derivational morphology?

Why is it important?

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Derivational morphology changes the meaning of words by applying derivations.

A derivation is the combination of a word stem with a morpheme, which forms a
new word, which is often of a different class. For example, develop becomes
development, developmental or redevelop.

The suffix -ation converts the verb nationalize, into the derived noun
nationalization. The suffix -ize converts the noun plural, into the verb pluralize.

Nominalization is a common kind of derivation in English, and it involves

forming new nouns from verbs or adjectives, by adding suffixes to them, for
example:

Suffix Verb/adjective Derived noun

-ness happy (A) happiness

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English Morphology Module 4

-ee employ (V) employee

Derivational morphology can be quite complicated, as the classes of words that an

affix apply to are not always clear cut; for example the suffix -ee cannot be added
to all verbs, i.e. to add it to run (V) gives runee, which is clearly not an English
word.

They are important because they produce new words or change the function of a
word. The morphological process of derivational affixes is one of the richest
sources of new words.

Summary (5 minutes)

Lexical morphemes are words that have meanings by themselves. Some examples
are, boy, food and door. Functional morphemes consist of the function words in
the language –conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns.

Bound morphemes come in two varieties, derivational and inflectional, the core
difference between the two being that the addition of derivational morphemes
creates new words while the addition of inflectional words merely changes word
form.

Inflections are grammatical morphemes. They consist of word endings, like

suffixes, but unlike suffixes, inflections express only grammatical functions.
Derivational morphemes create new words in the language and are often used to
make words of a different grammatical category. Many new words are formed by
adding derivational affixes to roots. These word formation rules follow regular
patterns.

Suggested References

Cyril Potter College of Education

English Morphology Module 4

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. NY. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,

Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham Heights,

Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

Unit 3: Word formation processes (1 hr.)

Introduction:

The vocabulary of a language is in constant flux. Words enter and leave our
language all the time. Vocabularies are also varied depending on where you live.
People from other places where English is spoken speak other varieties of
English. The British use the word boot to describe the storage compartment of a
car and they queue up at the store’s cash register. On the other hand, people in
the United States put their bags in the trunk of the car and stand in line at the
store’s cash register. Even within a country vocabulary differs.

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Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

- Understand word formation processes

 Derivation
 Linguistic borrowing
 Compounding
 Clipping and blending
 Reduplication

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

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Introduction to Linguistics

Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

How are words extended?

Derivation:

One process which we discussed in detail in the previous lesson is derivation, the
adding of bound or free morphemes to root words to extend the meaning of an
existing word. For example, from the root compute comes derived forms such as
computer, computerize, non-computerized, and so on.

However, there are other forms of derivation. Sometimes a word began life as a
noun and was affixed to make it an adjective. For other words, the base form was
the verb and endings were added later to make adjectives, adverbs and nouns. For
instance, the word snack was first used as a noun, then later, the same word began
to be used as a verb as well. The inflectional morpheme –ing is now commonly
added to the verb snack to form the present progressive tense, snacking.

Further, it is also possible for words to change their class without any affixation.
Many words in English belong to more than one lexical category. For instance,
the word ride can be either a verb or a noun. This process which is called lexical
category conversion is a derivational process whereby an item changes its word
class without the addition of an affix.

There is also the process of conversion which involves the original word being
used in a new way. Especially popular at the moment is the conversion of nouns
to verbs as in to diary and to rubbish. Most unusual forms of conversion are from
categories of word not usually subject to alteration: this book is a must; a has
been, the workmen downed tools.

Word Formation Rules

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One of the richest sources of new words is the morphological process of

derivational affixes.

Earlier on we explained that goodness is derived by adding ‘ness’ to the adjective

good. This is an example of a general pattern. When the suffix –er is added to a
verb a new noun is created. English has many of these -er words: preacher, baker,
and singer to name just three.

Yet another example of a very productive word formation rule is that the suffix
-ly can be added to adjectives to form adverbs. Thus, English has words like
quickly, slowly and laboriously. The –ly suffix can be added to many different
adjectives.

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes)

Besides derivation, there are several methods by which words are entered into a
language. We will be discussing some of them in this lecture.

Linguistic borrowing

English owes the wealth of its vocabulary to borrowings from other languages.
Throughout the history of English new words have been incorporated into the
language through borrowing (from languages as varied as Latin, Greek,
Scandinavian, Arabic, and many others) as well as through the application of
morphological and derivational rules to existing words and morphemes. Words
currently entering the language are called neologisms (from "neo" new and "log"
word).

Compounding

Another very productive process by which words are added to language is

compounding, the process of merging two pre-existing words into a new concept.
Examples of noun compounds are toothache, earthquake, bloodstain, and

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Introduction to Linguistics

housewife. Examples of verb/object compounds are haircut and handshake.

Examples of verb/adverbial compounds are sleepwalking and air-borne.

As technology advances many new compounds are added. For example, many
new computer words like download, upload and hard drive as well as other words
like home-schooling and drive thru have been added to English.

Clipping and blending

A very productive word formation process in English is clipping in which you

simply cut off part of a word: laboratory – lab, dormitory – dorm and influenza –
flu. Sometimes new words are formed by more than one process. The words
sitcom involves clipping the phrase situation comedy and them blending sit and
com into one word. The same goes for simulcast (simultaneous broadcast), blog
(web log), and two of the most well known examples: motel (motor hotel) and
brunch (breakfast and lunch).

Coinage

Sometimes when we create new inventions, discover new things or come up with
new concepts, we create totally new words for them. This process is called
coinage (these words may be called neologisms as well). Some examples are the
words gizmo, nerd and quark (a subatomic particle) are all fairly recent
inventions. No one person has contributed to the English language as many words
as Shakespeare. There are more than 1,000 of his creations in current use
including: buzzer, cater, dawn, frugal, hint, hurry, hobnob, obscene, torture and
zany.

Reduplication

Another process of word creation is reduplication in which all or part of a word is

repeated. English has a number of rhyming reduplications such as hanky panky,
helter skelter, super-duper. But in Guyanese, reduplication is used more
effectively to create new meanings. For example, the word for “one” (waan) is
reduplicated into waan waan and this creates a new meaning: “a few”. Play is

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Introduction to Linguistics

reduplicated to create play play, which means “to pretend”. People also create
whole new words such as bling bling by using reduplication.

Morphological misanalysis

One prolific and interesting process by which we get new vocabulary is called
morphological misanalysis. In this process, there has been some play in dividing
up a word into the root and the bound morphemes in a way that is not traditionally
done. One of the best known of these is chocoholic, the word for a person
addicted to chocolate. Consider the original word from which this word was
derived: alcoholic. The root word (free morpheme) is alcoholic, which is attached
to a bound morpheme –ic (meaning one who does this a lot). If we put the same
logic process to work on chocolate, the addicted person should be called a
“chocolatic.”

For some reason this possible word does not sound as good as chocoholic. For
many years the word chocoholic stood alone, but in the last decade, the –aholic
bound morpheme has really taken off. We now hear: drugaholic, shopaholic and
workaholic among others.

The Tutor introduces activity 1

Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Although about 60 percent of the words in an English dictionary have Latin or Greek
roots, many words in a text are function words or simple content words. Take a
passage of one hundred consecutive words. Working in pairs, closely examine each
word by placing it on a chart similar to the one that follows. If a word is repeated, list
it each time it appears. An example of each type of word is shown in the sample chart
to help you get started.

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Introduction to Linguistics

Simple Complex D I Compound Function

Nouns boy boys I toothbrush the

through

Verbs go prioritize D

Adjectives green unsatisfactory D

Adverbs fast slowly D

Feedback to activity 1 (10 minutes)

Analyze your results by answering the following questions:

What percentage of the words are function words?

What percentage are simple words?

What percentage are complex words with inflectional suffixes?

What percentage are complex words with derivational suffixes?

What percent are compound words?

Discuss your findings in groups.

What percent of words in running text have meanings that can be determined
by structural analysis? That is how many of these words are compound words
or complex words with derivational affixes?

According to the available word counts made on different parts of speech, we find
that derived words numerically constitute the largest class of words in the existing
word-stock. Derived nouns comprise approximately 67% of the total number,
adjectives about 86% whereas compound nouns make about 15% and adjectives
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Introduction to Linguistics

about 4%. Root words come to about 18% in nouns, that is a trifle more than the
number of compound words; adjectives root words which come to approximately
12%. numerically constitute the largest class of words

The Tutor introduces activity 2

 Activity 2: (10 minutes)

Match the expressions on the left with the correct morphological description on the right.

     

(a) wifely, wifehood,

_______   1. compound noun
wifeless

_______ (b) take a wife   2. root morpheme plus derivational prefix

_______ (c) his wife   3. phrase consisting of adjective plus noun
_______ (d) tall wife   4. root morpheme plus inflectional suffix
_______ (e) housewife   5. root morpheme plus derivational suffix
6. grammatical morpheme followed by
_______ (f) wives   lexical morpheme

_______ (g) exwife   7. idiom

      
II.     
_______ (a) lives   1. compound noun
_______ (b) a life   2. root morpheme plus derivational prefix
_______ (c) long life   3. phrase consisting of adjective plus noun
(d) lifeguard, lifetime,
_______   4. root morpheme plus inflectional suffix
lifeblood

_______ (e) for the life of me   5. root morpheme plus derivational suffix
6. grammatical morpheme followed by
_______ (f) relive   lexical morpheme

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Introduction to Linguistics

_______ (g) lifelike, lifeless   7. idiom

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Introduction to Linguistics

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Expressions Morphological

Descriptions

A 5

B 7

C 6

D 3

E 1

F 6

G 2

A 4

B 6

C 3

D 1

E 7

F 2

G 5

Summary (5 minutes)

There are several word formation processes which ensure that the English
language continues to grow and expand. Foremost of these is derivation.
Derivation, is the adding of bound or free morphemes to root words to extend the
meaning of an existing word. Furthermore, many words belong to more than one

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Introduction to Linguistics

lexical category. For instance the word ride, can be either a verb or a noun.
Derivational word formation rules is also used to make new words.

Linguistic borrowings account for a huge percentage of English words. English

has borrowed words throughout its history. Compounding is a popular method
whereby preexisting words are merged. Clipping in which part of a word is cut off
is a very American method of forming a new word.

Coinage is a word formation method which corresponds to the times. Shakespeare

utilized this method during his era, and in this computer age many coined words
‘gizmo’ and ‘nerd’ have entered the vocabulary.
Reduplication focused on intensification of the word usage. Finally, new words
also enter the vocabulary through morphological misdiagnosis.

Suggested References

Allsopp, J. and J. R. Rickford, eds. Language, Culture, and Caribbean Identity.

Kingston: Canoe Press, 2012.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. NY. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,

Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Cyril Potter College of Education

Introduction to Linguistics

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham Heights,

Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

Unit 4: Morphs and Allomorphs (1 hr.)

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Introduction to Linguistics

Introduction:

Many morphemes in English have more than one form or shape. These variants
are called allomorphs (just as we had variations of phonemes or allophones
earlier). One reason why there is variation is because of phonology – the way
sounds are pronounced. But there are other reasons why the same morpheme may
be expressed in different ways. This lesson will give you a better understanding of
irregular morphemes.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

- Define morphs
- Define allomorphs
- Distinguish irregular plural morphemes
- Distinguish correct pronunciation of –ed ending

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

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Introduction to Linguistics

Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

What is the difference between morphemes, morphs, and allomorphs?

How is the plural morpheme created? Is there one way of creating a plural form?
When you look at certain inflectional endings that occur in English, you’ll notice
that they are often but not always predictable. Here are a few examples for the
plural morpheme.

Singular morpheme Plural morpheme

One car Two cars
One rose Two roses
one mouse Two mice
One ox Two oxen
One sheep Two sheep
stadium stadia

A vowel change instead of a suffix marks the plural in mice and men. In oxen the
suffix we encounter is rather exotic (meaning this word is virtually the only one
that takes the -en ending). In the second-to-last example there is no visible plural
marking at all. And in the final example, the plural word has a different shape.

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes)

Morphemes and their allomorphs

Is every morpheme pronounced the same in all contexts? If it were, most

phonology texts could be considerably shorter than they are! In fact, many
morphemes have two or more different pronunciations, called allomorphs, the
choice between them being determined by the context.

Morphology and phonetics

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Introduction to Linguistics

No linguistic system exists in a vacuum even though sometimes we teach them as

if they were. An example of how different language systems affect each other can
be seen when we look at how some morphemes are specifically crafted because of
sound characteristics of the free morpheme. There may be several spelling forms
or several pronunciations that mean the same thing but fit a particular
pronunciation pattern.

If one compares cats, dogs and horses with cat, dog and horse respectively, the
obvious answer is: ‘by adding -s’. But English spelling is notoriously unreliable
as a guide to pronunciation. In fact, this -s suffix has three allomorphs: [s] (as in
cats or lamps), [z] (as in dogs or days), and [ Iz] or [əz] (as in horses or judges). Is
it, then, that everyone learning English, whether natively or as a second language,
must learn individually for each noun which of the three allomorphs is used in its
plural form? That would seem extremely laborious.

In fact, it is easy to show that the three allomorphs are distributed in an entirely
regular fashion, based on the sound immediately preceding the suffix. When the
preceding sound is a sibilant (the kind of ‘hissing’ or ‘hushing’ sound heard at the
end of horse, rose, bush, church and judge), the [Iz] allomorph occurs. When the
preceding sound is voiceless, i.e. produced with no vibration of the vocal folds in
the larynx (as in cat, rock, cup or cliff), the [s] allomorph occurs, otherwise (i.e.
after a vowel or a voiced consonant, as in dog or day), the [z] allomorph occurs.

Another interesting example is the past tense morpheme. Although it has one
spelling, -ed, it is actually pronounced in three slightly different ways.

(1) Final –ed is pronounced [t] after final voiceless sounds in the free
morpheme. In other words, if the last sound in the root word is voiceless,
then voiceless [t] is added. For example, the word drip ends in [p] which is
voiceless. So the [ed] past tense ending for dripped is pronounced [t].
Other examples are ‘pushed’ and ‘looked.’

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Introduction to Linguistics

(2) The final –ed is pronounced [d] after final voiced sounds in the free
morpheme. For example, the word sob ends in [b] which is voiced, so the
[ed] past tense ending for sobbed is pronounced [d] since it is voiced.
Other examples are ‘believed’ and ‘judged.’

(3) Some root words end in [t] or [d]. For example: wet, and add. It is hard to
repeat the same consonant twice in succession, so we don’t simply add a
[t] or [d] as with the other two patterns. We pronounce the vowel as well:
added, wetted [id].

In effect, without realising it, we pay attention to these phonological

characteristics of the noun when deciding which allomorph to use –though
‘decide’ is hardly the right word here, because our ‘decision’ is quite unconscious.

But what about words like oxen, sheep and stadia? The plural forms of these
words are determined not by phonology but by their history. In the case of oxen,
the en ending was originally a part of the word, but is now only retained to mark
the plural form. Sheep is an example of a word that lost its historical marking for
plurality. As a West Germanic word – skaepa - its original marking for the plural
was by the addition of a vowel. This type of plural marking was dropped from
English, and sheep remains without a plural form. Stadia on the other hand is a
latinate word (it comes from Latin), and ia is the latinate plural form.

The Tutor introduces activity 1

Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Examine the past tense forms below. How would linguists write the past tense
morpheme based on the differences in pronunciation.

Walked talked Watched

roamed rolled clothed

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Introduction to Linguistics

defended loaded spotted

believed wetted Booted

Feedback to activity 1 (10 minutes)

Review the lecture given above:

i. Final –ed is pronounced [t] after final voiceless sounds in the free
morpheme.
ii. Final –ed is pronounced [d] after final voiced sounds in the free
morpheme.
iii. Final –ed is pronounced [id] if root word ends in [t] or [d].

Walked [t] Talked [t] Watched [t]

Roamed [d] Rolled [d] Clothed [d]

Defended [id] Loaded [id] Spotted [id]

Believed [d[ Wetted [id] Booted [id]

The Tutor introduces activity 2

 Activity 2: (10 minutes)

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Introduction to Linguistics

Discuss your understanding or define morphs, allomorphs, and allomorphs of the plural
morpheme.

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Define morphs = a concrete part of a word that cannot be divided into smaller
parts

Define allomorphs

One way to treat differences in inflectional morphemes is by proposing variation

in morphological realization rules. The form ‘cat’ is a single morph realizing a
lexical morpheme. The form ‘cats’ consist of two morphs, realizing a lexical
morpheme and an inflectional morpheme (‘plural’). Just as linguists recognize
‘allomorphs’ of a particular phoneme, in the same way they recognize allomorphs
or variants of a particular morpheme.

Define allomorphs of the plural morpheme

Allomorphs are different realizations of the same morpheme, e.g. -s, -en and
nothing for the plural morpheme in dogs, oxen and fish_

When linguists talk about the allomorphs of the plural morpheme they are
referring to variants of the same functional element which do not impact meaning
in any way. A plural is still a plural, whether encoded by -s or something else.

To describe the above differences linguists produce structures like ‘cat’ plus
plural, ‘sheep’ plus ‘plural,’ and ‘man’ plus ‘plural.’ It has been suggested that
one allomorph of ‘plural’ is a zero-morph, and the plural form of sheep is actually
‘sheep + zero.’

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Introduction to Linguistics

Summary (5 minutes)

When you examine some inflectional endings, you’d realize that the plural
morpheme has several irregularities. The fact is that plural number in English can
be marked with several different inflectional suffixes by vowel change or by no
change at all.

Regular English nouns form their plural by adding [s] to the singular form.
However, there are irregular plurals like child – children, foot – feet, hypothesis –
hypotheses, goose – geese. There are some morphs which have the same singular
and plural form, deer – deer, sheep –sheep. Linguists call the irregular forms
allomorphs of the morpheme plural.

An interesting example of an allomorph is the past tense –ed which has one
spelling but three different pronunciations.

Suggested References

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. NY. 1995.
6
Introduction to Linguistics

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,
Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham Heights,
Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

MODULE 4: Syntax (4 hrs)

Overview:

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Introduction to Linguistics

This module presents an introduction to syntax in language as far as it is relevant

to the content of this course. It is not meant to be a rigorous discussion of all
aspects of syntax. What I am describing is a simple orthodox view of the grammar
of language. Some more complex models are discussed by linguists but these are
beyond the scope of this description. This section is included for those readers
who would like a brief overview without having to refer separately to a linguistics
textbook. Those who would like to read more about the various linguistic theories
on syntax should refer to the bibliography for references to linguistics books and
to sites on the web covering linguistics and syntax. We are concerned here
primarily with the syntax of the structure of sentences.

Module Objectives:

By the end of this module you will be able to:

- Define syntax using examples from English sentences

- Distinguish between deep and surface structure
- Understand generative grammar
- Use transformational rules
- Understand recursion
- Generate tree diagrams
- Use syntax in the classroom to improve grammar

Module Orientation:

This module has four units.

Unit 1: Introduction to a theory of syntax

Unit 2: Syntax and Phrase Structure rules

Unit 3: Syntax and types of sentences

Unit 4: Some Rules of generative grammar

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Introduction to Linguistics

It is advisable to study the units in sequential order. Try to complete each one of
them as they would help you to remember the information which you have
learned.

Some units have activities which would help you to test yourself. The answers for
these units have been included but you are advised to check them only after you
have completed the activities.

Time Requirement:

You will probably need about 4 hours to complete this module including the
activities.

Unit 1: Introduction to a theory of Syntax (1 hr.)

Introduction:

In this unit you will learn about grammar as the study of syntactic structures. Like
all languages, English has rules which govern how words are used to form
sentences. These rules inform how syntax functions in language.

Specific Objectives

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Introduction to Linguistics

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

- Define syntax
- Understand how syntax functions in language
- Identify aspects of English syntax
- Define generative grammar
- Distinguish between deep and surface structure

What is needed

- A dictionary

- Writing paper

- Pens

Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

Examine the following sentence constructions. Can you find anything that is not
right about them?

- Home, have to go, I.

- Develop teachers creative lessons linguistics.
- Will the car be here at 3 o’clock / it’s raining/.

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Introduction to Linguistics

The above combinations of units, however, could not be called sentences since
sentences in English follow a certain word order. You will have no difficulty is
accepting the following as acceptable sentences in English:

1. I have to go home.
2. Linguistics teachers develop creative lessons.
3. Will the car be here at three o’clock? It’s raining.

What is syntax? (5 minutes)

The study of the structure of a sentence and its ordering elements is what syntax is
all about. It is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the rules
of a language that dictate how the various parts of a sentence go together. While
morphology looks at how the smallest meaningful units (morphemes), are formed
into complete words, syntax looks at how those words are formed into complete
sentences.

The word ‘syntax’ comes from syntaxis, the Greek word which means ‘together’
or ‘arrangement.’ Most syntactic studies have focused on sentence structure for
this is where the most important grammatical relationships are expressed.

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes)

The Role of Syntax in Language

It is obvious that most often, we speak in groups of words rather than single
words. But these sequences are not just made up of one word following another.
There are certain relationships between and among the words, forming sub-
structures in the sentence. Just as the sentence as a whole has structure, so too the
individual sub-units also have their internal structure. The sub-structures in turn
play certain roles in building up the complete meaning of the sentence.

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Introduction to Linguistics

Further, depending on the role that they play in the sentence, it may be possible to
switch some of these structures around, or omit them, or substitute other units for
them, thereby changing the appearance of the sentence while preserving the
meaning. Syntax is the study that allows us to understand the elements and
structures of sentences, and their roles and relationships.

Approaches To Syntax (10 minutes)

We can take two major approaches to the study of syntax: the structural approach,
or the generative approach.

The structural approach considers the sentence to be a structure which is made up

of constituents such as noun phrases, verb phrases, adjectival phrases and so on.
An advantage of this approach is that it gives us a good understanding of the
structure of sentences and their sub-units. This kind of information is useful to a
teacher.

The generative approach to syntax was introduced by linguist Noam Chomsky as

part of his theory of how humans acquire and use language. Chomsky’s quest was
to write a universal grammar that would be applicable to all human language. He
was not only interested in the surface form of language, but on the rules that made
such surface forms possible without producing any ungrammatical sentences. For
example, he was interested in how different surface structures might have the
same deeper meaning – e.g., a fire destroyed the hotel is the same as the hotel was
destroyed by a fire. He also noticed that some sentences were structurally
ambiguous, containing a surface structure and but different deep structures, as in
the case of old men and women which could mean (1) both old men and old
women, or (2) women and old men. Both of these examples reveal the operations
of these rules below the surface of the sentence. We will discuss generative
grammar some more in Unit 4.

This approach considers the sentence to be generated by each speaker using a

small set of rules that are part of the speaker’s inherent language ability. One
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Introduction to Linguistics

advantage of this approach is that it explains how all speakers can produce an
indeterminately large number of sentences, many of which they had never heard
before. A finite number of rules facilitate an infinite number of sentences that can
be simultaneously understood by both the speaker and the listener. In order for
this to work with any degree of success, the rules have to be precise and have to
be consistently adhered to. These rules cover such things as: the way words are
constructed; the way the endings of words are changed according to context
(inflection); the classification of words into parts of speech and the way parts of
speech are connected together.

Summary (5 minutes)

Syntax is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and its ordering
elements. Further, it is concerned with the rules of a language that dictate how
the parts of a sentence go together.

The contemporary theory of syntax is an attempt to describe the rules that govern
the order of words at the deep structure level and also to account for how deep-
structure syntax is changed to create different surface-structure sentences.

Suggested References

Chomsky, Noam. “Review of verbal learning.” Language 35: 26-58.

1959.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. New York. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,
Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

13
Introduction to Linguistics

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights,
Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

UNIT 2: Syntax and Phrase Structure Rules (1hr)

Introduction

Syntax and tree diagrams may seem to belong to different worlds altogether.
However, syntax tree diagrams can help you understand the grammatical structure
of a sentence and the rules of grammar in a better way.

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Introduction to Linguistics

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

- Understand the grammatical hierarchy

- Understand phrase structure rules
- Diagram phrases
- Diagram a simple sentences
- Use syntax in teaching of English

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

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English Syntax Module 7

Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

The Grammatical hierarchy

Words, phrases, clauses and sentences constitute what is called the grammatical
hierarchy. Sentences are at the top of the hierarchy. One of the first things to do in
analyzing a sentence is to look for groupings within it – sets of words that hang
together,

Example: Annette couldn’t open the window.

The above sentence may be divided as follows: Annette / couldn’t open / the
window.

Units such as ‘Annette’, ‘couldn’t open’ and ‘the window’ are called phrases. The
first of these could be called a noun phrase because it contains a noun, ‘Annette’.
The second is a verb phrase, because the central word (or head) is a verb, ‘open.’
The third would also be called a noun phrase, because its head is a noun,
‘windows.’

Other types of phrases also exist – adjective phrases, for example such as ‘very
nice,’ and prepositional phrases such as, ‘in the house.’

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes)

Phrase structure rules

The types of phrases we saw in the example above may be summarized in

Phrase-structure rules. Such rules are used to describe the possible structures
and constituents of the different kinds of phrases in a given language. Phrase
structure rules are commonly used in transformational grammar. A grammar
which uses phrase structure rules is called a phrase structure grammar.

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 English Syntax Module 7

The table below shows the different phrasal categories which include the noun
phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase and prepositional phrase; and the
corresponding lexical categories which include noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and
other parts of speech. Note that each PS rule consists of two basic parts. The
material to the left of the arrow specifies the phrasal category being described.
The material to the right of the arrow describes the items that comprise the phrasal
category. Parentheses, as shown around (Det) in the Noun Phrase rule, indicate an
optional item; if the item appears, it must appear in that position. Braces, as
shown in the verb Phrase rule, indicate that exactly one of the items in the braces
must appear in that position.

Examples of Phrase Structure: (PS) rules in English.

Sentence S NP - VP A sentence consists of a noun phrase

followed by a verb phrase.
Noun Phrase NP (Det) – (AP)-N-(PP) A noun phrase must contain a noun. The
noun may be preceded by a determiner, an
adjective phrase, or both, and it may be
followed by a prepositional phrase
Verb Phrase VP V-({NP/AP})-(PP) A verb phrase must contain a verb. The verb
may be followed by a noun phrase, an
adjective phrase, or neither. The verb phrase
may end in a prepositional phrase, but need
not.
Adjective Phrase AP (I)-Adj An adjective phrase must contain an
adjective. The adjective may be preceded by
an intensifier (e.g., very).
Prepositional Phrase PP Prep-NP A prepositional phrase consists of a
preposition followed by a noun phrase.

Thus, for example, the Verb Phrase rule allows a VP to expand in one of the
following ways.

V The battery died.

V-NP Chris hit the ball

V-NP-PP He drove the car into a tree.

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English Syntax Module 7

V-PP They are in the kitchen.

V-AP The teacher is angry.

V-AP-PP My boss was very happy with her

decision.

These relatively simple rules make it possible to generate, or describe, an

extremely large number of English sentences.

Sentence represented by tree diagram

The Phrase Structure rules show the types of possible sentences that may be
generated in a language. Tree Diagrams show the hierarchical relationships
between the components of actual sentences in a graphical way. For example:

Where:

Subject = “the boy” (article + noun)

Verb = “kicked”

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English Syntax Module 7

Object = “the ball” (article + noun)

The above structure is the basic syntactic structure for a sentence in the English
language. As more complex sentences are considered, it is easy, by this method,
to see how these different structures relate to each other, by further breaking down
the branches of the structure. The syntax of the language contains the rules which
govern the structure of phrases and how these can be joined together. The
structures and associated rules vary from one language to another.

Parsing diagrams are capable of representing not just one particular language’s
grammar but are capable of representing any kind of grammar. For instance, they
can be used to represent the rules of invented languages such as computer
programming languages.

We will continue the diagramming of sentences in another unit.

The Tutor introduces activity 1

Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Below are some English phrases. For each one, identify the type of phrase it is
(S, NP, VP, AP, PP) and determine whether it (and any phrases it contains)
can be generated by the PS rules just presented.

a. ice floats b. the red car c. John d. in a bad mood. e. in a very bad mood f.
gave a party for Mary g. was a fool h. was extremely silly

i. ran j. Those people hit that man on the head k. ran with difficulty l. an
extremely quickly

If not, what element in the phrase is not described by the rules?

Feedback to activity 1 (10 minutes)

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a. Ice floats S NP-VP

b. The red car NP, containing a DET (the) and AP (red

car) (not in the rules)

c. John NP

d. In a bad mood PP

e. In a very bad mood PP

f. Gave a party for Mary VP V-NP

g. Was a fool VP V-NP

h. Was extremely silly VP V-AP

i. Ran VP

j. Those people hit that man on the S -NP – VP – NP – PP

head
k. Ran with difficulty VP V-PP

l. Ran extremely quickly VP V-AdvP (not in the rules)

The Tutor introduces activity 2

Activity 2: (10 minutes)

Diagram the following sentence:

The boy with red shorts kicked the ball.

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

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In an earlier example we examined the sentence, ‘The boy kicked the ball.’ The
sentence contained the following parts.

S (sentence) = NP + VP

NP (subject) = the boy (art + noun)

VP (object) = kicked the ball (verb +NP)

NP+ article (the) + noun (ball)

We have now expanded the sentence ‘The boy kicked the ball’ by embedding a
phrase within the basic structure. In the sentence:

"The boy with red shorts kicked the ball."

"with red shorts" is a prepositional phrase that further describes “the boy” .

This can be represented, within the basic sentence structure, as follows:

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Here we can see how the Prepositional Phrase (PP) “with red shorts” is embedded
within the subject Noun Phrase (NP) so that the subject is subdivided into a Noun
Phrase and Prepositional Phrase (PP). The Prepositional Phrase itself contains a
further Noun Phrase. The parsing diagram clearly shows the hierarchical
relationship between the sentence and its components.

Summary (5 minutes)

Syntax tree diagrams are used to talk about the construction of sentences in a
language. Syntax tree diagrams make use of phrase structure rules. Phrase
structure rules attempt to specify how the phrases in a sentence are structured. A
sentence consists of a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP). The claim is that
every sentence in English at a deep structure level follows this pattern.

Syntactic structures can further be described by defining each type of phrase. A

noun phrase can be expanded into a determiner - sometimes called an article - and

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a noun. Linguists try to state rules that govern language processes as clearly as
possible so that they can be tested against new sentences. The goal is to develop a
small set of rules that accounts for all the possible sentences in a language.

Syntax tree diagrams have at least two roles. One is that, they show sentences can
be broken down to illustrate their structure, but what is more it shows a general
manner of creating sentences. This has led to the idea that with syntax, tree
diagrams a number of sentences can be created providing similar structures are
used. The phrase structures so created and formulated are used to construct
unlimited sentences.

Suggested References

Chomsky, Noam. “Review of verbal learning.” Language 35: 26-58.

1959.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. New York. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,
Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights,
Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

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Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

UNIT 3: Syntax and types of sentences (1hr)

Introduction

Linguists have expressed the differences between the simple, the compound and
the complex sentence through tree diagrams. This visual representation using tree
diagrams can have added appeal to students who have different learning styles.

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Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

- Diagram simple sentences

- Diagram compound sentences
- Diagram complex sentences
- Understand tree diagrams
- Use tree diagrams to teach sentences

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

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Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

The simple sentence

In a previous unit we discussed the conception of the sentence as a hierarchy of
levels. Words, phrases, clauses and the sentence constitute the grammatical
hierarchy. A simple sentence has one finite verb. It also has one clause - one
subject and one predicate.

For example:

The boy kicked the ball.

Phrase structure rules can be used to describe the above simple sentence.

The S (sentence) is made up of a NP (noun phrase) and a VP (verb phrase.).

This can be graphically represented as follows:

Sentence

Noun Phrase Verb Phrase

(Subject) (Predicate)

The boy kicked the ball

The noun phrase can further be divided into the article plus the noun. Some
linguists use the term determiner and article interchangeably.

The verb phrase can be divided into the verb and a noun phrase; the noun phrase
can them be dived into the article and the noun (object).

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For example:

The above structure is the basic syntactic structure for a sentence in the English
language. As more complex sentences are considered, it is easy, by this method,
to see how these different structures relate to each other, by further breaking down
the branches of the structure

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes)

The syntax of compound sentences

The hierarchy of the simple sentence discussed above can be made larger by
linking several units of the same type to form a compound sentence. A compound
sentence consists of two or more simple sentences joined by a coordinating
conjunction. The three most common coordinating conjunctions in English are
‘and’, ‘or,’ ‘but.’

Examples:

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i. I came home and I turned on the TV.

ii. The TV was on but I turned it off.
iii. Turn the TV off or lower the volume.
iv. I came home and turned on the TV but I later decided to read a book.

A compound sentence can be represented in a tree diagram in which the two

simple sentences are at the same level with the conjunction between them as
shown in Figure 2.

S Conj S

I came home and I turned on the TV

Figure 2 – Diagram of compound sentence

The conjunction connects the simple sentences but is not a part of either one. In
this model the simple sentences are represented by a triangle. Linguists do this
when they do not need to show complete detail to make a point. This convention
is followed in discussing compound and complex sentences.

The Syntax of Complex Sentences

Complex sentences consist of a noun clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
The main clause may also be referred to as an independent clause because it can

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stand alone as a complete sentence. The subordinate clause may be referred to as

a dependent clause because it depends on an independent clause. Dependent
clauses begin with a subordinate conjunction. Unlike coordinate conjunctions,
subordinate conjunctions form part of the clause they attach to.

Example:

Students draw tree diagrams when they represent syntactic structures.

The clause with when is the subordinate or dependent clause. It represents a less
important idea than the idea in the main clause. When suggests a relationship of
time. As people speak or write they signal the important ideas by placing them in
main clauses. Using a different conjunction one could show a different
relationship.

For example:

If would show a condition.

e.g. Students represent syntactic structures if they draw tree diagrams.

NP Aux VP

N V NP S

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Conj

Students draw tree diagrams when they represent syntactic structures

Figure 3 - Adverb clause diagram

Dependent clauses can function in a sentence in the same way that an adverb, an
adjective, or a noun functions. The clause is then represented in a tree diagram in
the same position as the corresponding adverb, adjective or noun. Adverb clauses
tell when, where, why, how, or under what conditions. They answer the same
questions that adverbs do. The conjunctions that begin adverb clauses are words
like after or because. Adverb clauses can appear at the beginning or end of a
sentence. The zero under AUX shows that it is not a feature of this sentence
however we could have included an AUX like do in this sentence. Adverb clauses
like adverbs are placed in the VP.

Adjective clauses, on the other hand function as part of a noun phrase.

Subordinate adjective clauses begin with one of the relative pronouns, who,
which, or that (and perhaps whom / whose).

The following sentence contains an adjective clause.

Students who draw tree diagrams syntactic structures.

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The sentence is diagrammed below.

NP AUX

N S 0 VP

Students who draw tree diagrams represent syntactic structures.

Figure 4 - Adjective clause diagram

Noun clauses often start with words like what, whatever, and that. In these
sentences the subject or object is a whole noun clause rather than a noun phrase.
Vicky bought a linguistics textbook.

NP AUX VP

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N 0 V S

Vicky bought whatever appealed to her.

Figure 5 – Noun clause diagram

Other sentence Structures

The basic sentence pattern in English is subject + predicate, whether the sentence
is compound or complex.

Apart from this basic structure of subject + predicate, sentences may be constructed in
other ways. These sentences are still correct and grammatical, but they present the
information in different ways. Here are some of them:

a. Passive sentences – in these sentences, the subject usually comes at

the end of the sentence rather than at the beginning, and the verb takes
on a special construction.

e.g.: i. The assignment was submitted by the student.

This sentence would normally be written as:

The student submitted the assignment.

This is called the active form of the sentence. Other examples of

passive sentences are:

ii. The assignment will be marked by the lecturer.

iii. The bandits were arrested by the police.
iv. Rice is grown in Berbice.

In passive sentences, the speaker focuses on the thing that was done
rather than on the subject who did it.

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Notice that the subject comes at the end of the sentence and that the
word by comes before it. But notice too that the subject can also be
omitted as in example (iv).

Notice the difference in the form of the verb in the passive sentences.
Before the verb there is an auxiliary (be, is, are, was, were) and the
verb takes the participle form (marked, arrested, grown).

b. Fronting – Sometimes we can move a part of the sentence to the front,

so as to focus it. For example:
i. Home he went (compare to: He went home)
ii. In the street was a huge crowd (compare to: A huge crowd
was in the street)

c. Clefting – Here again, a part of the sentence is focused at the front.

This kind of sentence usually starts with “it is” or “it was” followed by
a noun phrase or a prepositional phrase. For example:
i. It is the high tide that we are afraid of.
ii. It was in 2005 that the great flood happened.
iii. It is Linguistics which we are studying.

The Tutor introduces activity 1

 Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Combine the following simple sentences into as many ways as possible. You may form
simple, compound, or complex sentences.

The linguist sits. She sits in a chair. The chair is red. The chair is comfortable. The
linguist is happy.

Feedback to activity 1 (10 minutes)

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The following are possible sentence combinations:

The linguist sits in a red, comfortable chair, and she is happy. {Compound)

The happy linguist sits in a red, comfortable chair. (simple)

Because the linguist sits in a red, comfortable chair, she is happy. (Complex –
adverb clause)

The linguist who is happy, sits in a red comfortable chair. (Complex – adjective
clause)

I know that the linguist who is happy sits in a red comfortable chair. (noun clause)

Discussion:

Beginning writers often string together their ideas with and. They represent their
ideas as being equally important. As writers develop, they learn to subordinate
one idea to another. They structure their sentences to show that some ideas are
subordinate to or dependent on other ideas. Instead of using a series of simple
sentences or stringing together several ideas by and they start writing compound
and complex sentences. Sentence combining calls on the writer to experiment
with different methods of putting words together. Because there are several ways
to build sentences, the writer’s goal is not to find the one “correct” combination
but to consider different arrangements before deciding which one is the most
effective. The writer’s goal is to eliminate short choppy sentences and write
longer more effective sentences. However, combining is not necessarily to
produce longer sentences but rather to develop more effective sentences and to
help the writer become a more versatile writer.

The Tutor introduces activity 2

Activity 2: (10 minutes)

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What are syntax tree diagrams?

How can they be used to teach grammar?

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Syntax tree diagrams are very much similar to family tree diagrams, the
difference being that these are used to talk about the construction of a language
rather than a family.

A syntax tree diagram has to accomplish a very important task. It usually encodes
two types of relations between the various nodes. There are precedence and
dominance. The rules of syntax can be easily understood by assigning by
assigning an individual tree diagram to each rule. Thus a sentence can be proved
to be grammatically appropriate with the help of structural description.

Teachers can use syntax tree diagrams to help students understand the different
types of sentence structure. The diagram depicts the structure of sentences and
the functions of phrases within the sentence. Diagrams also depict the different
levels of sentence structure. The NP and the VP are at the top level.

Students can diagram sentences into NP and VP and the other functions. Like
graphic organizers they are useful because they help show relationships. Students
can separate the phrases into their parts. Students who write fragments for
sentences can also use diagramming to help them realize where their sentence
construction breaks down.

Diagrams can help students to understand the structure of sentences and phrases.

Summary (5 minutes)

Tree diagrams are a distinct type of graphic representation used to depict

linguistic structures. Borrowing from the concept of a family tree, a tree diagram

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consists of a root and several branching nodes and branches. They depict a
hierarchical relationship and inner structures and nodes represent grammatical
categories, for example, S, NP, VP, and the branches represent the relationship of
domination. S immediately dominates NP and VP and all other nodes in the tree.

The hierarchy of the simple sentence can be made larger by linking several units
of the same type to form a compound sentence. A compound sentence can be
represented in a tree diagram with simple sentences of the same level and a
coordinating conjunction between them.

In a complex sentence the independent clause can stand alone as a complete

sentence. Dependent clauses can function in a sentence in the same way that an
adverb, an adjective or a noun functions.

Students can be taught to recognize coordination and subordination in sentences

by using tree diagrams.

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Suggested References

Chomsky, Noam. “Review of verbal learning.” Language 35: 26-58.

1959.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. New York. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,
Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights,
Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

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English Syntax Module 6

UNIT 4: Some rules of generative grammar (1hr)

Introduction:

In contrast to the structural approach to syntax, linguists sought to find a way to

describe how the innate human linguistic ability works in producing language. As
we saw in the section on language acquisition, human beings do not learn a
multitude of sentences. Instead, we acquire the rules of the grammar of our
language and use these to produce a multitude of sentences. Chomsky and other
innateness theorists posit a generative grammar in order to describe this
productive human ability.

Generative grammar attempts to describe the rules that operate at two levels: the
deep structure where the rules of syntax are generated and processed, and the
surface structure, where the final sentence appears. Some rules of this grammar
are recursion and transformational properties.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

- Understand rules of recursion

- Understand rules of transformation
- Use diagrams to express recursion
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- Use diagrams to express transformation

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

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Transformational Rules (15 minutes)

In keeping with the idea that we generate a multitude of different but correct
sentences by using a small set of Phrase Structure rules is the accompanying idea
that we also know a set of transformational rules. These rules help us to transform
a sentence into another pattern without changing the meaning of the sentence. Let
us look at some of these rules and how they help us to create different sentence
structures

(1) Recursive rules allow us to repeat items in a self-similar way. Chomsky

theorizes that unlimited extension of a language such as English is possible
using the recursive device of embedding phrases within sentences. According
to Chomsky, “the rules of grammar will need the crucial property of
recursion that is, the capacity to be applied more than once in generating a
structure” (Chomsky 1959).

Did you play the following game as a child? Even if you did not,
what does the pattern seem to indicate?

1. This is the house that Jack built.

2. This is the malt
That lay in the house that Jack built.
3. This is the rat,
That ate the malt
That lay in the house that Jack built.
4. This is the cat,
That kill'd the rat,
That ate the malt
That lay in the house that Jack built.

And so it goes on. Some examples of recursion in sentences are:

(1) John arrived.  John and Mary arrived, John, Bill and Mary arrived.
(2) John worked.  John worked and sang.  John worked, sang and ate.
(3) Recursive modifiers (adjectives): bad car  bad red car  big bad red car 
big bad rusty old red car

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NOTE: Some items cannot be recursive: Articles are not recursive:  the
book  *the a the book. Conjunctions not recursive: John and Mary  *John and or
if Mary

There is in principle no end to the recursion which would yield ever – longer
versions of this sentence, and the grammar must provide for this fact.

(2) Movement rules allow us to move parts of the sentence around. For
example, adverbs will always come at the end of sentences if we follow
the rules for the first sentence given below.

(a) George helped Mary yesterday.

But how would we get the following sentence?

(b) Yesterday, George helped Mary.

We can think of yesterday as having been moved to the beginning of

the sentence in (b).

Transformational rules are used to take a ‘branch’ of the tree away

from one part of the tree diagram and attach it to a different part.

Below is an example of a movement transformation.

S S

NP VP Adv NP VP

V NP Adv N V N

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George helped Mary Yesterday Yesterday George helped Mary

(3) Deletion rules allow us to delete parts of sentences which are unnecessary
or redundant or understood. However, such deletions must be done under
strict conditions. For example, if we join the two sentences
a. John studied hard
b. John became a doctor
We get:
c. John studied hard and John became a doctor.
It is easy to see that if the subject of the first verb in the sentence (studied)
is the same as the subject of the second verb (became) in the same
sentence, we can safely delete the second subject so that we get
d. John studied hard and became a doctor.

(4) Substitution rules - clearly, we could also substitute a relevant pronoun

for the second John in the sentence above, so that instead of saying John
studied hard and John became a doctor, we could say

e. John studied hard and he became a doctor

The Tutor introduces activity 1

 Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Ponder on this sentence: Mike said Sue thought Vicky helped Mary. Can
you design a tree diagram to depict the above sentence?

Feedback to activity 1 (10 minutes)

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In recursion we need for example to have sentences included within other

sentences. We know that Vicky helped Mary is a sentence. We also know that
Sue thought Vicky helped Mary. And being tediously recursive, we know that
Mike said Sue thought Vicky helped Mary.

In order to capture these sentences in a tree diagram, we need to

add V {said, thought} and PN {Cathy, John} to our lexical rules. We also
need to add a crucial recursive rule that says:

VP ------VS. With these minor additions we can now represent the structure of
the above sentence.

NP VP

V S

NP VP

N V S

NP VP

N V NP

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Mike said Sue thought Vicky helped Mary.

The Tutor introduces activity 2

Activity 2: (10 minutes)

The position of a word in a sentence can change the meaning of the sentence.
‘Only’ is a modifier (it could be classified as a quantifier) and its position
determines which word it modifies. Moving ‘only’ changes the meaning of the
sentence. Consider the sentences below and discuss their differences in meaning.
Do some sentences mean the same thing?

Only he said that he loved linguistics.

He only said that he loved linguistics.

He said only that he loved linguistics.

He said that only he loved linguistics.

He said that he only loved linguistics.

He said that he loved only linguistics.

He said that he loved linguistics only.

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Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Only he said that he loved linguistics. The others did not. If they loved linguistics, they did
not voice that opinion.

He only said that he loved linguistics. Maybe he loved other things but he did not say.

He said only that he loved linguistics. This has the same sense as the one immediately above.

He said that only he loved linguistics. He seems to be aware that the others did not like
linguistics.

He said that he only loved linguistics. This seems to have the same sense as the one
immediately above.

He said that he loved only linguistics. He did not like anything else but linguistics.

He said that he loved linguistics only. This seems to have the same seems as the one
immediately above.

Teach students that word order can signal emphasis and meaning.

Summary (5 minutes)

Recursion, deletion, substitution and movement rules are some of the ways to
characterise what human beings do when they produce sentences. Using these
rules –which happens without our conscious thought – we produce not only an
unlimited number, but also a variety of sentences and express thoughts and ideas
in many different ways.

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Suggested References

Chomsky, Noam. “Review of verbal learning.” Language 35: 26-58.

1959.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. New York. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,
Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English Syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights,
Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

MODULE 5: SEMANTICS / PRAGMATICS (4 hrs)

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Overview:

This module presents an introduction to semantics and pragmatics in language as

far as it is relevant to the content of this course. It is not meant to be a rigorous
discussion of all aspects of semantics and pragmatics. Semantics is the study of
linguistic meaning or the meaning of words, phrases and sentences. Pragmatics on
the other hand is the study of intended or invisible speaker meaning. Unlike
pragmatics, semantics is part of grammar proper, the study of the internal
structure of language.

Module Objectives:

By the end of this module you will be able to:

1. Understand differences between semantics and pragmatics

2. Utilize semantic feature analysis

3. Differentiate between linguistic sense and reference

4 Determine linguistic meaning based on context.

5. Determine sense relationships (multiple meanings) between lexemes

Module orientation:

This module has four units:

Unit 1: Semantics and linguistic meaning

Unit 2: Semantics and multiple word meaning

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Unit 3: Pragmatics and context

Unit 4: Pragmatics and speech act theory

Time Requirement:

You will need about 4 hours to complete this module including the activities.

Unit 1: Semantics and linguistic meaning (1 hr.)

Introduction:

This unit will help you to define semantics as linguistic meaning, to use semantic
feature analysis to characterize the sense of words and to recognize limitations of
lexical decomposition.

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Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

1. Define semantics as linguistic meaning

2. Define lexical decomposition.
3. Use semantic feature analysis.
4. Identify limitations of semantic feature analysis.

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

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Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

Examine the following sentences and try to decide what is odd about them. Write
a sentence or two to explain why the meaning in the sentences is odd.

1. The hamburger ate the man.

2. My cat studied linguistics.
3. A table was listening to some music.

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes)

The Meanings of Meaning

In an important early book on the subject - C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards, The
Meaning of Meaning (1923) - sixteen different meanings of the words
mean/meaning were distinguished. Below are some of them:

John means to write – intends

A green light means go – indicates

Health means everything – has importance

His look was full of meaning – special import

What is the meaning of life – point, purpose

What does ‘capitalist’ mean to you – convey

What does ‘cornea’ mean – refer to in the world

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It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics.
This is the study of the way in which words and sentences convey meaning in the
everyday situations of speech and writing.

What is semantics?
Because semantics is the most poorly understood component of grammar it can be
one of the most difficult areas of linguistics to study. Although many theories
have been developed to explain the domain of semantics much of what follows is
tentative and subject to debate.

Contributions to semantics have come essentially from two sources – linguistics

and philosophy. Linguistics has contributed primarily to the core meaning or
sense of individual words, while philosophers have contributed to the study of the
meaning of sentences. One method linguists have used to characterize the sense
of individual words is called lexical decomposition.

This method represents the sense of a word in terms of the semantic features that
comprise it.b

Semantic Features

Linguists study lexical meanings in several ways. One such way is by analyzing
lexemes into a series of semantic features or components. A semantic approach
can help us to account for the oddness we experience when we read English
sentences such as the following:

The hamburger ate the man.

My cat studied linguistics.

A table was listening to some music.

The sentences are not odd because of their syntactic structure because we have
well structured sentences. For example:

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Noun Phrase -subject Verb Noun Phrase -object

The hamburger Ate The man

The sentences are odd because of their conceptual meaning. The kinds of nouns
which can be subjects of the verb “ate” must denote entities which are capable of
eating. That is, we are able to use words to make meaningful statements because
those words possess certain semantic features which we can match up with the
semantic features of other words in the sentence. For example, the noun man
contains the semantics of being able to eat, and the noun hamburger contains the
semantics of being able to be eaten. These semantic properties allow us to arrange
these words into a sentence that is meaningful.

We can create a system of relationships using a small set of such semantic

components of words. In this system, we can indicate by the use of + or – (plus or
minus) signs whether a word has a particular semantic property or not. We call
this componential analysis, and the + or – contrasts are usually presented in a
matrix. We can use such semantic feature analysis to characterize words e.g. man,
woman, boy, and girl. The sense of each of these words can be partly
characterized by specifying a value (+ or -) for the features (adult) and (male) as
follows:

Man Woman boy girl

Adult + + - -

Male + - + -

It is easy to characterize the sense of additional words by adding features. For

example: we can account for part of the meanings of stallion, mare, colt and filly
simply by adding the feature human as follows:

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Man Woman boy girl stallion Mare colt filly

Adult + + + - + + - -

Male + - +- - + - + -

human + + + + - - - -

This method of analysis does have limitations. Concrete nouns seem to lend
themselves to lexical decomposition more readily than do other parts of speech.
For example, what features can be used to characterize the sense of “carefully”
not to mention “the”, “of” and “however.”

The Tutor introduces activity 1

Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Using the features, individual, teams, indoors, outdoors, board game, card
game and kids game, categorize the sense of the following games: football,
baseball, marbles, hide & seek, video games, hop scotch, golf, checkers,
scrabble by specifying a + or - value.

Feedback to activity 1 (10 minutes)

GAMES FEATURES
Individual

Teams

Indoors

Outdoors

Board Games

Card games

Kids games

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Football + +

Baseball + +

Marbles + + + +

Hide& Seek + + + +

Video Games + + + +

Hop Scotch + + + +

Golf + + +

Checkers + + +

Scrabble + + + +

Semantic feature analysis can be used to help students discriminate details among
concepts. This strategy works well with specialized vocabulary as well as general
vocabulary in several subject areas, for example: science, math, literature, social
studies.

1. The teacher should select a category or topic for semantic feature analysis.
2. Provide students with key vocabulary words and important features related
to the topic.
3. Vocabulary words should be listed down the left hand column and the
features of the topic across the top row of the chart.
4. Have students place a ‘+’ sign in the matrix when a vocabulary word
aligns with a particular feature of the topic. If the word does not align, a
student may put a ‘_’ in the grid. If students are unsure they may leave it
blank.
The teacher should then engage students in discussion and students can defend
their choices.

The Tutor introduces activity 2

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Activity 2: (10 minutes)

Think of the word ‘chair’ and try to define it for someone who had never seen a
chair. You may use ‘sense’ and ‘reference.’ Sense may refer to a dictionary
definition while reference denotes things of the same kind or other types of chairs.

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Contribution from philosophers:

While linguists have contributed to the core meaning or sense of individual

words, philosophers on the other hand have contributed to the study of the
meaning of sentences. However, rather than trying to characterize the core
meaning or sense of sentences directly which we have just seen is difficult, they
have approached the semantics of sentences from other directions. One such
direction is the study of reference.

Word Meaning:
Sense versus reference

How do we define all the concepts of a language so that each word can be
completely understood without ambiguity? In modern linguistics, meaning is
studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in
specific contexts.

The primary focus is on the way people relate words to each other within the
framework of their ‘sense’, rather than their ‘reference’. The dictionary definition

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of a word is its sense. The sense of a word may be described using words, but this
could lead to vague definitions.

It would seem to be simple to circumvent the problem of definitions by saying

that words refer to items in the real world and using those items as referents.

However, reference presents a number of problems. First, a referent in the real

world may exist; however, the referent is distinct for almost every individual. For
example, the sense of the dictionary definition of the word mother is quite clear.
However, my referent for mother is quite distinct from yours because every
mother embodies a different set of qualities.

For other concepts, there are other problems, as in the case of function words.
There is no real-world physical referent for prepositions (on, over), articles (a, an,
the) and conjunctions (and, but). These must be defined via sense.

Moreover, cultural and geographic factors may play a part in determining the
sense of a word. For example, countries differ in what is their conception or sense
of a river.

We could use both sense and reference to describe the word chair. Let us imagine
someone who had encountered the word “chair’ did not know what it meant. One
procedure would be to explain its reference. We could take a person to a chair and
point to it. But how would this help someone to identify other chairs? A better
procedure would be to explain the sense of the word using a rough definition such
as “a seat with four legs and a back.” The definition could then be sharpened as
related to words we have met (example, armchair, stool).

In addition, abstract concepts like happiness or freedom, pose another problem for
definition. The sense of abstract words like these can be quite open to
interpretation and there is no real-world referent. For some happiness is a based
on being part of a loving family that is safe and well provided for. For others
happiness is rooted in material possessions or power. We however, have a general

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understanding of meaning and understand that any utterance is open to some

variation depending on the person speaking.

Summary (5 minutes)

Linguistic semantics is the study of the way in which words and sentences convey
meaning in everyday situations of speed and writing. The field of linguistics has
contributed to the core meaning or sense of individual words by analyzing
lexemes into a series of semantic features, or semantic feature analysis. Semantic
features can be used to characterize the sense of words. Further, concrete nouns
seem to lend themselves to lexical decomposition more readily than do other parts
of speech.

In modern linguistics meaning is also derived from the sense and reference of
words. Reference refers to the object while sense refers to the dictionary
definition of the word. Since there is no physical reference for prepositions,
articles, conjunctions and abstract concepts, these must be defined by sense.
Problems arise when dictionary definitions do not account for individual
conceptualizations as in the case of ‘mother’ or ‘river.’

Suggested References

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. New York. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,
Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

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1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights,
Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.
Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics, Grammar.

Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English Syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Pub.
Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights, Massachusetts. Allyn &
Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

UNIT 2: Semantics and Multiple Word Meaning (1hr)

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Introduction:

This unit will help you to understand some aspects of linguistic sense.

There are several sense properties and relations that any descriptively adequate
theory of semantics should account for. Some of these will be described in this
unit.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

Identify some sense properties of a theory of semantics.
- Synonymy
- Hyponymy
- Prototypes
- Antonyms
- Homophony
- Polysemy

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

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The study of sense (meaning) can be divided into two areas, speaker sense and
linguistic sense. That is, words may have meanings that one could find listed in a
dictionary, but different speakers may use these words with different intentions.
Speaker sense is the speaker’s intention in producing some linguistic expression.
For example, if someone says, “Here comes Bharrat Jagdeo,” sarcastically, in
reference to Mike who is approaching, then the speaker sense might be that Mike
likes to act as though he is the president and ‘lord’ it over others. Because speaker
sense has to do with non-literal meaning and because it varies according to
speaker and context, it comes under Pragmatics and not semantics.

Linguistic sense on the other hand is the meaning of a linguistic expression as part
of a language. Here comes Bharrat Jagdeo would refer to the public figure and
not someone who is “lording” it over others.

In the lecture below we will consider some other aspects of linguistic sense.

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes

Linguistic Sense

Linguistic sense is the meaning of a linguistic expression as part of a language.

There are several sense properties and relations that any descriptively adequate
theory of semantics should account for. Some of these are described below.

Synonymy:

Two words are synonymous if they have the same sense, that is, if they have the
same values for all their semantic features. For example, the pairs conceal and
hide, stubborn and obstinate, and big and large seem to be synonymous in
English.

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However, there are no absolute synonyms in any language – that is words that
mean exactly the same thing in all contexts. For example, even though big and
large are near synonyms, the phrases my big sister and my large sister certainly
do not have the same meaning.

Likewise synonyms do not capture differences in connotations or the associations

that speakers have with a word. For example, a sanitation worker and a garbage
collector are similar but one has a positive connotation and the other a negative.

Hyponymy

When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another, the
relationship is described as hyponymy. Some typical example pairs are hibiscus
– flower, dog – animal, carrot – vegetable, oak – tree. The concept of ‘inclusion’
involved here is the idea that if any object is a hibiscus, then it is necessarily a
flower, so the meaning of flower is ‘included’ in the meaning of hibiscus, Or, a
hibiscus is a hyponym of flower.

When we consider hyponymous relations, we are essentially looking at the

meaning of words in some type of hierarchical relationship. You could, in fact,
represent the relationship between a set of words such as animal, camoudie,
carrot, cockroach, creature, hibiscus, flower, horse, insect, living things,
greenheart, plant, snake, tree and vegetable as a hierarchical diagram in the
following way:

living things

creature plant

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animal insect vegetable flower tree

horse snake

camoudie cockroach carrot hibiscus greenheart

Prototypes

A prototype is the best example of its kind, something that best embodies the
definition of the concept. For example, although there are different birds -
kiskadee, dove, duck, parrot etc. - for many Guyanese, the best prototype of the
word “bird” is the kiskadee.

Given the category furniture we can quickly recognize chair as an exemplar

rather than bench or stool.

Given clothing as the prototype, people quickly recognize shirts quicker than
shoes, and given vegetable, people accept carrot before potato or tomato. It is
obvious that there is some general pattern to the categorization process involved
in prototypes and that it determines our interpretation However, this is one area
where individual experience results in variation in interpretation, as when people
disagree about whether tomato is a fruit or a vegetable.

Antonyms

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Two words are antonyms if their meanings differ only in the value of a single
semantic feature. The following pairs are antonyms: dead and alive, hot and cold.
The meanings of the members of each pair are presumably identical except for
opposite values of some semantic features. The meaning of dead and alive are
identical except that dead is marked [- living] and alive is marked [+ living].

Antonyms fall into at least three groups:

Binary antonyms

are pairs that exhaust all linguistic possibilities along some dimension. Dead and
alive are examples of binary antonyms. Everything that can be dead or alive is
either dead or alive; there is no middle ground. All people for example are either
dead or alive.

Gradable antonyms

are pairs that describe opposite ends of a continuous dimension. Hot and cold are
examples of gradable antonyms. Not everything that can be hot or cold is in fact
either hot or cold. A liquid for example may be neither hot nor cold; it can be
warm or cool.

Converse antonyms:

These are pairs that describe the relationship between two items from opposite
perspectives. Above and below are examples of converse antonyms. If a picture
for example is above a sofa, then the sofa is below the picture.

Binary Dead alive

Gradable Hot ..................... cold

warm cool

Converse X above X

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Y below Y

Figure 1: Illustration of binary, gradable and converse antonyms

The Tutor introduces activity 1

 Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Classify the following antonyms as binary (B), gradable (G), or converse C):
wide/narrow, smoking/nonsmoking, near/far, defeat/lose to, innocent/guilty,
wife/husband, in front of/ behind, true/false, open/closed, debtor/creditor,
deciduous/evergreen, teacher/student, cheap/expensive, man/woman.

Feedback to activity 1 (10 minutes)

Classify the following antonyms as binary (B), gradable (G), or converse (C).

A Wide/narrow B G C

B Smoking/nonsmoking B G C

C Near/far B G C

D Defeat/lose to B G C

E Innocent/guilty B G C

F Wife/husband B G C

G In front of/behind B G C

H True/false B G C

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I Open/closed B G C

J Debtor/creditor B G C

K Deciduous/evergreen B G C

L Teacher/student B G C

M Cheap/expensive B G C

N Man/woman B G C

In groups, students are encouraged to discuss their answers.

The Tutor introduces activity 2

 Activity 2: (10 minutes)

What do you know about homonyms? Write at least one paragraph describing
what you know about homonyms.

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Homonphony, homonymy, and polysemy:

There are three other, less well-known terms which are often used to describe
relationships among words in a language. The first of these is homophony or
homonyms. When two or more different (written) forms have the same
pronunciation, they are described as homophones. Some examples are bare-bear,
meat-meet, flour-flower, pail-pale, sew-so.

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The term homonymy is used when one form (written and spoken) has two or more
unrelated meanings. Examples of homonyms are the pairs bank (of a river) bank
(financial institution), bat (flying creature) bat (used in sports) race (contest of
speed) race (ethnic group). The temptation is to think that the two types of bank
must be related in meaning. They are not. Homonyms are words which have quite
separate meanings, but which have accidentally come to have exactly the same
form.

Polysemy, is defined as one form (written or spoken) having multiple meanings

which are all related by extension. Examples are the word head, which is used to
refer to the object on top of your body, or on top of a company, or the word run
(persons do, water does, colours do).

The distinction between homonymy and polysemy is not always clear. However,
one indication of the distinction can be found in the typical dictionary entry for
words. If a word has multiple meanings (polysemy) then there will be a single
entry, with a numbered list of the different meanings of the word. If two words
are treated as homonyms, they will typically have two separate entries. You could
check in your dictionary and probably find that the different meanings of words
like head, run, face and foot are treated as examples of homonymy.

Of course, one form can be distinguished via homonymy, then shown to have
various uses via polysemy. The words date (oblong, fleshy fruit) and date (point
in time) are homonyms. But the ‘point in time’ kind of date is polysemous in
terms of a particular day and month (on a letter), an arranged meeting time (an
appointment), a social meeting (with someone of the opposite sex) and even a
person (that someone of the opposite sex). The question How about a date? could
have many interpretations.

Metonymy

The relatedness of meaning found in polysemy is essentially based on similarity.

The head of a company is similar to the head of a person on top of (and

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controlling) the body. There is another type of relationship between words, based
simply on a close connection in everyday experience. That close relationship can
be based on a container-contents relation (bottle –coke; can-juice), a whole – part
relation (car – wheels; house-roof) or a representative – symbol relationship (king
– crown) These are examples of metonymy. In he drank the whole bottle, we
know that he drank the liquid and not the bottle itself.

Lexical Ambiguity

Humans extract meaning from conversations, television, books and more

everyday of their lives quite successfully. This is no small feat however. There is
so much we must understand to comprehend the meaning of an utterance. Besides
being able to deal with the fact that meaning changes as conventions changes and
time passes, native speakers are able to deal with the fact that almost every word
has multiple meanings, and depending on context, a word may be ambiguous. A
word is lexically ambiguous if it has more than one sense.

Because this type of ambiguity rests on the meaning of one word, it is called
lexical ambiguity. Since thousands of words in English have more than one
meaning, we are constantly selecting among possible meanings.

As native speakers we use context to figure out the correct meaning of ambiguous
words. If a friend is out of money and declares she is going to the bank, we do not
misunderstand and think she is going to the bank of a river.

However, there are some instances in which the ambiguity may not be eliminated
solely by context. Consider the sentence She cannot bear children. Does this
mean that she physically cannot have children, or, that she intensely dislikes
them?

Ambiguity may also depend on how the morphemes in a word are divided. In the
sentence This door is unlockable is the negative morpheme un- modifying
lockable (as in not able to be locked) or is the suffix –able modifying unlock
(meaning that is able to be unlocked?)

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Structural Ambiguity

Another type of ambiguity may be at the sentence level, and is called structural
ambiguity.

Example: Motorists must stop for pedestrians on the zebra crossing

The way in which this sentence is constructed leads to at least two interpretations
(1) that motorists must stop on the zebra crossing when they see pedestrians or (2)
motorists must stop and wait when they see pedestrians walking on the zebra
crossing.

Example: I hate boring people.

How is this sentence ambiguous?

Structural and lexical ambiguities are often sources of humour in newspaper

headlines which, because they appear out of context, can easily be misinterpreted.

Summary (5 minutes)

Linguistic sense is the meaning of a linguistic expression as part of a language.

Some aspects of linguistic sense are synonymy, hyponymy, prototypes, antonyms,
homophony and polysemy. A theory of semantics should account for synonymy
or two words having the same values for all their semantic features. Hyponymy
relations involve looking at meaning of words in some type of hierarchical
relationship. On the other hand, when the meaning of one form is included in the
meaning of another, the relationship is described as hyponymy. A prototype
means a resemblance to the nearest example. Antonyms differ only in the value of
a single semantic feature. Homonymy is used when one form has two or more
unrelated meanings, while polysemy has to do with multiple word meaning.
Native speakers are able to deal with the fact that almost every word has multiple
meanings, and depending on context, a word may be ambiguous. A word is
lexically ambiguous if it has more than one sense.

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Suggested References

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. New York. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,
Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights,
Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

UNIT 3: Pragmatics and Context (1 hr)

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Introduction:

This unit will help you to realize the differences between pragmatic and semantic
meaning. It will also highlight the importance of context to understanding
pragmatic meaning.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

- Identify differences between semantic and pragmatic meaning

- Identify types of context
- Recognize deictic expressions
- Recognize the importance of the following in making meaning
 Reference
 Inference
 Anaphora
 presupposition

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

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Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

Reflect on the following scenarios:

1) Imagine that you are walking by a store and you see a sign which says
“Baby Sale.” What do you think?

You do not for a minute think that the store is selling babies but rather that it is
advertising the sale of clothes for babies.

2) Let us examine the sentence, ‘I forgot the book.’ Imagine that you are
saying it to a teacher. Then, imagine that you are saying it to a friend.
Finally, imagine you are yelling it in the car as your parent is driving you
to school.
In each of these scenarios the underlying meaning of the utterance is exactly the
same, but each time, the utterance is performing a very different function.

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes)

Pragmatic meaning versus semantic meaning

Pragmatics is the study of intended speaker meaning whereas semantics as we

discussed earlier has to do with the meaning of words.

In many ways pragmatics is the study of “invisible” meaning or how we

recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said. In order to understand
the speaker (or writer) we must be able to depend on a lot of shared assumptions
and expectations. The above examples emphasize the influence of context.

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We could say Pragmatics is the study of the conditions of human language uses as
these are determined by the context of society.

Let us consider another example:

‘The boy is sick.’

Semantics would be concerned with the fact that the sentence is correct
grammatically and whether or not the meaning is true. Pragmatics, on the other
hand would emphasize the context. For instance, if a mother uses this example
when she is invited to go shopping, it may imply that she cannot go out. This is
what we call “pragmatic meaning”. Therefore, it can be said that sentences once
they are put in context can have new meaning. Semantics relates linguistic forms
to the objects of the world represented by them, however, it does not deal with the
reasons why speakers use such forms in a particular context, a task done by
pragmatics.

Context Coding

In relation to pragmatics, it is important to distinguish two kinds of context:

linguistic and situational.

Linguistic context consists of the linguistic material which precedes and follows
a statement. The linguistic context is also known as the co-text. The context of a
word is the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence. This
surrounding context has a strong effect on what we think the word means. How
do we know which meaning is intended in a particular sentence?

We usually do so based on the basis of linguistic context. If the word bank’ is

‘used in a sentence together with words like ‘steep’ or ‘overgrown’ we have no
problem deciding which type of bank is meant.

However, if we hear someone say, she has to get the bank to cash a check, we
know from linguistic context which type of ‘bank’ is intended.

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The situational context contains the information about the immediate physical
material surrounding the situation. We know what words mean through what can
best be described as situational or physical context. If you see the word ‘bank’ on
the wall of a building in a city, the ‘physical’ location will influence your
interpretation.

Therefore, our understanding of much of what we read and hear is tied to the
context in which we encounter linguistic expressions.

The Tutor introduces activity 1

 Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Read the following sentence.

You’ll have to bring that back tomorrow because they aren’t here now.

Or, I’m busy now so you can’t do that here. Come back tomorrow.

Write a paragraph which tells about the importance of knowing the physical context
to make meaning from the above sentences.

Feedback to activity 1 (10 minutes)

Deixis:

There are some words in the language that cannot be interpreted at all unless the
physical context, especially the physical context of the speaker, is known. These
are words like here, there, this, that, now, then, yesterday, as well as most
pronouns. Some sentences of English are virtually impossible to understand if we

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don’t know who is speaking, about whom, where and when. For example: You’ll
have to bring that back tomorrow, because they aren’t here now.

Out of context, this sentence is extremely vague. It contains a large number of

expressions (you, that, tomorrow, they, here, now) which depend for their
interpretation on the immediate physical context in which they were uttered. Such
expressions are very obvious examples of bits of language which can only be
understood in terms of speaker’s intended meaning. These are technically known
as deictic expressions from the Greek word deixis (pronounced “day-ick-sis”)
which means pointing with language.

An expression used to point to a person is an example of person deixis. Words

used to point to a location are examples of place deixis. Those used to point to a
time are examples of time deixis.

Person deixis I, me, you, him, them Since these point to a person, they are
called person deixis

Place deixis Here, there, yonder Since these point to a location, they are
examples of place deixis

Time deixis Now, then, tonight, Since these point to time, they are
yesterday, last week examples of time deixis

People can actually use deixis to have some fun. The shop owner who puts up a
sign that reads Free Ice-cream Tomorrow (to get you to return to his shop) can
always claim that you are one day too early for the free treat.

The Tutor introduces activity 2

 Activity 2: (10 minutes)

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What is one obvious presupposition (or assumption) of the speaker who says:

1. We regret buying that car.

2. Why did you arrive late?
3. Your brother is waiting outside for you.
4. Okay, Mr. Smith, how fast were you going when you ran the red light?

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Reference

In discussing deixis, we assumed that the use of words to refer to people and
things was a simple matter. However, words themselves don’t refer to anything.
People refer. Reference is defined as an act by which a speaker uses language to
enable a listener to identify something.

For example: If you are studying linguistics, you might ask someone, Can I look
at your Chomsky? You might get the response, Sure it’s on the shelf over there. In
inference, we use the names associated with things to refer to people and the
names of people. In the above example, the speaker used the name of the author
‘Chomsky’ to refer to Chomsky’s textbook.

Inference

An inference is any additional information used by the listener to connect what

was said with what must be meant. In the above example, the listener had to infer
that the name of the writer of a book could be can be used to identify a book by
that author.

Anaphora

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The term anaphora (which comes from a Greek root meaning ‘to carry back’) is
used to describe situations in which there is repeated reference to the same thing
in a text. Sentence (2) below contains three instances of anaphora.

(1) John noticed that a window had been left open.

(2) He walked over to the window and closed it firmly.

He, the window, and it mentioned in (2) refer back to the previous mentions of
John and a window in (1). In general, anaphoras, like those in sentence (2), refer
back to previously mentioned entities. However, anaphora can also occur with
temporal or spatial reference. Temporal expressions, such as then, the next day, or
the week before, often refer back to previously established times and spatial
expressions, such as there, often refer back to previously mentioned locations.
Thus, anaphora is an important linguistic device for establishing the coherence of
an extended piece of discourse.

Presupposition

When a speaker uses referring expressions like this, he is working with an

assumption that the hearer knows which referent is intended. Speakers continually
design their linguistic messages on the basis of assumptions about what their
hearers already know. These assumptions may be mistaken of course, but they
underlie most of what we say in the everyday use of language. What a speaker
assumes is true or is known by the hearer can be described as a presupposition.
If someone tells you, your brother is waiting outside for you, there is an obvious
presupposition that you have a brother.

If you are asked, why did you arrive late? There is a presupposition that you did
arrive late.

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 Semantics / Pragmatics
Module 8

Questions like these with built in presuppositions, are very useful devices for
interrogators or trial lawyers. If the defendant is asked by the prosecutor Okay,
Mr. Smith, how fast were you going when you ran the red light, there is a
presupposition that Mr. Smith did, in fact, run the red light. If he simply answers
the How fast part of the question, by giving a speed, he is behaving as if the
presupposition is correct.

Summary (5 minutes)

Pragmatics is the study of intended or ‘invisible’ speaker meaning or how we

recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said.

Context is very important to understanding pragmatic meaning as different from

semantic meaning which is concerned with the meaning of the words. The
linguistic context refers to the set of words or phrases used with the specific
expression. This surrounding context has a strong influence on meaning. The
situational or physical context can also influence meaning.

Deixis which means pointing with language refers to the importance of the
physical context in determining meaning. There are person, place and time deixis.
Meaning is also made through reference, inference, anaphora and presupposition.

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 Semantics / Pragmatics
Module 8

Suggested References

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. New York. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,
Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights,
Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

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 Semantics / Pragmatics
Module 8

Unit 4: Pragmatics and Speech Act Theory (1 hr)

Introduction:

This unit will help you to understand how speech acts function in language and
differentiate different types of speech acts. In addition, you will be exposed to
how speech acts can be used in both a literal and a non-literal way.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

- Define speech acts

- Recognize some types of speech acts
- Differentiate between direct and indirect speech acts
- Understand politeness

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 Semantics / Pragmatics
Module 8

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

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Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

We use language all the time to make something happen. We ask someone to pass
the salt. We ask for a glass of water. We call a taxi. These are all “speech acts”.

The following examples are some ways in which we use language.

Speech act Form Function

Did you eat the food? Interrogative Question

Eat the food (please). Imperative Command (request)

You ate the food. Declarative Statement

In the previous unit we have been considering some ways in which we interpret
the meanings of sentences in terms of what the speaker of those sentences convey.
What we have not yet explored is the fact that we also know how speakers intend
us to ‘take’ (or interpret the function of) what they say. We can usually recognize
the type of “act’ performed by a speaker in uttering a sentence.

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes)

What are speech acts?

The use of the term speech act covers actions such as ‘requesting,’ ‘commanding,’
‘questioning’ and ‘informing.’ Some people can do extraordinary things with
words, like baptizing a baby, declaring war, or sentencing a convict.

Linguists call these things speech acts and developed a theory called speech act
theory to explain how they work. Speech act theory is the most important
established part of pragmatics.

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 One of the most common speech acts is a representation. These statements simply
supply information that can be evaluated as true or false.

Examples of representation speech acts

Guyana has ten This is a statement It supplies a fact

administrative regions

I am tired. This is a statement It supplies a piece of

information

The car is red This is a statement. This is a description of some

physical thing or condition

There are thousands of possible speech acts and several attempts have been made
to clarify them into a small number of types. One approach sets up six basic
types.

Type Description Examples

Representative The speaker is committed, Affirm, believe, conclude, deny,

report
in varying degrees to the

truth of a proposition

Directives The speaker tries to get the hearer Asking, begging, challenging,
to do something commanding, insisting, requesting

Commissives The speaker is committed in Guaranteeing, pledging, promising,

varying degrees to a certain course swearing, vowing
of action

Expressives The speaker expresses an attitude Thanking, congratulating,

or feeling apologising, dis/agreeing, insisting,
welcoming, commiserating,
swearing,

Declarations The speaker alters the external resigning, baptizing, firing,

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 status or condition of an object or declaring war, christening, marrying
situation solely by making the
utterance which brings about a
new external situation

Interrogatives The speaker tries to get Questioning

information that he does not know
or is pretending he does not know

We make commissives in which the speaker has committed in some way to the
truth of the statement made or has committed to some action in the future.

For example: I assure you that Tom has left.

I know that the reports have been submitted.

These go beyond the simple fact or statement of the representative. The speaker
wants you to believe something beyond the simple fact of the statement.

Commissives include promises.

“I promise to pay your university fee.”

Even if I don’t intend to keep it I have still made a promise.

Promises in some contexts may be viewed as declarations.

For example they have weight inside the courtroom.

Interrogatives are speech acts we use to get information that we do not know (or
are pretending we do not know).

For example: One student may ask another, Is the teacher fair?

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Through expressives speakers thank, congratulate, apologise, agree, or disagree,
insult, commiserate, swear, express regret or say something else.

Congratulations on your promotion!

Another speech act, the directive, is unusual in that the act of saying something
officially brings about a new state of affairs. The conditions which existed before
the words were uttered would no longer be viable.

You’ re fired!

I resign as president.

With this ring I thee wed.

I confer upon you a Master’s degree in education.

Direct and Indirect speech acts

When a form such as Did he . . . ? Are they . . . ? or Can you . . . ? is used to ask a
question, it is described as a direct speech act. For example, when a speaker
doesn’t know something and asks the hearer to provide the information, he or she
will typically produce a direct speech act of the following type: Can you ride a
bicycle?

Now compare the above utterance with Can you pass the salt? In this second
example, you would not understand the utterance as a question about your ability
to do something. You would treat it as a request and perform the action requested.

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Yet this request has been presented in the syntactic form usually associated with a
question.

Such an example is described as an indirect speech act.

The following utterance has the form normally associated with a statement: You
left the door open. If you say this sentence to someone who has just come into
your house (and it is raining outside) you would probably be understood to have
made not a statement, but a request. You are requesting, indirectly, that the person
close the door.

Used in this way it is another example of an indirect speech act.

Perhaps the crucial distinction in the use of these two types of speech acts is based
on the fact that indirect commands or requests are simply considered more gently
or more polite in our society than direct commands. Exactly why they are
considered more polite is based on some complex social assumptions.

The Tutor introduces activity 1

Activity 1: (10 minutes)

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Examine the following speech acts. Try to divide them into direct and indirect
speech acts.

You’re in the way. Could you sit down? Move!. Eat the food! Please get out of
the way. You’re fired! Did you eat your food? Can you pass the salt? Lend me
your notes from Friday. Could you lend me your notes from Friday? I could sure
use the notes from Friday.

Feedback to activity 1 (10 minutes)

Direct Indirect

Move! You’re in the way.

Eat the food! Could you sit down?

You’re fired! Please get out of the way.

Did you eat the food? Can you pass the salt?

Lend me your notes from Friday Could you lend me your notes from
Friday?

I could sure use the notes from Friday.

Sometimes we use speech acts in a non-literal way to accomplish our goals. For
instance, if I am having dinner at your house, and I am cold because the window
is open, I could use a direct speech act. I could use a question like, May I close
the window? This question is used to make a request. However, much of our

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communication is not so direct. Sometimes we use a speech act to accomplish an
act for which it was not intended.

There are other ways I can get the host to warm up the cold room by closing the
window. I could make a representative statement.

“It is cold in here.” This is a simple statement of fact or opinion. However, the
host is unlikely to interpret this as simply information. It is clearly a request to
have the window closed. I could also make an assertion, “I think I am getting a
cold,” to achieve the same result.

The Tutor introduces activity 2

Activity 2: (10 minutes)

Think of the word ‘politeness.’ List three situations in which you have been
‘polite’ to someone. Write three sentences or phrases you might have used to show
politeness.

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Linguistic Politeness

There are several ways to think of politeness. These might involve ideas like
tactful, modest and being nice to other people. In the study of linguistic
politeness, the most relevant concept is ‘face.’ Your ‘face’, in pragmatics is your
public self-image. This is the emotional and social stance of self that every person
has and expects everyone else to recognize.

Politeness is showing awareness of another person’s face.

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If you say something that represents a threat to another person’s self image, that is
called a face-threatening act.

For example, if you use a direct speech act to order someone to do something
(Give me that paper!), you are acting as if you have more social power than the
other person. If you do not actually have that social power then you are
performing a face-threatening act.

An indirect speech act in the form of a question (Could you pass me that paper,
please?) removes the assumption of social power. This makes your request less
threatening to the other person’s sense of self. Whenever you say something that
lessens the possible threat to another’s face, it is a face-saving act.

You have both a negative face and a positive face. Your negative face is the need
to be independent and to have freedom from imposition. Your positive face is
your need to be connected, to belong, to be a member of the group. Thus, a face-
saving act that emphasizes a person’s negative face will show concern about
imposition. (I’m sorry to bother you . . .; I know you’re busy, but . . .) A face-
saving act that emphasizes a person’s positive face will show solidarity and draw
attention to a common goal (Let’s do this together . . .; you and I have the same
problem so . . .).

Cultural differences in politeness

What counts as polite behaviour can differ substantially from one culture to the
next. If you have grown up in a culture that has directness as a valued way of
showing solidarity, and you use direct speech acts (Pour me some coffee) to
people whose culture is more oriented to indirectness and avoiding direct
imposition, then you will be considered impolite.

Summary (5 minutes)

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We use language all the time to make something happen. Speech act covers such
actions as requesting, commanding, questioning and informing. Speech act theory
is the most established part of pragmatics.

There are thousands of possible speech acts and several attempts have been made
to classify them into a small number of types. One approach identifies six types:
representatatives, directives, commissives, expressive, declarations and
interrogatives.

When a speaker doesn’t know something and asks the hearer to provide the
information, he or she will typically produce a direct speech act.

Sometimes we use a speech act to accomplish an act for which it was not
intended. This type is called an indirect speech act.

In the study of linguistic politeness, the most relevant concept is ‘face.’ Your face
in pragmatics is your public self-image. Politeness is showing awareness of
another person’s face. Acting as if you have more power than another when you
don’t is a face threatening act. When you say something that lessens the threat to
another’s face, it is called a face-saving act.

Suggested References

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. New York. 1995.

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Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What
you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,
Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights,
Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

Module 6: LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY (2 hrs)

Overview

A good place to begin understanding the complex and variable nature of language
is to consider how language functions in society. As a human ability, language is
part and parcel of all the things that we do: the different kinds of interactions we
have with different kinds of people, the different roles we play at different times
of our lives - or even during the same day!

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There is therefore a complex interrelationship between language and society.
Understanding this as a teacher is very important, since you would understand not
only that your students come from different backgrounds and therefore will use
language in different ways, but that they sometimes present themselves as
“different” people depending on the “role” that they see themselves playing at one
particular time or another. Also, your job as a teacher is not to prescribe the rules
of language, but to help your students to negotiate among the different
expectations of language use in a society, including formal and informal usages.

What is the relationship between language and society? Language is essentially a

social construction. Without society, language would not exist; and some even
argue that without language, society would not be as developed as it is. The study
of the inter-relationships between social variables and language variables is
called Sociolinguistics, which is a branch of Linguistics that merges language
studies with Sociology.

In this module, we will first begin by looking at how social variables interact with
language. Second, we will look at various aspects of language in use in society.

Module Objectives

At the end of the unit you will be able to:

 Identify the parameters that make language a social phenomenon.
 Understand the various ways in which language is used in society.

Module orientation:
This module has two units:

Unit 1: Social Variation in Language

Unit 2: Language in Use

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It is advisable to study the units in sequential order. Try to complete each one of
them as they would help you to remember the information which you have
learned.

Some units have activities which would help you to test yourself. The answers for
these units have been included but you are advised to check them only after you
have completed the activities.

Time Requirement:

You will need about 3 hours to complete this module including the activities.

Unit 1: Social Variation in Language (1 hr)

Introduction

Language and Society is considered under the sub-field of Linguistics called

Sociolinguistics. It includes various aspects related to the intertwining of social variables
and language. In this lesson, we will begin to examine some of the social variables that
interact with language, especially spoken language.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

 Identify the social variables responsible for social variation of

 Apply their knowledge of social variables to their understanding of Guyana’s
language situation.

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  Evaluate how social variables influence language

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

Social Variables

Linguists agree that there is an interrelationship between language and the social
variables of age, gender, social class, ethnicity, education, and geographic
location. Since the 1970’s, the famous linguist William Labov set out to
investigate how social variables influence speech, and he has produced many
interesting studies to prove the correlation between the two.

The language variations influenced by the five variables are called “social
dialects” and those influenced by the last variable are called “geographical” or
“regional” dialects.

Let us consider the first variable, Age.

Age

Language is dynamic, which means that it is in a constant flux of change. Because

of this “evolution”, every generation develops new words and phrases. You will
have noticed that there are differences between your language use and that of
those around you who belong to a different generation (either older or younger).
There are unique differences in several areas including phonology, slang, and
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morphology. For example, which word do you use: “veranda” or “patio”;
“icebox” or “cooler”? The older generation will tend to use the former words
(veranda and icebox).

In many communities across Guyana, older persons will tend to use with more
frequency words and expressions from languages other than English. On the
coastal areas, words and expressions from Indic and African languages are more
often used by older persons, while in the hinterland area, the same happens with
the indigenous languages. For example, a child living in the Corentyne may hear
his/her grandmother call him/her “dular”. A younger person might refer to that
same child and say “you’re spoiled”, which means that the child is accustomed to
being pampered by relatives to the extent that s/he expects all demands and
requests to be met.

It is generally agreed that younger people tend to use more slang and words that
are current in popular media. For example, young people make much use of slang
in their conversations to refer their friends, classmates, activities, and also to refer
to social trends, practices and relationships, among many other things.

Gender

A second social variable is gender. Linguists note that there are differences
between male and female speech patterns. This may be a natural phenomenon, or
it may be because of social conditioning – for example, society may condition
men to be more aggressive, and this might be reflected in their speech. Also,
particular forms of language use may help men to identify with other men and
women to identify with other women - males may use more colloquial forms of
language while women use more formal language.

An interesting case is that of persons of different sexual orientation. Sociologists

tell us that a male can change his speech patterns (i.e., his vocabulary, pitch, etc)
to become be a social female, and vice versa. This confirms the idea that society
makes a distinction that certain usages of language are “female” and others
“male”.

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Education

One’s education, most times, inadvertently shapes one’s language. Someone who
has tertiary education is more likely to speak in a more formal manner than
someone who has only attended primary school. Many times persons wish to let
their language serve as an indicator of their educational attainment, but this is not
always the case. Education is also closely linked to occupation.

Social Class

Social class influences variation in language. It must be noted that, linguistically,

there is nothing inherently superior about one language over another. However, it
is the social concept that places a bias on some forms of language causing one to
be seen as superior to the other. Historically, the upper class stratum of a society
use language to maintain and reinforce the social distinction between them and
others. On the other hand, the poorer classes may have less access to education
and so speak a distinct variation of the language.

In this process, certain features of language become stigmatized while others are
seen as prestigious. For example a feature such as the dropping of /h/ from words
such as “head” and “hand” might be seen as a marker of lower class (as it is seen
to a considerable extent in Guyana). On the other hand, features such as the
articulation of word endings – “walking” rather than “walkin”, “sound” rather
than “soun”, and the rounding of vowels – saying “boll” rather than “ball” - might
be seen as markers of high status. Persons who want to identify themselves as
upper class (or appearing intelligent) may change their ways of speaking to
include these prestige features.

Speaking a certain way usually is a mark of belonging to a certain social class.

Additionally, in some cases the more Standard English one speaks seemingly
places one in an upper social class bracket. Rounding words more also is an
indicator, not only of educational attainment, but social class. Conversely,

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speaking in what some people term “brawling” or “raw” way is seen as the lower
class (and uneducated) way of speaking.

Ethnicity

Perhaps one of the most defining characteristics of social variation is ethnicity.

Ethnicity influences our speech. In Guyana, a lot of names for food and kitchen
utensils have been retained throughout the years because of a unique cultural
heritage - one that is characterised by ethnic peculiarities. For example, in Indo-
Guyanese dominated communities one might say tawa while in an Afro-Guyanese
community one might hear roti pan. In Indigenous communities, it is usual to
hear about tuma pot instead of pepper pot.

Geographic Location

Even though some persons may not refer to geography as a ‘social’ variable, it is
very important to recognise the influence of one’s geographic location on
language varieties. Because of historical factors, movements of people, contact
with other people, isolation from other groups and many other factors, the
language of people in one geographic location may show certain differences from
those of another location even though they all generally speak the same language.

This is most obvious trans-nationally: there is language variation among people of

different countries who speak trans-national languages such as English, French,
Spanish etc. For example, did you know that English has international dialects?
There is American English, British English, Australian English, Caribbean
English, and the list can go on. Differences between British and American English
include spelling such as:

US: equaled, color, theater

UK: equalled, colour, theatre

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 There are also
differences in
vocabulary:

US
truck
sidewalk
French fries
hood

And differences in
pronunciation:

Schedule:

US: “schedule”
[ʃɛdjul]

UK: “schedule”
[skɛdjul]

Issue:

US: “ishyu” [Iʃju]

UK: “issyu” [Isju]

Secondly, even in the same country, there are regional differences in language. In
the first instance, one can categorise rural and urban differences. Since urban
areas are usually better-developed and are centres of education, business,
government and so on, urban dwellers tend to speak differently from rural people.

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Because of Guyana’s history and settlement of peoples, it is possible to see other
types of geographical variations in language. The people in the hinterland who
spoke indigenous languages and who were taught English by missionaries tend to
show a better level of English than many coastlanders. Of course, they also have
their different indigenous languages. People in the border areas of Lethem and
the Corentyne also show the influence of Portuguese and Dutch respectively in
their language.

The Tutor introduces activity 1

Activity 1: (10 minutes)

1. Make a list of all the words and phrases that sound strange that your
grandparents or older persons in your community use. Compare that list to one
that you use.

2. Make a list of all the slang that you may have heard your students use but
are unfamiliar to you. Ask them to supply the meanings, and where they
possibly got the word/expressions from.

Feedback to activity 1 (10 minutes)

You would have realized that there are distinct differences between your
vocabulary and that of your parents and grandparents.

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The Tutor introduces activity 2

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Activity 2: (10 minutes)

1. Complete the list below by adding the matching ethnicity.

Item Ethnicity

   

bajii  

foo-foo  

rooti  

rooti pan  

tawah  

farine  

puhar  

2. Give the British version of the American English words below:

US UK

liter  

center  

traveled  

plow  

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Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Item Ethnicity

   

bajii  Indo-Guyanese

foo-foo  Afro-Guyanese

rooti  Indo-Guyanese

rooti pan  Afro-Guyanese

tawah  Indo-Guyanese

farine  Indigenous Guyanese

puhar  Indo-Guyanese

2. Give the British version of the American English words below:

US UK

liter  litre

center centre 

traveled travelled 

plow plough 

Summary (5 minutes)
Language is influenced by several social variables such as: age, gender, education, social
class, ethnicity, and geographic location. Age features are indicative of the differences
between young and older people. Gender differences are expressed in the language of
males and females. There are clear indications that class determines speech. Ethnicity
offers variations of language use in Guyana, especially in vocabulary differences. Names
for food and kitchen utensils offer an interesting example of ethnic influences on
language. Geographic location is also a very influential variable on language differences
across countries and within a country.

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Suggested References
Bergmann, Anouschka, Hall, Kathleen and Ross, Sharon. eds. Language Files
(10th Edition). Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2007.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. New York: Cambridge

University Press, 1995.

Crystal, David. Language and the Internet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2006.

Devonish, Hubert. Language & Liberation: Creole Language Politics in the Caribbean.
Kingston: Arawak Publications, 2007.

Holmes, Janet. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. New York: Pearson Education

Ltd., 2008

Romaine, Suzanne. Language in Society. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.,
2000

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

Unit 2: Language in Use (1hr)

Introduction
“Language in use” refers to all the social dimensions that are involved in the use
of language. In this section, we will be examining several concepts in the
discussion on language in society. Several aspects of language use that will be
looked at, though not exhaustively, are: social dialect, notions of prestige, jargon,
register, slang, language and sexism, language and the internet, code switching,
and diglossia.

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Because society is in a constant flux of change, language will also be subject to
change. When we use language, there are “unwritten rules of engagement” that
guide the way we speak and write to others. It is important to understand the
facets of the social side of language use.

Specific Objectives
At the end of the unit students will be able to:

1. Understand several key concepts in sociolinguistics

2. Differentiate among those concepts.
3. Apply knowledge gained to an understanding of language use in their own sub-
cultures.

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Introduction to Linguistics

Aspects of Language in Use

Dialect

The term “dialect” refers to systematic variations within a language. When such
variations are reflected in all the different systems – grammar, vocabulary,
meaning, etc - of the language used by a defined group of speakers or in a
defined geographical area, then we say that the language has a dialect. As we
learnt in the previous chapter, there are many factors that tend to produce
variation in a language.

All languages are made up of dialects. There is no language which is completely

uniform everywhere it is spoken. In fact, Standard English, which many persons
in Guyana consider to be a very powerful language, is itself a dialect of English.
Standard English really means a particular way of speaking English, a particular
set of pronunciation, grammar, semantic and vocabulary rules. It has a particular
areas of use as outlined by Janet Holmes Janet Holmes in her book, An
Introduction to Sociolinguistics “It is the variety used for national news
broadcasts and in print, and it is the variety generally taught in English-speaking
schools”. (1992:144). Another social dialect of English is Received Pronunciation
(RP). It was the accent of the “best educated and most prestigious members of
English society” (143). RP is also sometimes called the “Queen’s English”.

There are generally three types of dialects: regional or geographical, and social
dialects, which we have discussed above, and temporal dialects.

Temporal dialects are variations of a language over time. For example, we can
see consistent changes in the history of English, so we can subdivide it into Old,
Middle and Modern English. Each of these would then be an example of a

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temporal dialect of English. We can even subdivide these further, as in when we

talk about 19th Century English, for example.

Social Dialects

Of all the social dialects, those that are determined by social class (i.e. upper,
middle, lower class) are the most influential in society. Such a social dialect
entails a unique accent, use of vocabulary, and style. For example, in Guyana an
upper class social dialect may include persons rounding their vowels more than
other persons in society would do. If this is the case, then rounding is seen as a
feature of a social dialect. Members of a society recognize these features of social
dialects, and therefore, many persons may adopt some of these features in order to
present themselves in a certain way. Also, most of us make judgments about
people because of the way they speak. This kind of social dialect is therefore a
powerful social tool.

One of the earliest studies on social dialects was carried out by pioneer
Sociolinguist, William Labov, in New York department (or general) stores. Labov
basically asked each store attendant to tell him where he could find a particular
item while recording their responses. Based on the social ranking of the store,
Labov found that there was a corresponding social dialect. In the higher-social-
class stores, attendants dropped /r/ from their word because this was considered
upper class. On the other hand, the attendants at lower-class stores dropped /g/ at
the endings of “-ing” words; this was considered to be a mark of the uneducated
and lower social class.

Notions of prestige

Prestige in language is a socially-determined phenomenon. Such prestige is

predominantly influenced by social class, as we noted before. When we talk about
the prestige value of language, we are referring to the positive (or negative) values
placed on forms of language within a group. The group may be as large as a
country, region or even the whole world, or it may be much smaller. Such prestige

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can either be used to signal educational attainment, social class ranking, and give
a sense of belonging. Generally, linguists agree that there is overt prestige and
covert prestige. Overt Prestige refers to the public positive value placed on a
language, or dialect of that language. For example, SE has overt prestige because
there is widespread regard for this language. Most people in society place positive
value on SE and give it prominence in many situations. Covert Prestige, on the
other hand, refers to hidden positive value that is attached to the language variety
of a sub-group. For example, the language of Rastafarians, which Velma Pollard
refers to as dread talk may not have public prestige and the wider society may
frown upon this variety of language. However, within the sub-culture of
Rastafarianism, there is a lot of positive prestige associated with the language.
The word “covert” essentially means hidden, so dread talk has hidden or overt
prestige. Another example of covert prestige is the language of teenagers. The
vocabulary, sentence structure, slang, and accents of teenagers may be frowned
upon by wider society; but to the teenage speakers, speaking this way has positive
value and is a mark of their belonging and identity with the sub-group.

Jargon, Register, Slang

The term “Jargon” refers to special terminologies that are limited to one’s
profession. Dentists will talk among themselves about “periodontal disease” and
“halitosis”. Linguists will talk about fricatives and affricates. Sometimes,
professionals can use jargon to exclude others from their discussion. Periodontal
disease is also called gum disease, and halitosis commonly called bad breath. On
the other hand, jargon allows professionals to communicate more efficiently. For
example, instead of a carpenter saying to another “bring a piece of wood” he may
say “bring the 2 by 4” and this communicates a exactly what he wants. For
linguists, the terms “jargon”, “social dialect”, “regional dialect” and so on
communicate precise ideas, whereas the layman will only see these generally as
“variations of language”.

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Register refers to the style of the language used in a special context. Register can
include jargon and other vocabulary used in a certain context. For example, there
can be legal register or religious register. In a Christian church, one might hear a
pastor talk about “salvation” or being “born again” and “repentance”; but these
words, and the concepts they outline, may be strange to a non-Christian. In the
legal setting such as in court, a certain tone of voice is used along with legal
jargon – all of which comprise legal register. Register also refers to the levels of
formality. It is usually appropriate to use a formal register, for example, to speak
to a member of the Diplomatic Corps.

Slang demonstrates creativity of humans to use language to suit their purposes.

Slang is sometimes considered as “colourful language” (Language Files 10th
Edition 2007:408). It is usually the colloquial or informal variety of language.
Slang, interestingly, is usually short-lived and may last for months or years. As
discussed in the previous unit, slang is a feature that differentiates age groups:
mainly old and young. Additionally, a lot of slang is taken from popular music or
movies. You might recall having said something in front of your parents or
grandparents and they were clueless as to what you said, or you may have heard
younger persons use slang that you were not familiar with. For example, someone
might say “I was bumping my gum all afternoon with my friend” to mean that
they were chatting with their friends. You may have heard a bus conductor tell the
driver to “bun it down”. This expression is a slang which means stop the bus
(usually to let off or pick up a passenger). In many parts of Guyana, some ladies
will use the slang “red flag flying” to talking about their menstrual cycle. Slang
may also be seen as having covert prestige because it ensures an in-group identity.
Gang members, for example, can show their solidarity with each other when they
use slang. Talking about a “straps” to refer to a knife or gun; or a “kilo” to refer to
drugs (especially cocaine) are examples of slang. Because slang is short-lived, in
years to come, those words can be replaced with others.

Language and Sexism

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The rise of feminist philosophy in the nineteenth century helped to redefine how
we use language as it relates to gender. Feminists essentially argue that a
language can embody stereotypes against women; and that language has been
socially engineered in such a way that it favours male ideals. Suzanne Romaine in
her chapter “Language and Gender” (2000: 101-134) outlines several ways that
sexism has dominated language use. She purposefully labels a section “A
Msguided attempt to change herstory” to enforce the idea that language, English
in this case, is male-centered and needs to be re-worded and reworked.

Because of the need to be more sensitive to the case presented by feminists and be
respectful of general women’s rights, there is a need to revise several male-
centered words and expressions. More specifically, language has been involved in
constant change towards more gender-neutral words and expressions. For
instance, several years ago we used to talk about an air-host and air-hostess, but
now it is correct to say flight attendant. The game of cricket, which is traditionally
a male dominated sport, has seen the rise in the amount of women now playing
the sport. Because of this, several “male-centered terms” have to be modified to
be more gender neutral. Instead of saying batsman, one should say batter.

More importantly, being linguistically gender sensitive is not only limited to using
gender-neutral words but includes showing respect for women through the use of
language in the whole. In some circles, the slang that some men use to refer to
sexual encounters with women is considered to be sexist. Some writers have
called this the “violent side of sex”, because men use words such as “beat”,
“mash”, “slaughter”, “dig out” and “clip” to talk about their sexual experience or
“domination” over women. We can then conclude that, generally, sexism in
language reflects bias against women.

Language and the Internet

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Undoubtedly, the internet has and is still contributing to the change in written and
spoken language. David Crystal, who is one of the foremost linguists today in the
world, refers to “internet language” as netspeak (2006:19). Social media sites
such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and hi5 all are avenues where netspeak is
used. There are several distinct features of netspeak that are worth considering.

First, there are unique words (or lexical items) that make up netspeak. The advent
of the internet and constantly changing technology mean that language has to
accommodate the words and expressions used to represent the new ideas. A few
years ago, no one would have heard about blogging or tweeting. New words are
also formed by combining existing words, blending, or shortening/clipping (this is
discussed in the Morphology module). For example, a blog is a blend of a web
log. A blog is like a digital version of a journal or diary where writers share their
thoughts on the internet or World Wide Web. All those who have accounts with
Twitter, which is the social media site that allows people to keep track of the
activities of others, are called tweeps. The word tweeps is a blend of twitter peeps
(or twitter people). Pics is a shortened version of pictures; vids, for videos; cam
for camera, and the list can go on. Posting in netspeak does not refer to posting a
mail using the postal service, but rather it refers to putting content (pics, vids, or
text) on a blog or social media site account.

Second, there is no standard spelling system. If one mises the corect spelin of a
wrd while typn he/she does nt hv 2 wrry becoz ppl will understnd neways. Did
you have trouble reading that sentence? Note that the even though the words had
some letters missing you were still able “fill in the blanks”. It is important to note,
though, that there are still formal and informal registers that are used in internet
communication (and a lot depends on who is the audience/or receiver of the
correspondence). Most people use a formal register when sending an e-mail. For
instant-messaging (IM services include Yahoo! Messenger, Windows Live,
oovoo, Skype, and ICQ) and writing on social media sites, most people use an

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informal register that is made up of abbreviations and non-standard spelling. Such

abbreviations seem to now become words in themselves. When someone says lol
after your comment they mean “Laugh out loud”; idk means “I don’t know”; btw,
“by the way”; and brb, “be right back”. These are some of the most common
ones.

Third, punctuation marks are used to represent an emotion and are called
emoticons (emotion + icons). When persons use a colon, a hyphen, and a forward
bracket as in :-) they mean to portray a smile (or smiley face). Tilt your head to
the left and look at it again- the colon represent the eyes, the hyphen the nose and
the bracket the lips. Some people may omit the hyphen and just write :) instead.
The bracket turned the other way around as in :-( conveys sadness. There is a
website devoted to listing all of the current items comprising netspeak. You can
visit www.netlingo.com and learn more about the hundreds of netspeak terms and
emoticons.

Many persons tend to mix netspeak with English (or Guyanese) in their
communication on the internet resulting in written code-switching. Some teachers
may complain that their students’ writing has been corrupted by the influence of
the internet. Interestingly, however, some of the spoken features can become part
of speech. For example, if some responds “IDK” [ai-d-ke] when you ask them a
question, they are simply responding “I don’t know”. Part of the solution to the
“problem” is to look at the switching from a linguistic perspective. Linguistically,
there is nothing wrong with code switching: it is only natural that humans switch
between and among codes. This phenomenon of netspeak should be seen as
another form of code switching.

Code Switching

We usually switch between varieties of language depending on the topic and

situation that we find ourselves in. In Guyana, we switch, most times, between

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different varieties of Guyanese (popularly called Creolese) and also between

Creolese and English.

Code-switching occurs when a speaker alternates between two varieties of

language or two languages in one speech act. You may have done this yourself
many times as a teacher when you want to explain a concept to your students. For
example, using a Guyanese (Creolese) example not only grabs the students’
attention and make them laugh, but it makes them understand the concept better
because they can relate it to their experience. Many teachers will code-switch
between English and Wapishana in Central Rupununi, or English and Macushi in
North Rupununi. These are examples of code-switching between two languages.
Code-switching among three languages is normal in the Central Rupununi region
because persons code-switch in English, Wapishana, and Portuguese - sometimes
all in one sentence.

Written code-switching is another aspect of language that looks at switching

between two or more languages or varieties of language. A lot of times we see
written code-switching in correspondence between friends via email and letters
when one may switch between an informal and formal variety of English. Another
case is the switch between Standard English and netspeak. You may see a
sentence which reads, “Hi John. hru? How’s your family? Btw, pls tell them I said
hi”. This is a switch between English and netspeak. (Hi John, how are you?
How’s your family. By the way, please tell them I said hi).

Diglossia

Diglossia refers to unwritten rules which govern usage (and non-usage) of certain
varieties of a language in a speech community. Socially, as discussed before,
some varieties of language are given more prestige than others. In a diglossic
situation, the prestigious variety is given the label ‘High Variety’ or H-variety,
while the non-prestigious languages are given the label ‘Low Variety’ or L-

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variety. Additionally, a diglossic situation can entail two languages instead of two
varieties (or dialects) of one language. It is important to remember that in
diglossic situations there are rules of usage dictating where the H and L varieties
must be used. Non-compliance of these rules often results in the speaker being
frowned upon. How do we know to speak the formal or H-variety in class to our
tutors? Why do we address politicians and members of the government or the
judiciary in a formal way? Why do we speak to the market vendor in a different
variety? For example in the classroom situation, rules of diglossia would maintain
that the level of language required for the class is the H-variety. The H-variety on
the coastal region of Guyana is English, and in most hinterland communities it is
the same. As said before, the H and L varieties can refer to two dialects of the
same language. In the case of Guyanese (or Creolese), the urban variety of
Guyanese tends to be the H-variety, while the rural variety is the L-variety.

It is important to remember that Diglossia entails unwritten rules that dictate

which language varieties should be used in specific contexts. The assigning of
prestige to certain languages or dialect is non-linguistic and is done based on
social concepts of class and prestige. Linguistically speaking, there is no superior
language.

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Language-in-use Activities

Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Social and Regional Dialects

1. Is Standard English a regional or social dialect? Explain your answer.

2. Do you know of anyone who speaks with a social accent or dialect? What
phonological or lexical features can you notice?

Code switching

Prepare a five-minute speech addressed to members of your community using both

the formal and informal varieties of English; or English and Guyanese; or English
and your indigenous language. Take note of the sections that require you to code-
switch, and ask yourself: “Why do I need to code-switch at this point?”

Sexism

Make a list of all the words that you know are paired to indicate masculine and
feminine, and give the gender-neutral equivalent. For example: a. Air-host
(masculine) b. Air-hostess (feminine) c. flight attendant (gender neutral).

Feedback to activity 1

1. Standard English (SE) is both a regional and social dialect. It is regional

because there are different Englishes in the world: Standard American English,
Standard British English, Standard Australian English, etc. It is a social dialect
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because people of the upper classes, or those with higher educational attainment
use SE as language of belonging.

Activity 2: (10 minutes)

1. Make a list of all the slang that you know for sex, prostitutes, and a bad behaved
child.

2. Make a list of all the jargon that you use in your profession, and give the version
that the average person can understand.
3. What are the differences among register, slang, and jargon?

Summary
A social dialect is socially influenced and is an indicator of prestige and belonging.
Notions of prestige refer to overt prestige which has a public prestige value; and covert
prestige which has a private (in-group) prestige value. Jargon is specialised terminology
that is associated with specific professions and can be used to exclude other members
outside of the profession. Slang is said to be informal and is an in-group mode of
communication. Register can be classified as formal and informal, and includes the use
of jargon and slang. Gender issues over the past two centuries have given rise to language
becoming more gender sensitive. Sexism is generally directed to women. Language is
influenced by the internet and is evolving into a different mode of communication in the
areas of spelling and word formation. When we switch between an informal or formal
variety of language or two or three languages, we are involved in code switching.

Diglossia is the term used to talk about unwritten rules governing the High and Low
varieties of language. The H and L varieties can refer to dialects of one language, or two
separate languages.

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Suggested References

Bergmann, Anouschka, Hall, Kathleen and Ross, Sharon. eds. Language Files
(10th Edition). Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2007.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. New York: Cambridge

University Press, 1995.

Crystal, David. Language and the Internet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2006.

Devonish, Hubert. Language & Liberation: Creole Language Politics in the Caribbean.
Kingston: Arawak Publications, 2007.

Holmes, Janet. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. New York: Pearson Education

Ltd., 2008

Romaine, Suzanne. Language in Society. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.,
2000

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

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MODULE 7: Language Acquisition (2 hrs)

Overview:

Language acquisition is usually studied as first-language (L1) acquisition, and

second-language (L2) acquisition. In the discussion in this module about language
acquisition, several key concepts will be touched upon. This module will only
seek to provide a general understanding of concepts that are sometimes complex
to understand in the study of Psycholinguistics. You are free to pursue further in-
depth research on the areas that may interest you.

Module Objectives:

By the end of this module you will be able to:

- Understand the two main theories of language acquisition.

- Evaluate whether humans learn language or are born with it.
- Identify the stages of language acquisition.
- Understand what is aphasia.
- Evaluate the role of a child’s second language in the education process.
- Understand the different second language teaching strategies that can be
employed in the classroom.

Module orientation:
This module has two units:

Unit 1: Nature or Nurture?

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Unit 2: Second Language Acquisition

It is advisable to study the units in sequential order. Try to complete each one of
them as they would help you to remember the information which you have
learned.

Some units have activities which would help you to test yourself. The answers for
these units have been included but you are advised to check them only after you
have completed the activities.

Time Requirement:

You will need about 2 hours to complete this module including the activities.

Unit 1: Nature or Nurture? (1hr)

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Introduction

How do humans acquire language? Were we born with the ability to acquire
language, or were we born blank-slate? Does our environment influence our
language? These are questions that are central to the discussion about language
acquisition. The human brain is structured in such a way that it allows for
linguistic development, and there are several stages of language acquisition.

Specific Objectives
At the end of the unit students will be able to:

- Understand what is meant by nature theory

- Understand what is mean by nurture theory
- Differentiate between nature and nurture theories
- Identify the stages of language acquisition
- Understand, in basic terms, what is aphasia

What is needed
1. Paper

2. Pens and pencil

3. English dictionary

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Nature or Nurture?

One of the most interesting things about human life is the ability of language.
Steven Pinker (2007) notes:

Language is so tightly woven into human experience that it is scarcely

possible to imagine life without it. Chances are that if you find two or
more people together anywhere on earth, they will soon be exchanging
words. When there is no one to talk with, people talk to themselves, to
their dogs, even to their plants.

Language acquisition is a perplexing phenomenon, and its study is a relatively

new field in Guyana when compared to other more “structural” approaches to
language. Experts also usually disagree with some of the sometimes unexplained
phenomena of language acquisition. In his book, The Language Instinct, Pinker
(2007) sees language as something inherent and instinctual in humanity when he
says:

It's far easier for a child to acquire language as an infant and toddler than it
will be for the same child to learn, say, French in a college classroom 18 years
later. Many linguists now say that a newborn's brain is already programmed to
learn language, and in fact that when a baby is born he or she already
instinctively knows a lot about language. This means that it's as natural for a
human being to talk as it is for a bird to sing or for a spider to spin a web. In
this sense, language may be like walking: The ability to walk is genetic, and
children develop the ability to walk whether or not anybody tries to teach
them to do so. In the same way, children develop the ability to talk whether or
not anybody tries to teach them. For this reason, many linguists believe that
language ability is genetic.

We know that we are genetically prepared for language. Our biology - our genes,
nerves, shape of mouth, lips, etc., and the design of the human brain - facilitates
language. We will discuss this some more in Module 8

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For this reason a four year old who has never gone to school as yet will already
possess a complex grammar. Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area are the regions in
the brain, on the left hemisphere, that control language and language acquisition.
Broca’s area is concerned with the output of language while Wernicke’s area
controls the input. In other words, Broca’s area deals with language production
while Wernicke’s area deals with the processing of the language we hear (or see).

The language side of the brain: Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area

But where does language itself come from? Are we born “blank state” and learn
language from the people around us as some theorists opine? Or were we born
with the ability to acquire language? These two general views are at the heart of
discussions on language acquisition, and they called respectively, nurture and
nature theories. The nature theory states that the ability to acquire language is
innate; while the nurture theory outlines that a child learns language through
exposure to the community.

Nurture theory is essentially based on the behaviourist theory of imitation and

reinforcement as an explanation of how children learn language from their
surroundings. Behaviourism as promoted by B.F. Skinner (1955) is based on a
system of reward and punishment. This theory gives a great role to the
environment in language learning. It suggests that children imitate what they hear

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and reproduce it to create their own linguistic repertoire. Children may be

rewarded for using the desirable variety language, and this is called positive
reinforcement. When a parent frowns upon a child for use of a particular word,
the frown serves as negative reinforcement. In the case of Guyana, for example,
the use of Creole may be frowned upon and a child hears “don’t say it like that,
say it like this”. The theory of the influence of the environment, however, has
some loop-holes. Two of these are: How does one account for mistakes that the
child makes if s/he never heard them from his/her surroundings? If a child learns
via the environment, or through imitation, how does one explain a child saying “I
eated the food” or “I holded the cup” if s/he never heard those ungrammatical
constructions from the environment? Secondly, if a child learnt language from his
or her environment, we can reasonably expect that different children of the same
age and in the same language will show different stages of language learning.

Linguists have concluded that a child does not learn language through imitation or
from the environment. Rather, they believe that children acquire language
through an innate mechanism that each human is born with. As in the case of the
incorrect past-tense endings above, the child is displaying grammatical knowledge
of forming past-tenses. However, there are exceptions to the rule so the child
either cognises these exceptions or is corrected by persons in his/her environment.
This is a case of linguistic input from the linguistic environment. Fromkin,
Rodman, and Hyams (2007) succinctly sum this up by relating:

It is obvious that children do not learn a language simply by memorising the

sentences of the language and storing them in some giant mental dictionary. The
list of words is finite, but no dictionary can hold all the sentences of a language,
which are infinite in number. Rather children acquire a system of rules that
enables them to construct and understand sentences, most of which they have
never produced or heard before. Children, like adults, are creative in their use of
language. (p., 314)

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Nature theorist Noam Chomsky proposed that each child is born with an innate
grammar of linguistic features. This innateness hypothesis proposes that each
individual is born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD). The LAD is like a
blueprint or template for language that exists in each new-born, and as the child
grows s/he receives the input of vocabulary and grammar conventions from the
environment. Chomsky posits that the LAD is universal (i.e., it exists in all
languages). Moreover, he suggests that there is a Universal Grammar which
supports the LAD. The notion of Universal Grammar basically outlines the
reasons why children of different linguistic systems (Spanish, English, or
Chinese) all seem to develop language at the same time and in the same stages
and sequences: their grasp of the grammar of the language is identical and
universal.

In this theory, language is acquired, not learned, and it unfolds in developmental

stages, rather than being dependent on environmental input. Interestingly, a mute
child who is exposed to Sign Language at an early age will also develop his/her
language at the same stage as the others recently mentioned.

Chomsky used grammar or syntax to explain his theory. When a child begins to
speak, it seems that s/he has already has innate understanding of grammar. For
example, when a child makes mistakes such as “sheeps” and “eated”, s/he is
simply using the general English structure of marking plurality (adding an -s) and
past tense (adding -ed). The child is in the process of adjusting his/her mental
grammar to the acceptable norm. Children, therefore, extract the linguistic rules
from their environment.

Secondly, the very initial language “baby talk” that a baby hears from its parents,
siblings and others in its formative years is said to have structure that is
decipherable by the baby. Linguists categorise this baby talk as “motherese”,
“fatherese”, and “otherese”. This is a speech pattern which is unlike the way in
which persons will normally speak. As simple as it may seem, baby talk is very

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complex – it sounds different, many words are left out, it contains many made-up
words, and many other differences from normal speech. Yet, the child is able to
use this information to help him or her produce normal sentences in a very short
space of time. This shows that a child already possesses the capacity for complex
language processing.

Therefore, conclusively, we can say that children do not simply learn language
from their environment (nurture). Humans are born with the innate “instinct” to
acquire language and are already programmed with mental grammars. On the
other hand, children do need the input from the environment to trigger the
process of acquisition, and to help shape the language that they will eventually
acquire. This input helps the child to complete their grammars with vocabulary
and rules of usage.

Stages of Language Acquisition

There are linguistic stages of language acquisition which we can see evidence of
as the child develops. These are:

Theorists and researchers such as Roger Brown, Piaget and others have posited
that children acquire certain aspects of language at different levels of their
development. In other words, cognitive development is linked to language
acquisition. An outline of the linguistic stages of language acquisition is found
below:

1. Pre-speech. Infants recognise speech even before they use it; they
recognise the phonological differences. Speech around them has been
proven to stimulate more electrical activity in the left side of the brain.
With motherese, fatherese, and otherese around them, infants sense the
differences. For example, motherese is said to have a lot more intonations

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and questions than fatherese.

2. Babbling stage - while babbling may not seem to be important, this is an

important stage in the child’s development of language. In this stage, the
child begins to articulate sounds and syllables and experiment with the use
of their vocal apparatus. It is at this stage, about 5 - 7mths, one will hear
infant say “baba” or “mama”. However, this not necessarily mean that this
is the child’s first word or that s/he understands the meaning of the
“word”. What it may mean though is that he infant has started to combine
syllables such as “ba”, “ma” or “da”. Repeating the syllables makes it
sound like words are uttered. In some cases, “mama” is sometimes
stopped being used until a later stage.

1. 3. One word (or holophrastic) stage - at about one-year of age, children

begin to produce single words. These words refer to things around the child
and shows that the child can attach words to the real world. This stage
involves the use of content words such as nouns (names and things), but not
functional words such as verbs and articles. This stage is aided by persons
who often help the infant to name things in his/her surroundings. However,
the child may not see the world in the same way as older people do – for
example, he or she may call a horse a dog. What is also important is that these
single words represent sentences, not just words in isolation.

4. Telegraphic stage. At this stage the child, at 18mths to 2 yrs, usually being
combining words such as two-word sentences. At this stage children already have
the correct word order and rules for agreement. For example, “want tea” or “me
toy” are two-word sentences that confirm Chomsky’s concept of a mental
grammar. One would not, or hardly, hear “toy me” or “tea want” because the
child’s mental grammar shapes the structure of the sentence to have the verb
before the object in “want tea” and the possessive determiner “me” before the

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noun “toy”.

5. Adult equivalent speech. At this stage, a child has grasped the rules of
language equivalent to the adult. At the age of 5 or 6, a child is said to already
have an adult’s grammar. It is also much easier for a child to learn a second
language than it is for an adult.

A Note on Aphasia

Aphasia is the loss of language, and can be caused by a stroke or trauma to the
head which result in a lesion in the brain. Generally, there are two types of
aphasia. There is Broca’s Aphasia which is the inability to respond using coherent
sentences. Persons with Broca’s Aphasia tend to use short sentences which omit
articles, but understand the speech of others. For example, “ride bicycle” may
mean “Allow him to ride that bicycle”. Conversely, persons with Wernicke’s
Aphasia may use long sentences but have no idea of the meaning of those
sentences, and usually have problems understanding other persons’ speech.
Should cases like these arise, such persons will have to undergo speech therapy.

You will learn more about this in the Unit 4 of Module 8.

The Tutor introduces activity

 Activity 1: (10 minutes)

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Consider the constructions below uttered by a three year old, and determine which
ones are grammatical. Give reasons for your answer.

1. me tea want
2. want me tea
3. me want tea
4. want tea

Feedback to activity (10 minutes)

Numbers 2, 3, and 4 are grammatical constructions that can be possible

uttered by a three year old.

2. want me tea - Even though the subject is missing, the construction is very
grammatical. The verb “want” precedes the object pronoun “me” and object
“tea”.

3. me want tea - This construction resembles a more adult sentence and is

reflective of the SVO (subject-verb-object) order of English.

4. want tea - This can be seen as a derivation of number 3 above with only the
subject missing.

1. me tea want - Is not likely to be uttered. If the constructions above are

examined, one will notice that the verb precedes the object. In this
example, the verb appears at the end which is highly unlikely considering
that the child has started to adapt his/her mental grammar to the linguistic
system in the environment, which is a subject-verb-object (SVO) system.
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Summary (5 minutes)

There are two general theories of language acquisition: nature and nurture. The
nature theory posits that humans have an innate ability for language. Its main
theorist, Noam Chomsky, argues that each human is born with a Language
Acquisition Device (LAD) which is like a blueprint for language and shapes
mental grammars. The nurture theory, influenced by Behaviourist theorist B.F.
Skinner, makes the claim that children learn language from their environment
through a system of reinforcement (i.e., rewards and punishments). However,
each theory cannot stand in isolation as it requires both nature and nurture to aid
in the acquisition of language.

Further, a child acquires language according to his/her cognitive development.

There are, therefore, various stages of language acquisition ranging from pre-
speech to adult equivalent speech. Conversely, problems that may arise in the
acquisition of language are termed aphasia and be treated, to an extent, by speech
therapy.

Suggested References

Bergmann, Anouschka, Hall, Kathleen and Ross, Sharon. eds. Language Files
(10th Edition). Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2007.

Birner, Betty. ed. “Language Acquisition”. Linguistic Society of America.

[Undated Pamphlet].

“Broca’s Area, Wernicke’s Area, and Other Language-Processing Areas in the

Brain”. McGill University.
http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_10/d_10_cr/d_10_cr_lan/d_10_cr_lan.

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html. Accessed on: November 28, 2011

Fromkin, R., Rodman, R., and Hyams, N. An Introduction to Language. Boston:

Thomson Wadsworth, 2007.

Pinker, Steven. The Language Instinct. New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics,
2007.

Unit 2: Second Language Acquisition and Teaching

(1hr)

Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt about the acquisition of a first language. In this
unit, we will be discussing the acquisition of a second language. However, more
importantly, the focus will be on second-language teaching methods. Decades of
research show that students’ first language (L1), also called the mother tongue,
has significant influence on their second language (L2) or target language (TL).
The research also shows that a second language is also acquired and not merely
learnt – that is, persons go through some of the same kinds of internal processes in
learning a second language as children do in acquiring a first language.

It is easier for a child to learn a new language than it is for an adult, which
suggests that the formative years are conducive to language learning. Further, a
child may learn up to 3 or 4 languages at one time. However, it is not advisable to
teach a child all those languages at the same time.

Specific Objectives
At the end of the unit students will be able to:

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1. Recognise the importance of children’s first language while

learning a second language.
2. Identify the legal instruments that encourage the use of L1 when
teaching a L2
3. Evaluate the use the L2 teaching strategies that are relevant to
Guyana’s linguistic setting.
4. Apply the L2 teaching strategies to analysing student writing
samples.

What is needed

1. Pens
2. Paper
3. An English dictionary
4. An English grammar handbook.

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Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

Guyana is a multi-lingual country, and many students will find themselves in

scenarios where there are at least two languages. On the coast, most children find
themselves in bilingual environments with English and Guyanese Creole. A
similar bilingual situation obtains in interior Indigenous communities with an
Indigenous language and English. However, those communities that are closer to
the Venezuelan or Brazilian borders have a third language: either Spanish (closer
to Venezuela) or Portuguese (closer to Brazil). Many times children in those
communities will code-switch between (or among) the different languages.

In Guyana’s education system, Standard British English is the official language of

instruction, and it is one of the main subjects taught. However, it is sometimes
reported, at least on the coast, that students often times struggle to get excellent
English grades. Conversely, Indigenous students who are schooled in interior
communities are often said to possess better English-language skills compared to
a student living on the coast. This can be attributed to the fact that the linguistic
systems of English and Indigenous languages are seen as separate entities. In
other words, the lines of difference are clearly drawn and students easily
recognise those differences. However, on the coast, the lines of differences are
often times blurred because Guyanese Creole is sometimes confused with a bad
attempt at speaking English and is not seen as a separate language. As discussed
in the unit on Creole languages, the vocabulary of Guyanese Creole contains
many words that come from English, but in many case, these words have different
meanings and usages from English. This can be the cause of confusion. All these
scenarios have implications for language teaching.

A UNESCO resolution on language policy, passed in 1953, declared that a child

learns better in his/her native language (UNESCO 1953). This resolution has
significant meaning for language education in Guyana since it implies that

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Guyanese Creole and Indigenous languages should be recognized as languages in

their own right. They are therefore worthy to be employed in methods of
instruction in the classroom. A successful case of this is seen in the Hope Valley
Experimental School in Jamaica where the language of instruction is Jamaican (or
Patois). The teachers report that students grasp more knowledge and are able to
actively apply it to their evaluation of the learning material before them. The use
of the Creole in such classrooms enable the students to experience a “sense of
belonging” while boosting their “self-confidence” (Jamaica Gleaner, 2008). This
is supported by the recently compiled Charter on Language Policy and Language
Rights in the Creole-Speaking Caribbean which states in Section III(a):

Initial instruction in one’s first language is crucial as it enhances

conceptual development, language acquisition and development, learning
in general, and education of the child.

Second-Language Teaching Strategies (10 minutes)

Based on the aforementioned statements on the value of the L1 in the teaching of

a L2, there are several strategies that are used to teach English as a second
language (ESL). Linguistic knowledge, therefore, is an integral tool in the
Teaching English to Students of Other Languages (TESOL). There are basically
two methods: the synthetic approach and the analytic approach. The synthetic
approach utilizes the teaching of grammar (or rules of the language) of the L2.
Students are given exercises that focus on those areas and reading exercises that
reinforce the rules. Some of the strategies of this approach include:

 Contrastive Analysis
 Performance Analysis
 Error Analysis

Contrastive Analysis (CA)

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This strategy employs the use of the L1 to teach the target or L2 by means of
comparison and contrast. For example, a teacher can prepare a lesson on English
past-tense by including references to the L1 past-tense structure (Guyanese Creole
or an Indigenous language). In the case of Guyanese, bin is the past-tense marker
versus the several past tense conjugations in English.

Peter Roberts (1983) outlines examples of how contrastive analysis can work to
encourage linguistic production and creativity. Roberts (Ibid: 243) states that:

The difference between the Creole [or Indigenous language] and

Standard English […] can be presented to the learner in such a way that
it immediately stimulates interest, heightens appreciation of the structural
devices of the Creole [or Indigenous language] and makes the shift from
the one to the other (in this respects) a positive bilingual exercise. These
exercises would have to be contrastive in nature, that is, the learner
would be introduced to a device in the Creole [or Indigenous language],
he sees what it means, and then he is shown the English device for the
same meaning or the reverse procedure or a modification of either one

Contrastive analysis (Lado 1957) has been proposed to be the best method to use
to teach English to students in a Creole environment, and it is definitely needed in
Guyana’s case where differences between SE and Guyanese often become blurred
in speakers’ minds. However, James (1998) argues that CA is outmoded and
suggests some alternatives: Error Analysis (EA), Transfer Analysis (TA), and
Performance Analysis (PA) - all of which form part of larger L2 teaching
methods.

Performance Analysis (PA)

Corder (1972) describes PA as the “the study of the whole performance data from
individual learners” (in James, 1998). This “performance data” is the language
output - spoken and written. Analysing the entire performance data of the student
provides the opportunity to determine the extent of code mixing and occurrence of
errors. Asking the student to write an essay on a selected topic is an ideal activity

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that will yield performance data. However, PA is said to be the main source of
data for error analysis (EA) that educators can use to diagnose a student’s
language proficiency.

Error Analysis (EA)

Error Analysis uses “error elicitation” methods to gather errors that students
make. Error elicitation can be done using a student essay or translation exercises
where the teacher makes note of the errors. However, instead of just listing or
comparing errors of two languages like is with CA, the teacher will engage in
describing and analyzing the errors in consultation with the student.

Noteworthy in this discussion is the concept of “mistakes”. A student may leave

off the past tense or past participle morpheme {ed} endings when writing an
English essay. Such omissions may be seen as mistakes, but what they prove is
that the student is still using strategies from his/her L1. In other words, Guyanese
Creole does not require “-ed” endings at end of words in sentences such as, “I was
impressed by his speech” which can be translated as “ai dih riili impres how ii
taak” (I did really impress how he talk). Notice the past-tense marker “did”, and
no “-ed” ending on “impress”. Students’ use of their Creole language when
speaking or writing English should not be considered as grammatical mistakes in
English, but as evidence that the students is still depending on his or her first
language. Appropriate teaching strategies, such as using contrastive analysis to
highlight the differences between the two languages, should be applied instead.

Essentially what this proves is that is it necessary for the L1 of student to be

employed in the teaching of a L2. Translation activities, such as translating
proverbs from the L1 into the L2, have been shown to validate the L1 and offer
opportunities for teachers to identify difficulties in the student’s acquisition of
English.

The analytic approach is not aimed at explicitly teaching grammar, but is more
focused on the communicative needs of the L2 learner. Classes are structured
around the students’ needs and interests. This is also called communicative

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language teaching (CLT) where grammar can be learnt covertly and in context.
This approach assumes that the same conditions that occur in learning a first or
native language can apply; i.e., the speaker will extract the rules of the language
based on the input received. In Guyana’s case, the teacher can ask students to
role-play a communicative event (or speech event) such as a buyer and seller
conversation in the market; or one person asking another for directions to find a
house in a village. The event must take place in the L2, whether it is Guyanese
Creole or an Indigenous language. Difficulties will inevitably surface since the
students will be in the middle-ground sometimes between their L1 and the L2 (the
target language). It therefore means that a linguistically trained teacher will be at
an advantage in the language teaching process.

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The Tutor introduces activity 1

 Activity 1: (10 minutes)

What kinds of errors are found in the sentences below? Use the errors as a
launching point to compare Creole to English.

1. I been to Georgetown last week.

2. We see them man yesterday.

Feedback to activity 1 (10 minutes)

1. Error: “been” ( = perfect tense in English, as in I have been) but using it as

the past tense marker in Creole instead of the simple past-tense “went”.

Guyanese Creole signals past-tense via the past-tense marker “bin” or “did”.
These are added to the main verb which retains its present tense form.
However, in the English there are several ways to signal past-tense:

 Adding -ed to regular verbs like “jump” = “jumped”

 Irregular verbs like “eat” = “ate”; “be” = “was/were”; “see” = “saw”.
2. Error: “see”; “them man”.

“see” = “saw”. The same explanation given above should be used when
correcting “see” to “saw”.

In Guyanese, the Creole strategy for marking plurality is to use “dem” as in

“dem daag” (dem dog). The plural marker, dem, is added to the singular form
of the noun. However, there are several ways to signal plurality in English:

 The commonest way is to add an -s to regular nouns as in “cats”

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 Some nouns remain the same as their singular form. In this case,
linguistically, plurality is said to be in the form of a null-morpheme as
in “sheep” and “furniture”.
 Some nouns change internally as in “man”= “men”, “foot” = “feet”,
and “mouse” = mice”.

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Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

For your future lessons, you can ask students to write essays and use the process
of error elicitation to ascertain their grasp of the L2. For subjects that do not have
language-teaching as their foci, subject-teachers can still ensure that their students
use the L2 correctly by drawing a comparison to their students’ L1.

Summary (5 minutes)

One cannot exclude the use of the L1 when teaching a L2. Research has proven
that including the Guyanese Creole – the L1 of much of Guyanese people - will
aid in the successful teaching of English as a L2. There are several ESL strategies,
but three that can be used in Guyana are: Contrastive Analysis, Performance
Analysis, and Error Analysis. Each is intertwined with the other and places value
on importance of the L1.

Suggested References

Charter on Language Policy and Language Rights in the Creole-Speaking

Caribbean. Jamaica: International Centre for Caribbean Language
Research (ICCLR), 2011

Craig, Dennis. Teaching language and literacy: Policies and procedures for
vernacular situations. Georgetown, Guyana: Education and
Development Services, 1999.

Craig, Dennis. “Education and Creole English in West Indian” (371-379) in

Hymes, Dell, ed. Pidginisation and Creolisation of Languages. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1971.

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Craig, Dennis. “The Use of the vernacular in West Indian Education” (99-117) in
Simmons-McDonald, Hazel and Ian Robertson. Exploring the Boundaries
of Caribbean Creole Languages. Kingston: University of the West Indies
Press, 2006.

Fromkin, R., Rodman, R., and Hyams, N. An Introduction to Language. Boston:

Thomson Wadsworth, 2007.

James, Carl. Errors in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis.
London: Longman, 1998.

UNESCO. “The Use of the Vernacular in Education”. Monograph. Vienna, 1953

UNESCO. “Mother Tongue Matters: Local Language as a Key to Effective

Learning.” Paris, 2003

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MODULE 8: Language and Cognition (4hrs)

Overview:

This module presents an introduction to Language and Cognition.

Genetic epistemology and information processing theories will be discussed, in

addition to social constructivism. Since the brain is the center of thinking, the

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parts of the brain responsible for language and thinking will be explored.
Specifically Broca’s and Werinike’s areas will be discussed. People suffer from
specific types of brain disorders like aphasia, therefore, Broca’s, Wernicke’s and
conduction aphasia will be discussed. Difficulties which language users
experience in getting the brain and speech production to work will also be
explored.

Module Objectives:

By the end of this module you will be able to understand:

- Some theories of cognition

- Stages of cognitive development
- Parts of the brain involved in language
- Tongue tips and slips
- Aphasia and other brain disorders

Module Orientation:

This module has four units.

Unit 1: An overview of theories of cognition

Unit 2: Vygotsky and Social constructivism

Unit 3: The brain and language

Unit 4: Acquired and developmental language disorders

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It is advisable to study the units in sequential order. Try to complete each one of
them as they would help you to remember the information which you have
learned.

Some units have activities which would help you to test yourself. The answers for
these units have been included but you are advised to check them only after you
have completed the activities.

Time Requirement:

You will probably need about 4 hours to complete this module including the
activities.

Unit 1: Some of theories of cognition (I hr.)

Introduction

This unit introduces some important theories of language and cognition. Genetic
epistemology theory, information processing and social constructivism theories
will be discussed. Students will be able to assess the relevance of these theories to
education.

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Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

1. Understand some theories of cognition

- Genetic epistemology theory
- Information processing theory
- Social constructivism

2. Discuss their relevance in education

What is needed

- A dictionary

- Writing paper

- Pens

Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

At the start of this unit, we ask you to ponder on the following questions.

What is the role of language in cognition? How is thought related to language?

Are cognitive skills and thinking skills primarily determined by innate factors, or
are they the result of social and cultural interaction? Does a child think before he
acquires language? Do we think with words, or do we use words to communicate
made-up decisions which we have previously thought of?

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes)

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Cognitive Theories and Language

The phenomenon of language has intrigued a great number of scholars. The

abstract relation between cognition and language has further caused controversy
and confusion. Opinion is sharply divided between those who believe that a
certain degree of cognition always exists before human beings are exposed to
language, and those who believe that language influences and determines the
development of cognition. Linguists, developmental psychologists,
psycholinguists, and educators have all attempted to decipher the mysterious
connection between cognition and language. We will be discussing a few of these
theories.

Genetic epistemology theory

The renowned French psychologist, Piaget, (1896-1980) believed that both

cognitive and language development take place because of genetic epistemology.
He suggested that there is something in the nature of infants that leads to the
development of cognition and language. Development is distinct levels of
intelligence, and it occurs through the operation of assimilation, accommodation
and equilibration.

Process of Cognitive Development

As a biologist, Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment

which Piaget described as intelligence. Behavior (adaptation to the environment)
is controlled through mental organizations called schemes that the individual uses
to represent the world and designate action. This adaptation is driven by a
biological drive to obtain balance between schemes and the environment
(equilibration).

Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with schemes operating at birth that he
called "reflexes." In other animals, these reflexes control behavior throughout life.

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However, in human beings as the infant uses these reflexes to adapt to the
environment, these reflexes are quickly replaced with constructed schemes.

Piaget described two processes used by the individual in its attempt to adapt:
assimilation and accommodation. Both of these processes are used throughout life
as the person increasingly adapts to the environment in a more complex manner.
An individual uses his schemes (schemata, schema) in this process of assimilation
and accommodation.

Assimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment so that it

can be placed in pre-existing cognitive structures. Accommodation is the process
of changing cognitive structures in order to accept something from the
environment. Both processes are used simultaneously and alternately throughout
life. An example of assimilation would be when an infant uses a sucking schema
that was developed by sucking on a small bottle when attempting to suck on a
larger bottle. An example of accommodation would be when the child needs to
modify a sucking schema developed by sucking on a pacifier to one that would be
successful for sucking on a bottle.

As schemes become increasingly more complex (i.e., responsible for more

complex behaviors) they are termed structures. As one's structures become more
complex, they are organized in a hierarchical manner (i.e., from general to
specific).

Stages of Cognitive Development. Piaget identified four stages in cognitive

development.

1. Sensorimotor stage (Infancy). In this period (which has 6 stages),

intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of
symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because its
based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object
permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development

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(mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities.

Some symbollic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.
2. Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood). In this period
(which has two substages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of
symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are
developed, but thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversable manner.
Egocentric thinking predominates.
3. Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence). In this
stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid,
mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstarted through logical
and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects.
Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible).
Egocentric thought diminishes.
4. Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood). In this stage,
intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to
abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric
thought. Only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries
obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during
adulthood.

Many pre-school and primary programs are modeled on Piaget's theory, which
provides part of the foundation for constructivist learning, which will be discussed
later. (Piaget readings from Wood, 1988).

The Tutor introduces activity 1

Activity 1: (10 minutes)

What are some educational implications of Piaget’s theory?

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Feedback to Activity 1 (10 minutes)

Educational Implications

An important implication of Piaget's theory is adaptation of instruction to the

learner's developmental level. The content of instruction needs to be consistent
with the developmental level of the learner.

The teacher's role is to facilitate learning by providing a variety of experiences.

Discovery learning and supporting the developing interests of the child are two
primary instructional techniques.

It is recommended that parents and teachers challenge the child's abilities, but
NOT present material or information that is too far beyond the child's cognitive
level of development. It is also recommended that teachers use a wide variety of
concrete experiences to help the child learn (e.g., use of manipulatives, working in
groups to get experience seeing from another's perspective, field trips, etc).

"Discovery learning" provides opportunities for learners to explore and

experiment, thereby encouraging new understandings. Opportunities that allow
students of differing cognitive levels to work together often encourage less mature
students to advance to a more mature understanding. One further implication for
instruction is the use of concrete "hands on" experiences to help children learn.
Additional suggestions include:

 Providing concrete props and visual aids, such as models.

 Using familiar examples to facilitate learning more complex ideas, such as
story problems in math.
 Allowing opportunities to classify and group information with increasing
complexity; using outlines and hierarchies to facilitate assimilating new
information with previous knowledge.

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 Present problems that require logical analytic thinking; the use of tools
such as "brain teasers" is encouraged.

The Tutor introduces activity 2

Activity 2: (10 minutes)

What are the different types of memory, and how is information stored in
memory? Why is memory important to education?

Feedback Activity 2:

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Information Processing Theory

The proponents of the information processing theory postulate that there is a

constant interaction between the inside and the outside that plays an important
role in both cognitive and linguistic development. The theory is primarily
concerned with what develops and how development occurs. The information-
processing theory focuses on children's representation of information, the
processes they use to transform the information, and the memory constraints on
the processing and representation. In contrast to Piaget's theory, information-
processing postulates that children's thinking changes continuously as a result of
ongoing cognitive activity.

Information-processing emphasizes processing limitations, strategies to overcome

those limitations, and knowledge about specific contents. In other words, the
whole approach to cognitive and linguistic development is that of problem
solving. The information-processing scientists call it "task analyses." The
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representation and processing of information is contingent upon the nature of the

task. It is, therefore, advisable that we understand the task environment in order to
understand people's actions.

It is important to discuss three very important structural characteristics of

information-processing: sensory memory, short-term or working memory, and
long-term memory.

Sensory memory is the capacity for retaining large amounts of information. On

the other hand, short-term memory is like a computer's central processing unit.
People are aware of the contents of short-term memory. However, it is limited in
the sense that it only includes a limited number of information. The longer the
piece of information is kept active in the short-term memory, the longer it will be
transferred to long-term memory. The information stored in short-term memory
can be retrieved rapidly. Children's ability to retrieve short-term memory helps
them see related and varied events. Unlike sensory and short-term memory, there
is no limit on the storage and retention of long-term memory. People store
information in separable units and retrieve it as and when they need it.

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Long-term memory processes

There are three main activities related to long term memory: storage, deletion
and retrieval.

Information from short-term memory is stored in long-term memory by rehearsal.

The repeated exposure to a stimulus or the rehearsal of a piece of information
transfers it into long-term memory. Experiments also suggest that learning time is
most effective if it is distributed over time. Deletion is mainly caused by decay
and interference. Emotional factors also affect long-term memory. However, it is
debatable whether we actually ever forget anything or whether it becomes
increasingly difficult to access certain items from memory. Having forgotten
something may just be caused by not being able to retrieve it. Information may
not be recalled sometimes but may be recognized, or may be recalled only with
prompting. This leads us to the third process of memory: information retrieval.

There are two types of information retrieval: recall and recognition. In recall, the
information is reproduced from memory. In recognition the presentation of the
information provides the knowledge that the information has been seen before.
Recognition is of lesser complexity, as the information is provided as a cue.
However, the recall can be assisted by the provision of retrieval cues which
enable the subject to quickly access the information in memory.

A major goal of education is to help learners store information in long-term

memory and to use that information on later occasions in order to effectively
solve problems.

Summary (5 minutes)

Piaget believed that both language and cognitive development take place because
of genetic epistemology. Piaget described two processes used by an individual in
its attempt to adapt to the environment: assimilation and accommodation. Piaget

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also identified four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor,

preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational stage.

On the other hand, information processing theory focuses on how we take in

information in memory, how we process it and how we retrieve it. To a great
extent this depends on our analysis of the task. In sensory memory much
information is taken in but is not attended to. On the other hand, we are aware of
the information in short term memory but short term memory is limited.
Information kept alive in short term memory can be transferred to long term
memory for storage, deletion or retrieval. A major goal of education is to help
learners store information in long term memory and to use it to solve problems.

Suggested Readings:

Chomsky, Noam. “Review of verbal learning.” Language 35: 26-58.

1959.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. New York. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,
Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights,
Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

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Unit 2: Language in Use

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. NY. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,

Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights,

Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Piaget. J. The Language and Thought of the Child. New York:

Meridian. 1955

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

Wood. D. How children Think and Learn. (2nd edition) Oxford;

Blackwell Publishing, 1988.

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Unit 2: Language in Use

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Unit 1: Vygotsky and Social Constructivism (1hr.)

Introduction

This unit introduces some differences between thought and speech and concept
formation. Students explore Vygotsky’s social constructivism view of cognition and how
Vygotsky’s view differs from Piaget’s.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

1. Discuss origins of thought and language

2. Discuss word meaning and concept formation
3. Discuss Vygotsky’s social constructivism
4. Identify differences between Vygotsky and Piaget
5. Apply social constructivism to the classroom

What is needed

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Unit 2: Language in Use

- A dictionary

- Writing paper

- Pens

Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

What is the origin of thought and language? Does a child think before he
acquires language?

According to Vygotsky (1896-1937), thought and speech have different roots in

humans, thought being non-verbal and language being non-intellectual in an early
stage. However, their development lines are not parallel – they cross again and
again. Around the age of two, the curves of development of thought and speech
until then separate meet and join to initiate a new form of behavior. That is when
thought becomes verbal and speech becomes rational.

What is the origin of concept formation?

According to Vygotsky (1962) once a child realizes that everything has a name,
each new object presents the child with a problem situation and he solves the
problem by naming the object.

“A problem must arise that cannot be solved otherwise than through the formation
of new concepts (Vygotsky, 1962:55).

 When he lacks the word for the new object, he demands it from adults. The early
word-meanings thus acquired will be the embryos of concept formation.

Vygotsky also discussed the importance of private speech. In his theory of

cognition Vygotsky found private speech, or essentially talking to oneself to be
important because it aided children in thinking through an issue and coming to a

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solution or conclusion. Private speech eventually is internalized, but it never

completely goes away.

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes)

Socio-cultural view of cognition

Are cognitive skills and thinking skills primarily determined by innate factors, or
are they the result of social and cultural interaction?

Vygotsky’s socio-cultural view of cognition differs from Piaget’s developmental

view. Vygotsky placed emphasis on culture as the important factor in cognition.

The Social Cognition Learning Model

The social cognition learning model asserts that culture is the prime determinant
of individual development. Humans are the only species to have created culture,
and every human child develops in the context of a culture. Therefore, a child’s
learning development is affected in ways large and small by the culture–including
the culture of family environment–in which he or she is enmeshed.

Discussion

1. Culture makes two sorts of contributions to a child’s intellectual

development. First, through culture children acquire much of the content
of their thinking, that is, their knowledge. Second, the surrounding culture
provides a child with the processes or means of their thinking, what
Vygotskians call the tools of intellectual adaptation. In short, according to
the social cognition learning model, culture teaches children both what to
think and how to think.

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2. Cognitive development results from a dialectical process whereby a child

learns through problem-solving experiences shared with someone else,
usually a parent or teacher but sometimes a sibling or peer. Vygotsky
determined that the cognitive development of children and adolescents is
enhanced when they work in their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
3. Initially, the person interacting with child assumes most of the
responsibility for guiding the problem solving, but gradually this
responsibility transfers to the child.
4. Language is a primary form of interaction through which adults transmit
to the child the rich body of knowledge that exists in the culture.
5. As learning progresses, the child’s own language comes to serve as her
primary tool of intellectual adaptation. Eventually, children can use
internal language to direct their own behavior.
6. Internalization refers to the process of learning–and thereby internalizing–
a rich body of knowledge and tools of thought that first exist outside the
child. This happens primarily through language.
7. A difference exists between what child can do on her own and what the
child can do with help. Vygotskians call this difference the zone of
proximal development.
8. Since much of what a child learns comes from the culture around her and
much of the child’s problem solving is mediated through an adult’s help, it
is wrong to focus on a child in isolation. Such focus does not reveal the
processes by which children acquire new skills.
9. Interactions with surrounding culture and social agents, such as parents
and more competent peers, contribute significantly to a child’s intellectual
development.

The Tutor introduces activity 1

Activity 1: (10 minutes)

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Unit 2: Language in Use

Reflect on how Lev Vygotsky cognitive view. Give some broad areas for
application to curriculum, to instruction and/or to assessment.

Feedback to Activity 1 (10 minutes)

Vygotsky’s theory does not mean that anything can be taught to any child. Only
instruction and activities that fall within the zone promote development. For
example, if a child cannot identify the sounds in a word even after many prompts,
the child may not benefit immediately from instruction in this skill. Practice of
previously known skills and introduction of concepts that are too difficult and
complex have little positive impact. Teachers can use information about both
levels of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development in organizing classroom
activities in the following ways:

 Instruction can be planned to provide practice in the zone of proximal

development for individual children or for groups of children. For
example, hints and prompts that helped children during the assessment
could form the basis of instructional activities.
 Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at
different levels who can help each other learn.
 Scaffolding is a tactic for helping the child in his or her zone of proximal
development. Scaffolding involves encouragement and assistance in the
form of advice and suggestions to aid a child in mastering a new concept.
Scaffolding is the final piece of Vygotsky’s cognitive development
theory. By using hints and pointers from teachers, parents, and peers,
who have already grasped the desired concept, children are able to form
their own path toward a solution and by doing this eventually to self-
regulate, or think and solve problems without the help of others.

The Tutor introduces activity 2

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Activity 2: (10 minutes)

Reflect on Piaget’s view of cognition. Reflect on Vygotsky’s view of cognition. In

a paragraph or two compare and contrast the differences in how they view
cognition. Give one application to the classroom.

Feedback Activity 2:

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Piaget and Vygotsky were both enormously significant contributors to the

cognitive development component of psychology. Both Piaget and Vygotsky were
regarded as constructivists. Constructivism is an approach to learning and
teaching based on the premise that cognition is the result of “mental
construction.” In other words, students learn by fitting new information together
with what they already know. One other similarity between Piaget and Vygotsky
is that they both believe that the boundaries of cognitive growth were established
by societal influences.

The main ideas of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theory differ. Piaget believed that
intelligence came from action. He held held that children learn through interacting
with their surroundings and that learning takes place after development. On the
other hand, Vygotsky felt that learning happens before development can occur
and that children learn because of history and symbolism. Vygotsky also believed
that children value input from their surroundings and from others. Piaget did not
place importance on the input of others.

Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories on cognitive development also have differing

opinions. While Piaget’s theory has four clear stages, Vygotsky alleged that there
are no set stages at all. Vygotsky referred to private speech and the ZPD.

Teachers and school systems have been applying the cognitive development
theories of Piaget and Vygotsky for some time. A good example of Piagetian

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learning could be set in a preschool classroom. During the preschool years Piaget
views children as egocentric. Therefore, it would be logical to talk about things
with preschool age children from their own viewpoints as they feel their
experiences are the only experiences. During show and tell one child might say
the ball that another child brought to class to share is for rolling while the child
who brought the ball might feel the ball is better suited to throwing. Neither child
is wrong in this instance, since the ball can be used for both purposes. However
they may think that because they each respectively like to roll or throw the ball.

A possible classroom application of Vygotsky’s cognitive theory could take place

in a first grade classroom. First grade students are often on varying levels of
knowledge. Some children may already know to read while others are still trying
to master this concept. A good way to help the children who are not reading as
well as the others may be to give these children help sounding out a word when
they get stuck while reading a story.

In conclusion, cognitive development plays a key role in learning and thinking

methods of children. Piaget and Vygotsky offer some incredible insight into the
possible ways children learn and by using these theories it is possible to create a
more conducive learning environment for each child.

Summary (5 minutes)

Psychologist Lev Vygotsky proposed that children learn through interactions with
their surrounding culture. This theory, known as the, social-cultural view, states
that the cognitive development of children and adolescents is enhanced when they
work in their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

To reach the ZPD, children need the help of adults or more competent individuals
to support or scaffold them as they are learning things. The ZPD is the range of
tasks that one cannot yet perform independently, but can accomplish with the help
of a more competent individual.

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Unit 2: Language in Use

As time goes by, the adult will continually adjust the amount of support they give
to the child’s level of performance.

Piaget and Vygotsky are both regarded as constructivists. They both believe that
students learn by fitting new information together with what they already know.
They both believe that the boundaries of cognitive growth were established by
societal influences.

However, they differ in that Piaget believed that intelligence came from action.
Children learn through interacting with their surroundings and learning takes
place after development. Alternatively, Vygotsky felt that learning happens before
development can occur and that children learn because of history and symbolism.
Vygotsky also believed that children value input from their surroundings and
from others. Piaget did not place importance on the input of others.

While Piaget’s theory has four clear stages, Vygotsky’s alleged that there are no
set stages at all.

Both theorists offer incredible insight into the possible ways children learn and
both have made invaluable contribution to learning and education.

Suggested Readings
Chomsky, Noam. “Review of verbal learning.” Language 35: 26-58.
1959.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. New York. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,
Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

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Unit 2: Language in Use

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights,
Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 200

Unit 3: The Brain and Language (1hr.)

Introduction:

The unit will introduce you to the neurology of language or neurolinguistics which is the
study of how the brain processes language. Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area, and their
relevance to language processing will be discussed. Students are also introduced to right
brain and left brain functions and their importance in education and learning.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

-
- Discuss importance of Broca’s area
- Discuss importance of Wernicke’s area
- Identify right brain strengths in students
- Identify left brain strengths in students
What is needed
Cyril Potter College of Education
Unit 2: Language in Use

- A dictionary

- Writing paper

- Pens

Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

Where is the ability to use language located?

The obvious answer is ‘in the brain.’ In order to provide a more specific answer
we have to turn to work done in neurolinguistics. Neurolinguistics is the study of
how the brain processes language. But first let us look at the case of Phineas
Gage.

In September of 1848, in Vermont, a construction foreman named, Phineas Gage

was blasting away rocks to lay a new railway line. As Phineas pushed an iron
tamping rod into the blasting hole in a rock, some gunpowder accidentally
exploded and sent the three- and-a –half foot long tamping pole up through
Phineas upper left cheek and out from the top of his forhead. The rod landed
about fifty yards away. Phineas suffered the type of injury from which it was
assumed, no one could recover. However, a month later, Phineas was up and
about, with no apparent damage to his senses or his speech.

The point of this amazing story is that, if language ability is located in the brain, it
clearly is not situated right at the front.

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes)

Parts of the brain

Since Phineas’ time, a number of discoveries have been made about the specific areas in
the brain which are related to language functions.

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If we take a head, remove hair, scalp, skull, disconnect the brain stem and cut the corpus
callosum (which connects the two hemispheres) we will basically be left with two parts,

the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere .

Functions of the brain are shared by these two hemispheres – this is called
lateralization. However, functions are not totally lateralized, so if damage
happens to one hemisphere of the brain, some of the functions of that hemisphere
can be carried on by the other hemisphere. Language is mainly located in the left
hemisphere. We have come to know that these areas exist largely through the
examination in autopsies of the brains of people who, in life were known to have
specific language disabilities. That is, we have determined where language
abilities for normal users must be, because people who had language disabilities
also had damage to those specific areas of the brain.

The left brain is the dominant language hemisphere for approximately 95% and
90% of right-handed men and women, respectively. The right side of the brain
houses the language areas for the other 5% and 10%, respectively. For left-
handed people, roughly 70% have their language areas in the left side of the brain,
while the other 30% have it on the right.

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The dominant language hemisphere is the side of a person’s brain where the
machinery for language (i.e., areas of Broca and Wernicke) is located. Apart from
these areas, some functions associated with language processing are also located
in adjacent areas of the brain.

Broca’s Area

Broca's area is the area of the brain responsible for speech production, language
processing, and language comprehension, as well as controlling facial neurons.
First discovered in 1861, Broca's area was named after Pierre Paul Broca, a
French surgeon. Broca discovered the area after studying the brain of a patient
with a speech impairment after his death. It was noted that damage to the
corresponding area on the right hemisphere had no such effect. This finding was
first used to argue that language ability must be located in the left hemisphere and
since then has been taken as more specifically illustrating that Broca’s area is
crucially involved in the production of speech.

Brain: Broca's area

Wernicke’s area

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The posterior speech cortex is known as Wernicke’s area. Carl Wernicke was a
German doctor who in the 1870’s reported that damage to this part of the brain
was found among patients who had speech comprehension difficulties. This
finding comfirmed the left-hemisphere location of language ability and led to the
view that Wernicke’s area is part of the brain crucially involved in the
understanding of speech.

Broca's area is connected to the Wernick’s area of the brain by the arcuate
fasciculus, which is a pathway made of neurons. It is found in the frontal of the
cortex, within the inferior frontal 0. It is comprised of two primary parts: the Pars
triangularis and the Pars opercularis.

The Pars triangularis is located in the anterior portion of Broca's area. Researchers
believe that this area of the brain is responsible for helping the human brain
interpret different stimulus modes. It is also where verbal conducts are
programmed in the brain.

The Tutor introduces activity 1

Activity 1: (10 minutes)

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Unit 2: Language in Use

Based on the above information, what observations can you make about
language and the brain?

Feedback to Activity 1 (10 minutes)

Let us consider the following observations we can make about language and the
brain.

1. Damage to the brain can affect a person’s ability to process language;

damage to the heart, lungs, or kidneys (short of killing the person) does
not.
2. Damage to the left side of the brain is more likely to cause language
processing difficulties (being able to hear speech but unable to
comprehend it) than is damage to the right side of the brain.
3. Damage to the front part of the brain is more likely to affect the
production of language through speaking and writing. Damage to the rear
part of the brain is more likely to affect the comprehension of language
through listening and reading.
4. In about 98 percent of right-handers, the left hemisphere accomplishes
most language processing functions. In non-right handers (which include
left-handed and ambidextrous people), language functions are far more
likely to involve the right hemisphere. There is some evidence that
lateralization differs in males and females.

The Tutor introduces activity 2

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Activity 2: (10 minutes)

Think of some students in your classroom or some students you know quite well.
Make a list of some of their strengths or skills and some of their weaknesses. Write
a paragraph answering the following question: Why do students display different
strengths?

Feedback Activity 2:

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Right Brain/Left Brain Functions

Every perceptive teacher sees a diversity of strengths and weaknesses in each of

her students: There is the child who loves math but has trouble playing well with
classmates. There is the one who makes friends easily but struggles to stay
focused on written tasks, and another who creates beautiful paintings but can't
seem to retain much of what she's read.

Recent brain research shows that the complex abilities apparent in individual kids
are reflected on the inside, as well as the outside. Parts of the brain involved in
reading, math, music, and personal relationships are different -- larger or smaller,
more or less active -- in every child. These circuits are independent, so even if a
child struggles in one domain, like reading, he may have a neurological advantage
in others. And perhaps most surprising, scientists have established that learning
and practicing certain skills can cause the corresponding brain areas to morph and

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grow. In other words, by helping a child hone her abilities, you can actually
change her brain.

The following diagram shows how your brain is organized.

How the Brain Works

Left Brain Functions2 Right Brain Functions

Uses logic Uses feeling

Detail oriented “Big pictures” oriented

Facts rule Imaginations rules

Words and language Symbols and images

Present and past Present and future

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Math and science Philosophy and religion

Order/pattern perception Spatial perception

Knows object name Knows object function

Reality based Fantasy based

Forms strategies Presents possibilities

Practical Impetuous

Safe Risk taking

Most scientists and researchers seem to agree that there are definite differences in
the way each hemisphere of the brain works. Essentially, the right brain is
holistic, convergent, and able to ascertain the big picture. The right brain deals
with emotions, feelings, creativity, and intuition. The left brain is linear, divergent
and focuses on one thing at a time. The left brain deals with more logical subject
areas, such as mathematics and speech. Much of this knowledge was derived from
research by scientists which resulted in a proliferation of books, articles, web
sites, etc., presenting the differences between dominantly right-brained and
dominantly left-brained individuals and how those differences affect our learning
and our personalities. This research also led to the formation of many theories
concerning how our brain came to develop in this manner, with the right and left
brains apparently controlling such different aspects of our very being.

Summary (5 minutes)

Neurolinguistics has provided some answers about language processing and the
brain. The brain is composed of the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. The
left temporal lobe is thought to be critical for language comprehension and
production. Wernicke’s area is the name of the specific region of the temporal

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lobe that is associated with speech comprehension whereas Broca’s area is the
region of the temporal lobe associated with speech production.

Recent brain research shows that specific parts of the brain involved in reading,
math, music and personal relationships are different, larger or smaller and more or
less active in every child. The right brain is holistic and able to see the big picture.
The right brain deals with emotions, feelings, creativity. The left brain is linear
and deals with more logical subjects such as mathematics and speech. Much
research has been done on the brain and how right-brain dominated and left-brain
dominated individual differences affect our learning and personalities.

Suggested References

Chomsky, Noam. “Review of verbal learning.” Language 35: 26-58.

1959.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

University Press. New York. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,
Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights,
Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cyril Potter College of Education

Unit 2: Language in Use

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

Unit 4: Acquired and developmental language disorders

(1hr.)

Introduction:

The unit will help you to understand some types of language disorders from
which people suffer. Some of these are less severe and may be described as
tongue tips and slips. Others are more severe and are due to brain damage
generally described as aphasia.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to understand and discuss:
- Tongue Tips and slips
- Tip-of-the- tongue phenomenon

- Malapropisms

- Slip of the tongue

- Types of aphasia
- Broca’s
- Wernicke’s
- Conduction

What is needed
Cyril Potter College of Education
Unit 2: Language in Use

- A dictionary

- Writing paper

- Pens

Start of the lesson (5 minutes)

Aphasia
What is aphasia?

Aphasia is an acquired disorder of language due to cortical damage. It is

important to note that aphasia is acquired; that is, only a person who has already
developed a linguistic system can be stricken with aphasia. For example, a person
with brain damage present at birth (or sustained immediately afterward) which
prevents the acquisition of language would not properly be said to have aphasia.
Moreover aphasia is specifically a language disorder. It is due to cortical damage,
or to damage to the white fiber tracts immediately underlying language centers in
the cortex.

Here we will be looking at the three most common types of aphasia: Broca’s,
Wernicke’s, and conduction.

(Mini-lecturette) (10 minutes)

Aphasia is defined as an impairment of language function due to localized

cerebral (brain) damage which leads to difficulty in understanding or producing
linguistic forms. The most common form of aphasia is a stroke, though traumatic
head injuries can have similar effects.

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Broca’s Aphasia

This disorder is also known as motor or expressive aphasia, because it affects

linguistic output rather than comprehension, and it typically involves a lesion in
the third frontal convolution of the dominant hemisphere. This lesion is close to
the motor cortex controlling the speech muscles.

Symptoms usually include the following. First, motor function is normal; that is
the tongue and lips are fully functioning. However, there is typically some
paralysis on the side opposite the dominant hemisphere. Second, the patient’s
speech output is hesitant, halting, labored, and lacks normal intonation. For this
reason, Broca’s aphasia is classified as non-fluent aphasia. Third, the output is
“telegraphic” in that it usually lacks grammatical morphemes, such as articles,
prepositions, plural and possessive markers, tense markers on verbs and so on.
Fourth, reading and writing usually exhibit the same deficiencies as speech.

Below are some examples of speech produced by patients with Broca’s aphasia.
In the following examples patients are trying to describe a picture of a girl giving
flowers to her teacher. Below is a sample of responses.

1. Girl is handing flowers to teacher (Note the sporadic omission of

grammatical morphemes.
2. The young . . . the girl . . . the little girl is . . . the flower . Note the hesitant
style. At each pause the patient seems to be giving up and starting over.
3. The girl is . . . is roses. The girl is rosing. The woman and the little girl
was rosed. Note here the use of rose as a verb.

Wernicke’s Aphasia

This type of language disorder typically involves a lesion in the first temporal
convolution of the dominant hemisphere. The patient’s language consistes of 30 –
80 percent neologistic jargon. This term neologistic refers to ‘new words’
utterances that confirm to the phonological structure of the patient’s language but

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are meaningless. Consequently, Wernicke’s aphasia is sometimes referred to as

neologistic jargon aphasia. It results in difficulties in auditory comprehension.
Someone suffering from this disorder can actually produce very fluent speech
which is however, often difficult to make sense of. Very good terms are used,
even in response to specific requests for information, as in the following example:

I can’t talk of all of the things I do, and part of the part I can go alright, but I can’t
tell from the other people,

It is characterized by difficulty in finding the correct words and circumlocution

may be used as in the following answer to the question: ‘What is ink for? ‘ To do
with a pen.

Conduction aphasia

This type is identified with damage to the arcuate fasciculus and is much less
common. Patients are fluent but may have disrupted rhythm because of pauses
and hesitations. Comprehension of spoken words is normally good. however, the
task of repeating a word or phrase (spoken by someone else) will create major
difficulty with forms such as vaysse and fosh being reported as attempted
repetitions for the words ‘base’ and ‘wash.’ What is heard and understood cannot
be transferred to the speech production area. However, many of the symptoms (e,
g. word finding difficulty) can occur in all types of aphasia.

Language disorders of the type we have described are almost always the result of
injury to the left hemisphere.

The Tutor introduces activity 1

Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Cyril Potter College of Education

Unit 2: Language in Use

In a table, summarize the major symptoms of Broca’s, Wernicke’s and

conduction aphasia.

Feedback to Activity 1 (10 minutes)

The major symptoms of Broca’s, Wernickie’s and conduction aphasia are

summarized in the following table.

Broca’s Wernickie’s Conduction

Lesion Site Third frontal First temporal Arcuate fasciculus

convolution convolution

Language Output Nonfluent Fluent Fluent

Comprehension Unimpaired Severely impaired Unimpaired

Self monitoring Yes No Yes

Paralysis Yes No Contralateral

(contralateral) Weakness

Main Labored Neologistic jargon Severely impaired

Characteristic “telegraphic” repetition
output

Cyril Potter College of Education

Unit 2: Language in Use

The Tutor introduces activity 2

Activity 2: (10 minutes)

Think of some tip-of-the-tongue situations which you might have experienced. For
example” in conversation you try to retrieve someone’s name or a word from
memory but fail to do so.

Feedback Activity 2:

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

Tongue Tips and Slips

Some researchers have noted that as language users we all experience occasional
difficulty in getting the brain and speech production to work together smoothly.
Minor production difficulties have been investigated as possible clues to the way
our linguistic knowledge may be organized within the brain. In this section we
will discuss tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, malapropisms and slip –of - the –
tongue.

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is one in which you feel that some word is just
eluding you, that you know the word, but that it just wouldn’t come to the surface.
Studies of this phenomenon have shown that speakers generally have an accurate
phonological outline of the word, can get the initial sound correct and mostly
know the number of syllables in the word. When we make mistakes in this

Cyril Potter College of Education

Unit 2: Language in Use

retrieval process there are often strong phonological similarities between the
target word and the mistake.

Malapropisms

Malapropisms arise when someone confuses words which sound similar but are
different in meaning. For example, someone might say “the writer of the story is
unanimous” rather than the writer of the story is anonymous”.

Slip-of-the-tongue

A lamb of leg and A

ten-pound dog

of bag food.

Slip-of-the-tongue errors occur in tangled expressions such s “long shory stort”

(for make a long story short). It also occurs in word reversals as in “use the door
to open the key” and “a fifty pound dog of bag food.” This type of slip is also
known as spoonerism. Most everyday ‘typs of the slung’ however are not so
entertaining. They sre often simply the result of a sound being carried over from
one word to the next as in ‘black blaxes’ (for black boxes). Although the slips are
mostly treated as errors of articulation, it has been suggested that they may result
from ‘slips of the brain’ as it tries to organize linguistic messages.

Summary (5 minutes)

Aphasia is an impairment of language which occurs when someone suffers injury

to the language areas of the brain. Aphasia can affect language in many ways

Cyril Potter College of Education

Unit 2: Language in Use

including its production (ability to speak), and its comprehension (ability to

understand others when they speak), as well as other related abilities such as
reading and writing.

In Broca's aphasia, the production of language is impaired, (such as speaking)

while other aspects of language are mostly preserved. Broca's aphasia prevents
a person from forming her own intelligible words or sentences, but leaves her
with an ability to understand others when they speak. Often, people with Broca's
aphasia are frustrated because they can't transform their thoughts into words.

People with Wernicke’s aphasia can’t understand others, or even themselves,

when they speak. Their speech, however, is incomprehensible, as they create
sentences whose words are arranged in an apparently random and often amusing
fashion.

Conduction aphasia is characterized by intact auditory comprehension, fluent

speech production, but poor speech repetition. Patients will display frequent
errors during spontaneous speech, substituting or transposing sounds.

Tongue-tips-and-slips occur quite often in regular speech. As language users we

all experience occasional difficulty in getting the brain and speech production to
work together smoothly. In the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon you feel that some
word is eluding you but it just won’t come to the surface. In malapropism there
are strong phonological similarities between the target word and the mistake. On
the other hand, the slip-of-the-tongue is a mistake in speaking, usually trivial, but
sometimes amusing.

Suggested References

Chomsky, Noam. “Review of verbal learning.” Language 35: 26-58.

1959.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge

Cyril Potter College of Education

Unit 2: Language in Use

University Press. New York. 1995.

Freeman, David E. & Freeman, Yvonne S. Essential Linguistics. What

you need to know to teach Reading, ESL. Spelling, Phonics,
Grammar. Heinemann 2004.

Jacobs, Roderick. A. English syntax. Oxford University Press. Oxford,

1993.

Lamb, Pose. Linguistics in Proper Perspective. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co. 1967.

Parker, Frank. & Kathryn Riley. Linguistics for Non- Linguistics: A

Primer with Exercises. Fourth Edition. Needham heights,
Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon, 2005.

Winkler, Elizabeth G. Understanding Language. Continuum, 2007.

Yule, George D. (et. al.) The Study of Language. Ninth Edition.

Cambridge University Press Great Britain, 2003.

MODULE 9: Creole Languages (2 hrs)

Overview:

This module presents an introduction to Pidgin and Creole languages and also to
Guyanese Creole as far as it is relevant to the content of this course. It is not
meant to be a rigorous discussion of all aspects of Creole languages nor a
comprehensive introduction to Guyanese Creole.

Module Objectives:
By the end of this module you will be able to:

Cyril Potter College of Education

Unit 2: Language in Use

1. Understand what Pidgin and Creole languages are.

2. Gain an appreciation of Guyanese Creole.

3. Understand features of Guyanese Creole.

4. Gain an understanding of the Guyanese language situation.

Module orientation:

This module has two units:

Unit 1: Overview of Creole languages

Unit 2: Language in Guyana

It is advisable to study the units in sequential order. Try to complete each one of
them as they would help you to remember the information which you have
learned.

Some units have activities which would help you to test yourself. The answers for
these units have been included but you are advised to check them only after you
have completed the activities.

Time Requirement:

You will need about 2 hours to complete this module including the activities.

Cyril Potter College of Education

Introduction to Linguistics

Unit 1: Overview of Creole Languages (1 hr.)

Introduction:

This unit will help you to understand how creole languages are formed. It will
help you to understand that these languages are not “corrupt” or “broken”
versions of European languages, but are the results of human linguistic creativity.

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

- Understand what Pidgin and Creole languages are

- Understand how Pidgin and Creole languages come into being

-

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens

Cyril Potter College of Education

Introduction to Linguistics

Pidgin and Creole Languages (10 minutes)

Many persons usually, because of an ignorance of the history of Creole languages,

are under a misconception that Creole languages are bad attempts to speak a
Standard European language (English in Guyana’s case).

The fact is that Creole languages are the products of multi-lingual situations that
arise when persons need to communicate but do not have a common language by
which to do so.

This could happen in two ways. In situations of brief contact, such as in trading
situations, the persons could create a temporary, on-the-spot language to facilitate
immediate business needs. The language that is created would be very basic in
nature, and is called a Pidgin. Pidgins have few words, and a simplified grammar.
They use much gestures and body language and are restricted in usage. Much of
their vocabulary is made up of coined words, and metaphorical usages of words.
When the persons part company and go their separate ways, the Pidgin ceases to
be functional.

It is important to note that a Pidgin is not just a mixing of two or more languages.
Elements of the languages in contact are of course included in the Pidgin, but this
is done through complex linguistic processing by the speakers, using their innate
linguistic ability (which we will discuss more later).

If the contact continues, the use of the Pidgin will expand. The children who are
born speaking the Pidgin as their first language will expand the vocabulary,
grammar, semantics and usage of the Pidgin and when this happens, the Pidgin
will become a Creole language. However, a Pidgin could also continue to develop
in its own way and remain a Pidgin, as in the famous case of Tok Pisin in Papua
New Guinea.

A creole may also develop from the inception in situations where there is longer
contact between the groups.
Introduction to Linguistics

Many persons associate Pidgin and Creole languages with slavery, colonialism
and European expansion, and so have negative attitude towards these languages.
But people have been creating Pidgins and creoles for a long time, much longer
than the slavery and the slave trade. It is true that many pidgins and creole
languages – especially in the Caribbean and in the Pacific area – were created
during the period of slavery. These pidgins and Creoles are called Plantation
Pidgins and Creoles because they are associated with the plantation system.

However, Pidgin and Creoles have been created in many different parts of the
world, by many different peoples, and at many different times in history. Many of
these people have never been part of slavery and the slave trade or had never
worked on plantations. These people include North American Indians, people
within African countries, and even Europeans.

The Caribbean is famous for its many creole languages such as Sranan,
Papiamento, Guyanese, and Haitain Creole. Some other creole languages
worldwide are: Tok Pisin, Bislama (Pacific), Nubi Creole Arabic, Swahili
(Africa), Chinook Jargon, Louisiana Creole (North America).

Theories of Creolisation (10 minutes)

The Plantation Pidgins and Creoles are the most well-known pidgin and creole
languages. While we know that they originated during slavery, the slave trade and
European expansion, exactly how they originated is the topic of much debate.
Many different theories have been proposed to account for how creole languages
are formed. These theories can be divided into different categories: superstrate
theories, substrate theories and universalist theories.

The term “superstrate languages” refers to the dominant languages in language

contact situations, such as the European languages during slavery and
colonialism. The superstrate theorists such as Robert Chaudenson claim that
Creole languages are that creoles are the result of imperfect learning of the
Introduction to Linguistics

superstrate languages. As one group tries to speak the language of the dominant
group, they will make mistakes. Also, they might not have full acquaintance and
access and opportunities to hear, learn and use the language of the dominant
group, and this therefore limits their ability to speak the language perfectly.

“Substrate languages” refers to the languages of the other group in the contact
situation. The substrate theorists such as Hall and Taylor give more credit to the
non-European languages. These linguists show that in the case of the Caribbean
creoles, there is a substantial African influence. When the slaves were brought
from interior villages to the West Coast of Africa to await shipment to the New
World, they were kept in holding pens for several weeks. One must also
remember that there would have been several languages spoken in the holding
pens because the Africans belong to different tribes with each tribe speaking its
own language (or dialect of another language). To add to this linguistic melting
pot, the slaves spent approximately three months in confinement in ships sailing
across the Atlantic Ocean - a journey referred to as the Middle Passage.

It is interesting to note that many history books present a somewhat silent picture
of the Middle Passage when there had to be a lot of vocalisation among the slaves.
During the three month journey, the conditions were conducive for the evolution
of a Creole language - a system of communication among persons of various
linguistic systems. When the slaves were brought to the New World to work on
plantations, the plantation owners deliberately separated slaves belonging to the
same tribes for fear that a revolt may be easily planned. This strategy again
proved to be conducive for a further development of a Creole language since
slaves of different languages had to find a way to communicate. Further,
interaction (though minimal in some cases) with the Plantocracy provided the
opportunities for English words to enter the vocabulary of the slaves.

Derek Bickerton’s Language Bioprogram Hypothesis (1981) is one of the most

famous of the universalist theories. These theories propose that creolisation
demonstrates the human capacity to create and use language. According to
Introduction to Linguistics

Bickerton, children in a situation where a pidgin is spoken do not have the same
kind of models to develop their language that other children in normal language
situations have. These children therefore have to use their innate language ability
– their language bioprogram – to help them to make use of the input from the
pidgin and form it into a language that they can use.

Some theories are monogenetic, meaning that they attribute the origins of creoles
to a single source language. Other theories are polygenetic, since they propose
that many different languages contributed to the origins of pidgins and creoles.

One famous monogenetic theory proposes a Portuguese Pidgin as the basis for
Caribbean and Pacific creoles. For example, several Creole languages which have
been part of colonisation, from as far as Papua New Guinea to right here in the
Caribbean, refer to small children as “pikni”, “pikini” or “pikinini”. They all use
variations of this word. Interestingly, the Portuguese word for small is “pequeño”.
Interestingly also, "dosay" which is the Berbice/Corentyne word for "pancake"
(known as "chota" or "sweet roti" in Demerara and Essequibo) seems to be
patterned after "doce" - the Portuguese word for "sweet". If one considers that the
Portuguese were among the earliest European explorers and traders, then the
theory of mono-genesis can be used to explain this phenomenon among the
world’s Creole languages. However, a major flaw with monogenesis in that a
one-word example is insufficient evidence to explain Creole origin.

Are Creoles Languages Versions of Other Languages? (10 minutes)

Another common misconception is that creole languages are versions or varieties

of another dominant language. In the case of the Caribbean Creoles, many persons
think that our languages are versions of European languages such as English,
French, Dutch, and Spanish.

Creole languages take a large part of their vocabulary from European languages,
but two things must be noted. The first is that the grammars of the creole
Introduction to Linguistics

languages are different from those of the European languages. In fact, the
grammars of creole languages are more similar to each other than to their
supposed European versions. Also, creole languages use the vocabulary of
European languages in ways that are different from the European languages.

Let us take the sentence, mi does wuk backdam. This sentence uses the English
object pronoun me as a subject pronoun; it uses does as a marker of habitual
activity; it has a different pronunciation of the word work, and it uses two words
from English to create a new word backdam which is not understood by native
speakers of English.

Some other examples:

hot (adjective) is used as a verb as in hot de tea;

disgusting (revolting) means bothersome;

instead of making noise, Guyanese keep noise;

and stupidity becomes stupidness

Creole Continuum (10 minutes)

In some countries where a creole language is spoken but there is also another
language which is the official language, a number of levels or varieties might
arise. Some of these levels are recognisable as the most original forms of the
creole, while other levels seem to be closer to the official language. This is the
case in Guyana and Jamaica, where most persons speak a creole language but also
hear, speak, read and write English, which is the official language. These
variations of the creole may be arranged in a scale from the most creole varieties
(called the basilect) to those that are most similar to the official language (the
acrolect). Levels between these two are called the mesolect. This scale is called
the Creole Continuum A simplified diagram of the creole continuum is given
below:
Introduction to Linguistics

Creole Continuum

Acrolect Mesolect Basilect

Urban Rural

I was goin
ah de goin
me de goin
me bin a go

Linguists have two different views on this situation developed. Some linguists –
e.g. David De Camp - see this as a further stage in the history of development of
creole languages. These linguists say that the varieties developed after the Creole
was formed in situations where the speakers of the Creole are also exposed to a
powerful standard language. In our case, English is the language that is a
dominant standard in the world we live. The standard language (English in our
case) exerts an influence on the speakers of the Creole. That is, they see it as a
social dialect which allows them to gain prestige. This causes them to change
their creole as they attempt more and more to speak the standard language.

David De Camp (1971) called this scale of basilect - mesolect - acrolect the Post
Creole Continuum, and he theorized that it results from a process of
decreolisation. Decreolisation is the reverse of creolisation – it is the undoing of
creole features, resulting in a continuum of varieties. One theoretical implication
of decreolisation is that the creole would gradually change and become more and
more like the standard language, resulting in the eventual disappearance of the
creole.
Introduction to Linguistics

Others linguists such as Rickford take a more historical view of the origins of the
continuum, and argue that the variations that we call the acrolect, mesolect and
basilect were present from the inception of the creole. They claim that the
continuum is a natural result of how creoles are formed. In such situations they
point out, there will always be some differentials in language creation: different
persons would learn and develop language at different rates; they would have
different amounts of contact with the superstrate language, and different
opportunities to use it, and so on. In other words, we do not all acquire or develop
language at a uniform rate, and this would be reflected in any society’s language.

Yet other linguists such as Mufwene believe that in the early days of the
plantations when there were fewer labourers and closer contact between
Europeans and non-Europeans, the conditions were more favourable for the
development of varieties which resembled the European languages. However, as
the plantation system expanded and occupied thousands of labourers, there was
less contact between Europeans and others. Each successive wave of new
labourers learnt the language from those before them, and so the language began
to show many different levels.

ACTIVITY 1

You are asked, as a teacher and as someone who has studied Linguistics, to
respond to the notions that Creole languages are not proper languages, that they
are corrupt and do not have any grammar. Write a response to this.

FEEDBACK 1

There are many prejudicial notions about creole languages, and you as a teacher
and as person who has studied Linguistics should be able to dispel them.

Creole does not have grammar – all languages have to have grammar, otherwise,
anybody could say what they wanted how they wanted, and this would lead to
confusion. Grammar simply means the system, order and rules of a language. For
Introduction to Linguistics

example, Spanish puts quality adjectives after nouns (casa blanca), while English
places them before nouns (white house). Yet, no one accuses Spanish of not
having grammar!

English is the proper language – English is just one of the many languages in the
world. There is no single “proper” language. Each language is proper for the
situations, culture, occasions and usages in its native country, and by its native
speakers. English also has its spheres of proper usage.

English is a pure language while Creole languages are corrupt – All languages
borrow from other languages and moreover, make use of these borrowings in their
own ways. In fact, English has borrowed and continues to borrow from many
other languages to the extent that almost 2/3 of its vocabulary is from other
languages.

Suggested References
Allsopp, J. and J. R. Rickford, eds. Language, Culture, and Caribbean Identity.
Kingston: Canoe Press, 2012.

Bickerton, Derek. “The Nature of the Creole Continuum”. Article. Jstor.

http://www.jstor.org/pss/412355

Bickerton, Derek. Bastard Tongues. New York: Hill and Wang, 2008

DeCamp, David. "The study of pidgin and creole languages." In Del Hymes, ed.
Pidginization and Creolization of Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1971. 13-43.

Rickford, John. Dimensions of a Creole continuum: history, texts & linguistic

analysis of Guyanese Creole. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press,
1987

Robertson, Ian, and H. Simmons-McDonald, eds. Exploring the Boundaries of

Caribbean Creole Languages. University of the West Indies Press, 2006.
Introduction to Linguistics

Unit 2: Language in Guyana (1hr)

Introduction
There is a great deal of misunderstanding about our language. Some
Guyanese claim that we speak English, while others say our language is a
variety of English. Yet others believe that we speak a bad or broken
English, and so on. Our linguistic situation is indeed interesting poses a
number of problems for teachers. Officially, our language is listed as
English. In real everyday use, however, we speak a Creole language. Our
language seems to resemble English in some features, but in reality, it is
different from English in pronunciation, meaning, grammar and
vocabulary. This unit will help you to understand the creole language that
we speak in Guyana, and to understand that it possesses its own grammar
and other linguistic features .
Introduction to Linguistics

Specific Objectives

At the end of the unit students will be able to:

- Understand the nature of the language situation in Guyana

- Identify varieties of language usage in Guyana

- Understand that Guyanese Creole is a language with its own grammar
- Dispel prejudicial notions about Creole languages

What is needed

- A dictionary
- Writing paper
- Pens
Variation in Guyanese Creole (10 minutes)

One of the realities of the language situation in Guyana is that there are different
ways in which the same idea or message could be said. For example, we can say
Me nah know or Me en know or Ah en know or Ah doan know or I don’t know.

Each of these variations has its accepted level of use within the Guyanese society
and all are therefore acceptable in linguistics. As a teacher, you would want your
students to be able to speak and write the versions that are closer to English
whenever this is appropriate. On the other hand, you would also want them not to
lose the other variations since these are important for them to function in the
Guyanese society.

As we discussed in the previous section, linguists have shown that these

variations can be arranged into a scale ranging from those which are close to
English to those which are quite different and other variations fall somewhere in
between these extremes. Richard Allsopp was one of the first to notice this in the
Introduction to Linguistics

1950’s, but David De Camp in 1971 was the first to introduce the notion of a
creole continuum to describe this scale of varieties.

It must be noted that the creole continuum is a theoretical framework used to

depict the language situation. Nevertheless, there are certain linguistic features
which can be recognized in the three broad areas of Guyanese on the creole
continuum: the basilect, the mesolect, and the acrolect.

The basilect, on one extreme, is considered as the purest form of the creole
language. An example of a basilectal construction is:

mii bin a go maakit wen mii faal dong.

The mesolect is the mid-way mark between the two extremes. Examples of a
mesolect construction are:

mii di goin maakit wen mii faal dong.

And a sentence in between the mesolect and acrolect can be:

ah di goin to di maakit wen ah fall dong.

The acrolect is the variety closest to, but not entirely, Standard English. An
example of a acrolectal construction is:

ah was goin to de market when ah fall dong.

The varieties of Guyanese are not as simple as they might appear on a chart: there
are several other intermediate varieties between the labels.

Linguists such as John Rickford and Derek Bickerton have questioned the original
concept of the creole continuum, pointing out that it is “uni-dimensional”
meaning that it treats the language as having only a single level of usage and does
not reflect the fact that each section can contain many levels of variation.

Bickerton (1973) introduced the idea of a Bi-Dimensional Creole Continuum, and

other linguists have proposed a “multi-dimensional” continuum. These models
simply state that varieties should not limited to particular labels or lects, but
Introduction to Linguistics

should be seen as varieties that exist within those communities themselves. For
example, there can be an “acrolectal” variety within a mesolectal community; or
according to Bickerton, there is “Sweet Talk” and “Broad Talk” of one variety.

For example, a speaker at the basilect level is not limited to one way of speaking.
Among his friends, he may say “Fe wha mek mih ga fa guh?” To his wife, he
may say “Wha mek mih ga a guh?” To a visitor, he may say “Wha mek mih mus
guh?”
Introduction to Linguistics

Bi-dimensional Creole Continuum

Acrolectal English/
High/”Sweet Talk”
Guyanese Standard
English

Acrolect Mesolect Basilect

Urban Rural

Low/”Broad Talk”
I was goin
ah de goin
me de goin
me bin a go

Guyanese English (5 minutes)

The concept of Guyanese English is also important in this discussion. This is a

part of the acrolect which is close to English but is characterized by particularly
Introduction to Linguistics

Guyanese usages of syntax, phonology, morphology, semantics or lexicon. For

example, someone may utter a sentence such as Maria is a very disgusting girl.
She only keeps noise all the time with the proper rounding of the vowels,
articulation of word endings and correct grammar. Yet, this person may be
misunderstood, or not understood at all, by a native speaker of English because
the sentence contains some particularly Guyanese usages of words. Disgusting
means “bothersome” in Guyana but “revolting” in English, and in English,
someone makes noise, not keeps noise. Many persons including politicians,
teachers, doctors, and lawyers use this variety.

There are many other particularities of our language – names of places, fruits,
animals, activities, things; pronunciations of words; particular phrases such as
make story, find out story, go up the road, fine change; particular semantics such
as “corner” meaning the side of the road and so on that make our language
unique despite its surface resemblance to English.

An intriguing question is whether Guyanese English reflects the Guyanese Creole

becoming more like English, or whether it shows that English in Guyana
becoming more creole.

Some Creole features of Guyanese (10 minutes).

Past Tense – verbs are used without a past tense marker, or bin is the past tense
marker in Guyanese. When sentences are closer to the acrolect, bin is dropped and
di is used.

Future tense – guh is used both basilect and mesolect

The continuous marker in Guyanese is a, so when someone says me bin a waak,

s/he is saying in English “I was walking”.

The completive marker is don as in: Ah don eat (“I have eaten”). Sometimes,
don may be omitted: Me eat (“I have eaten”).
Introduction to Linguistics

Pronouns – In the basilect, there is no differentiation for subject and object

pronouns. For example, compare the underlined pronouns in: dem seh we fool
dem (“they said that we fooled them”) and, he seh we fool he (“he said that we
fooled him”). In the mesolect, pronouns that more closely resemble English
pronouns are used, such as Ah (I), dey (they), and we also see different subject
and object pronouns being used: dey seh we fool dem.

Plurality – In the basilect, nouns are not marked to show plurality. The word dem
is used instead, as in de book dem (“the books). Even plural nouns may be
marked this way, as in: De chirren dem (the children).

Phonological differences: There are too many such differences to deal with here.
Some of them are:

There is no “r” in “maakit”, “faam”, “shut” (market, farm shirt) and many other words;

Words like “down” [doʊn] and “town” [toʊn] are pronounced as “dong” [dɔŋ] and [tɔŋ]

In many case, ends of words are not articulated: call me becomes [ka: mi]; start back
becomes [star bak]; ing words lose the [g] phoneme; and so on.

The mid back vowel [ɔ] is articulated as [a] so that [pɔt] becomes [pat].

Syntactic differences: In the basilect, some questions begin with question words: Wha
mek de baby a cry? Other types of questions look like statements: You name Terry?

We can also bring verbs to the front of the sentence as in Is run he run mek he fall down.

These examples show just a glimpse of the richness of Guyanese Creole and also
its difference from English.

The Tutor introduces activity 1

 Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Introduction to Linguistics

Write a response to the following question:

 “g”is deleted at the end of “goin”; “down” [doʊn] is pronounced as

“dong” [dɔŋ]; “the” [ðɪ] is pronounced as “de” [dɪ]

Do you think these are cases of Decreolisation or Creolisation? Explain.

Feedback to Activity 1 (10 minutes)

Judging from the Acrolectal features above, one may conclude that our Creole is
becoming decreolised and those features are there because the language is on its
way to becoming more English. Conversely, one may also conclude that since the
Acrolectal varieties are closer to Standard English, it is the Standard that has been
Creolised, i.e., resemble Creole features.

The Tutor introduces activity 2

 Activity 2: (10 minutes)

Translate the following Creole proverbs into English, and answer the questions that
follow.

o wan wan dotii bil dam (wan wan dutty buil dam)
o tiif fram tiif mek Gaad laf (thief from thief mek God laugh)

 How many Standard English words are contained in each of the proverbs?
 How many Creole words are contained in each of the proverbs?
 Is the grammar English or Creole?
Introduction to Linguistics

Feedback to Activity 2 (10 minutes)

There are two things that you can do with the sentences: a literal word-for-word
translation; or make it grammatically correct. You can also interpret what the
proverb means. You can do that on your own and discuss it with friends and
family.

o wan wan dotii bil dam

o One-one dutty build dam.
o Pieces of mud can build a road.

o tiif from tiif mek Gaad laff

o Thief from thief make God laugh.
o A thief who steals from another thief makes God laugh.
wan wan dotii bil dam
 There are four English words: “one” (wan); “dirty” (dotii); “build” (bil);
and “dam” (dam).

tiif fram tiif mek Gaad laf

 There are four English words: “thief” (tiif); “from” (fram); “make” (mek);
and “God” (Gaad).

Is the grammar English or Creole?

Feedback mini-lecturette (10 minutes)

The proverbs offer useful insight into the grammar of our Creole language. (a)
The process of reduplication is present in wan-wan or one-one. This is a Creole
feature that is said to have come from Africa; (b) “thief” is both the noun and
verb; (c) “mek” (make) is not conjugated because Creole languages usually use
Introduction to Linguistics

the simplest form of the verb which is not conjugated (or has any verb
inflections).

Summary (5 minutes)
Creole languages are fully functional languages. They develop out of human
linguistic creativity and are not corrupted forms of European languages. These
languages have their own systems of grammar, lexicon, phonology and semantics
and they should not be compared with European languages. Some Creole
languages, like Guyanese Creole, have developed internal varieties. Guyanese
Creole shows systematic differences in grammar, phonology, semantics and
lexicon, fromEnglish.

Suggested References

Bickerton, Derek. “The Nature of the Creole Continuum”. Article. Jstor.

http://www.jstor.org/pss/412355

Bickerton, Derek. Bastard Tongues. New York: Hill and Wang, 2008

DeCamp, David. "The study of pidgin and creole languages." In Del Hymes, ed.
Pidginization and Creolization of Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1971. 13-43.

Rickford, John. Dimensions of a Creole continuum: history, texts & linguistic

analysis of Guyanese Creole. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press,
1987

Robertson, Ian, and H. Simmons-McDonald, eds. Exploring the Boundaries of

Caribbean Creole Languages. University of the West Indies Press, 2006.
Introduction to Linguistics

Module 10: Linguistic Human Rights (1 hrs)

Overview

This module presents information on an aspect that has long affected Guyana and
the wider world but has recently become an area of study in the Caribbean. This
area of study, Linguistic Human Rights (LHRs), is usually met with a lot debate
and controversy. As you go through this module, try to approach the concepts
with an objective mind.

Module Orientation:

This module has one unit, but is divided up into three sections:

- What is Linguistic Human Rights?

- Linguistic Discrimination in Different Sectors
- Solutions to Combat Linguistic Discrimination
Introduction to Linguistics

It is advisable to study the units in sequential order. Try to complete each one of
them as they would help you to remember the information which you have
learned.

Some units have activities which would help you to test yourself. The answers for
these units have been included but you are advised to check them only after you
have completed the activities.

Time Requirement:

You will need about 1 hour to complete this module including the activities.

Linguistic Human Rights and

Linguistic Discrimination (1hr)

Introduction

Skutnabb-Kangas, Phillipson, and Rannut (1995) observe that many times in the
study of multiculturalism, the fact of the plurality of multilingualism is forgotten.
Linguistic discrimination can be found mostly in societies where there are several
languages and cultures coexisting, and where one or more languages may be
perceived as being more superior to the other language(s). This was discussed in
the Language and Society module under Diglossia.
Introduction to Linguistics

In Guyana’s context a question to ask is: Why is the rural dialect of Guyanese
called “raw Creolese” but the Standard English called “proper English”? Why are
labels not used in a reversed way to say, “raw English” and “proper Creolese”?
This simple labelling of the languages is an example of a bias that exists in the
population towards the two main languages. Linguistically speaking, there is
nothing inherently inferior or superior about a language. Socially, the notions of
“subordinate”, “broken”, “inferior”, and “bastardised” tend to get attached to
languages. Unfortunately, this has caused stereotypes to be formed of the speakers
of those languages. When a person is disrespected and disenfranchised because of
his/her language, s/he is a victim of linguistic discrimination.

Specific Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
1. Understand the basic tenets of linguistic human rights

2. Familiarise themselves with the international legal instruments of

linguistic human rights.

3. Identify the areas where linguistic discrimination may occur.

4. Determine what the best solutions are to curb linguistic discrimination.

5. Understand the need for language planning in the education sector.

What is needed

1. Pen

2. Paper

Introduction - What is Linguistic Human Rights?

Introduction to Linguistics

Linguistic Human Rights, as a concept, is the merger of general human rights and
language rights. Linguistic Human Rights (LHRs), however, focus on language
rights of various people groups, especially minority and disadvantaged groups.
Since 1948, many countries have become signatory partners to the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UN, 1948). This means that governing bodies in
those countries are expected to fulfil the conditions spelt out in the Declaration
since every human being is guaranteed basic human. Some of these rights include:
the right to freedom of religion, the right food and shelter, and the right to use the
home language (or their L1). Every free society functions effectively because of
the respect for those rights. Article 2 of the Declaration states:

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this
Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex,
language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin,
property, birth or other status.

Further, Article 2.1 of another United Nations declaration -Declaration on the

Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic
Minorities (UN, 1992) - states:

Persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities

(hereinafter referred to as persons belonging to minorities) have the right
to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practise their own religion, and
to use their own language, in private and in public, freely and without
interference or any form of discrimination.

In 1996, a more specific document outlining the need for recognition and respect
for language rights came in the shape of the Universal Declaration of Linguistic
Rights (UNESCO, 1996). In the Declaration, a pertinent clause states:

Considering that invasion, colonization, occupation and other instances of

Introduction to Linguistics

political, economic or social subordination often involve the direct imposition of

a foreign language or, at the very least, distort perceptions of the value of
languages and give rise to hierarchical linguistic attitudes which undermine the
language loyalty of speakers; and considering that the languages of some peoples
which have attained sovereignty are immersed in a process of language
substitution as a result of a policy which favours the language of a former
colonial or imperial power;

And in Article 3.2:

This Declaration considers that the collective rights of language groups, may
include the following, in addition to the rights attributed to the members of
language groups in the foregoing paragraph, and in accordance with the
conditions laid down in article 2.2:

 the right for their own language and culture to be taught;

 the right of access to cultural services;
 the right to an equitable presence of their language and culture in the
communications media;
 the right to receive attention in their own language from government
bodies and in socioeconomic relations.

In January 2011, the Charter on Language Policy and Language Rights in the
Creole-Speaking Caribbean was crafted to outline policies governing the
treatment and recognition of languages in the Caribbean. Languages such as
Creole languages, Indigenous languages and immigrant, and minority, languages
are given full representation in the Charter. In Guyana’s case, according to the
Charter, the term “territorial languages” would refer to Guyanese Creole.

Linguistic Discrimination in Different Sectors

Introduction to Linguistics

Skutnabb-Kangas, Phillipson, Rannut (1995) state that “depriving individuals or

groups of linguistic human rights reflects a contemporary form of racism, namely
linguicism”. Whether you agree with the extremity of this observation or not,
you will recognise that indeed persons of minority languages are often times
denied equal access to services.

However, the opposite seems to apply in Guyana. Guyanese, Guyana’s heart

language (or mother tongue), is a majority language in Guyana yet speakers of the
mesolect and basilectal varieties are often times discriminated against when they
are denied access to services. In one instance, English has more social prestige
than Guyanese. In another instance, the acrolectal (or urban) variety has more
prestige than the basilectal and mesolectal (or rural) varieties of Guyanese. Other
cases of discrimination in Guyana may also occur when speakers of the several
Indigenous languages interact in dominant English or Acrolectal contexts and are
denied access to services or treated differently because of their language.

Article 9.2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states:

This Declaration considers discrimination against language

communities to be inadmissible, whether it be based on their
degree of political sovereignty, their situation defined in social,
economic or other terms, the extent to which their languages
have been codified, updated or modernized, or on any other
criterion.

Linguistic discrimination occurs in several sectors in a country. Three important

ones are: commerce, education, and the judiciary. Types of discrimination can
include (but are not limited to): exclusion, disrespect, lack of recognition, and
denial of justice.
Introduction to Linguistics

We will briefly explore these three areas where linguistic discrimination occurs
with specific reference to Guyana.

Commerce

Examine the following scenario. A university educated young lady and her
mother went to a store to enquire out about prices of a certain item. While the
daughter was browsing through other items elsewhere in the store, her mother
approached the customer-service counter to ask about an item she wished to
purchase. However, the mother’s language was rural Guyanese. The sales
representative was not that friendly and offered short responses and seemed either
hesitant or disgusted to give information. Upon seeing her mother’s frustration,
the daughter intervened and asked about the price of the item in English. The
sales representative became friendlier and offered information freely. This is a
simple case of one person being discriminated against because of her language.

Another example is of a Linguistics student who, as an experiment, used a

telephone to call an organization using different accents requesting information.
He placed a call to the organisation and spoke using an urban dialect of Guyanese
and got a friendly response and quick assistance from the person on the other end
of the phone. After allowing thirty-minutes to elapse, he called back the same
organisation but spoke using a rural Guyanese dialect (accent and syntax) but was
met by curt, hesitant and at times annoyed responses. In the end, he received little
assistance because of speaking in/ rural Guyanese. This is a clear case of
discrimination based on one’s language, and we can clearly see that there is a bias
against the rural dialect of Guyanese (or “raw Creolese”).ii

As an experiment, you and a friend/family member can try to simulate the

examples above. Choose two stores (where you are not well known): one that is
considered high class (or expensive), and one that is lower class (or cheap). Go to
either the high-end of low-end store and ask for an item using the L-Variety of the
language of your community or region and make note of the responses you
receive. Your friend/family member should then go to the same store at a different
Introduction to Linguistics

time of the day or week and ask for the same item using the H-Variety. Do the
same for the other store. You and your friend/family member should compare the
variety of responses you receive.

Judiciary

The language of the Law is in English and is wrought in legal terminology which
makes it, at most times, difficult for the average person to understand.

There is a very famous incident reported in legal circles of a defendant who was
on trial for the murder of his wife based on the evidence of a written admission of
guilt. It is reported that the defendant said of his wife:

a mii gii am claat, a mii mek am, a mii kil am

However when written, the true essence of what the defendant said was lost. His
defence lawyer upon cross examination of the evidence, offered that the defendant
did not admit guilt but rather said (or asked):

a mii gii am claat, a mii mek am, a mii kil am?

In other words, the defendant made a plea for his innocence by asking:

If I bought clothes for her and made her who she was, why would I want to kill
her?

Because Guyanese is also a tonal language (i.e., intonation has meaning), the
defendant’s statement was misinterpreted and could have worked to his detriment
in an English-only judicial system. The absence of a Creole-competent defence
lawyer in the case above would have seen the defendant being convicted for a
crime he did not commit based largely on a supposed “admission” of guilt. There
is another case reported in the 1970s of a man who was fined for theft because he
“admitted” to it (Devonish 1997). The judge asked him if he stole the item in
question, and he replied that he “does thief” which resulted in the fine. However,
the defendant did not admit to stealing the item in question, but admitted to
normally stealing. The habitual marker in Guyanese is “does”, which indicates his
Introduction to Linguistics

habitual stealing. The defendant was convicted for his admission of habitual
stealing, but not for theft of the item which landed him in court in the first place.

Take the case of an elderly Amerindian couple who was brought before the courts
on the charge of illegal possession of firearm. The man was seen walking in the
community with a rifle and was apprehended by police officers. When placed
before the courts, the judge asked him if he understood the implications of the
charge and he replied that “mii een ahnastaan” (me ain’t understand). His reply
signaled that, first, he did not understand the language of the law; and, second, he
did not understand the grave implications that his lack of knowledge would lead
to. He was subsequently jailed while his wife was placed on $10,000 bail.
Luckily, a sympathetic lawyer intervened and was able at a later date to secure his
release.

The language of the courts, many times, is expressed in legal jargon that excludes
the Creole or Indigenous speaker. Article 14 of the Charter on Language Policy
and Language Rights in the Creole-Speaking Caribbean states that:

All language communities using the territorial languages have the

right for laws and other legal and administrative provisions which
concern them, to be published in their languages and/or made
available in any other medium that would be accessible to them. If a
written standard does not exist, such laws or legal provisions must be
made available in audio format.

Even when Guyanese lawyers and magistrates are involved in a case, there is a
need for translators. The Caribbean Charter suggests that translators should be
provided free of cost by the state to persons who speak Creole, Indigenous, and
immigrant languages. In present day court rooms, the presiding magistrate/judge
and lawyer become the default translators with no guarantee that the defendants
are being adequately represented linguistically. A sentence may be passed down
in English, and the persons on the receiving end may have no clue as to what is
transpiring before them.
Introduction to Linguistics

Education

Language teaching and the use of language in the classroom are the areas that
usually at the forefront of linguistic discrimination discussions. Many persons are
of the opinion that English is a superior language to other languages that co-exist
with it in Guyana. Because of this notion, there is a tendency to treat other
languages (Guyanese and Indigenous, and immigrant languages) as inferior
languages.

Interestingly to date, there is no holistic policy in the recent Ministry of

Education’s (MoE) Strategic Plan (2008-2013) concerning the role of language
and language teaching. In fact, the only mention of the role of language relates to
English being a second language for Indigenous students.

Under Section 3.10 (“Developing an Inclusive Education System”), the following

is found:

UNICEF in a listing of the “Characteristics of a Rights-Based and Child-

Friendly School” supports the provision of an education opportunity that “meets
differing circumstances and needs of children (e.g. as determined by gender,
culture, social class, ability level)”. In Guyana, efforts have been made [...]to
respond to the needs of the indigenous communities where English may not be
the first language and where cultural norms may be somewhat different from
other communities. In addition it has sought to meet Special Education Needs.
[...] There have been limited attempts to respond to the language issue with the
Ministry supporting the use of the children’s mother tongue, where possible, in
the early years of school and giving support to projects such as the Macushi
Language project. These are very preliminary efforts and more needs to be done
at the teacher training level to respond to the needs of different genders or
groups.

The admission that more needs to be done in bilingual Indigenous communities is

good news for linguists, and teachers will linguistic training. However, the glaring
omission of Guyanese Creole signals that the MoE does not recognise Guyanese
as a language (at least as yet). The lack of any language policy leaves educators to
Introduction to Linguistics

formulate their own operational procedures resulting in unwritten language

policies or rules based on assumptions and stereotypes.

The Charter on Language Policy and Language Rights in the Creole-Speaking

Caribbean specifically sets aside a section to deal with language rights in the
education sector. Section III (a) focuses on “Education in Schools” and part (b)
“Education out of Schools” as seen in Articles 24.5 and 26:

Within the context of the foregoing principles, everyone has the following rights:

- to at least initial instruction and literacy in their first language;

- to learn the territorial languages of the territory in which he/she resides;
- to learn any other language.

(Article 24.5)

All language communities are entitled to an education which will enable their
members to acquire a full command of their own language, as well as the most
extensive possible command of any other language they may wish to know.

(Article 26)

The Unit on Second Language Teaching in the Language Acquisition module

outlined strategies of language teaching that include the use of the territorial
language. Information was also given that pertains to the value of its inclusion in
the education process. By deliberately (and sometimes unconsciously) excluding
the students’ L1, teachers can contribute to denying their students’ linguistic
rights as outlined above.

In some Indigenous communities in Guyana, the parents of the children protested

against the use of the community’s L1 in their children’s education process. They
cited reasons such as: “our language will confuse the children when they learn in
English”; “we already speak our language at home so there is no reason to learn it
again or use it in school”; “our children will need to know English to advance in
society, not our language”. Unfortunately, they were not aware of all of the
Introduction to Linguistics

linguistic research that showed the importance of the use of the L1 in such
bilingual cases. A bilingual education cannot neglect the students’ L1 since it is
that same L1 that serves as a reference point for the students. You will recall that
often times when a concept is introduced in English and you or your students did
not understand it, the solution was to express and explain it as a concept in your
L1.

Some Solutions to Combat Linguistic Discrimination

One of the first and most important steps to combat linguistic discrimination is to
build linguistic awareness. This has to happen at the grass-roots level, and should
begin at home then at school. Children should be taught to value their L1 as a
heart language. Worth should be assigned to the heart language not as a
“vernacular”, “bastard” or “inferior” language, but as a language itself: a language
that is fully functional and capable of expressing the thoughts of the people who
use it. Linguistically proving that the L1 is integral to the learning process is vital
to convincing the non-linguistic person. Appealing to the person’s sense of
community belonging and nationhood is also useful since it is language that
shapes our identity and identifies us as Guyanese people.

Second, language planning is a vital part of a country’s development. Certain

parts of the education sector need to be revamped so that Creole and Indigenous
languages are integrated into the curricula. This will ensure that “educational
linguistic discrimination” is curbed by consciously acknowledging the important
role of the L1 in the education process.

A note on Language Planning

Language planning generally refers to conscious and systematic decision-making

undertaken by organisations and government agencies to select which language(s)
will be used as the official language of the country for education, commerce, etc.
Introduction to Linguistics

An official language is different from a national language. Guyana’s official

language is English, and its national language is Guyanese (or Creolese as it is
popularly known). An official language is used as the language of currency, for
example, in the judicial system, education system, and banks. The national
language is not widely written as the official language, but is widely used
nationally as the country’s first language in informal scenarios, conversations,
when code-switching, etc. An official language, therefore, is a standarised
language. A standardised language has a standard system of spelling and
pronunciation.

The country’s law-makers can decide to make the national language an official
language, but only after certain conditions are fulfilled. For Guyanese to become
an official language, it will need to be written down; and for it to be written, it’s
orthographical (spelling) system will need to be formalised. In Jamaica, for
example, persons at the Jamaican Language Unit are constantly in the process of
creating reading materials to be used in schools. They have adopted the Cassidy
Phonetic Writing System, which was developed by Frederick Cassidy as a special
orthographical system to be used for writing Jamaican Creole English (or
Jamaican). Bible translation projects have also made use of the Cassidy system,
and have served to formalise and standardize Jamaican.

The same conscious decisions can be made in Guyana concerning our Creole
language and the several Indigenous languages.

Third, political activism is needed to include the language-rights legal instruments

in a country’s constitution. This will ensure that linguistic human rights of the
population are safeguarded. The Charter on Language Policy and Language
Rights in the Creole-Speaking Caribbean is the most recent language rights
Charter and will now need to be assented to by the Caribbean countries’ legal
organs. Educational, and other, organizations can still sign and adopt the
provisions listed in the Charter ahead of it being adopted by the country’s
parliament.
Introduction to Linguistics

The Tutor introduces activity 1

 Activity 1: (10 minutes)

Examine the following scenario, and make notes on whether linguistic discrimination is
present or not.

A boy from a rural village attends one of the top secondary schools in Georgetown and is in
Form 2 (Grade 8). In one of his English classes, he replies to a question asked by his
teacher in his L1 - a mesolectal (rural) variety of Guyanese - which earns him a rebuke. His
teacher says to him: “Boy, what is wrong with you? You cannot speak like that because you
are now attending a prestigious school.” For the rest of the class, he remains withdrawn
and does not utter another word.

Do you agree with the teacher’s position? Is the student discriminated against? Supply reasons
for your answer.

Feedback to activity 1 (10 minutes)

From a linguist’s position, the teacher’s response is clearly a violation of the

student’s linguistic human right to use his L1. The Charters on general human
rights and linguistic human rights provide support for the claim of his rights being
violated.

Some persons may argue that the student should have used English because he
was in an English class and speaking to the English teacher. Here is where
linguists and grammar teachers depart. A linguist’s work is mainly descriptive
while a grammar teacher’s task is mainly prescriptive. Nevertheless, the teacher
should have recognised the student’s linguistic difference, and not use his
wonderful Guyanese language as ammunition to openly embarrass him in the
Introduction to Linguistics

presence of his peers. Perhaps the student was not clearly au fait with the
unwritten rules of language-use in a Georgetown classroom (i.e., that the H-
variety should be used when addressing teachers, and the L-variety only for
interaction with peers when the teachers are not around). The action of the teacher
led to the exclusion of the student in the learning process that was done entirely in
English.

What the teacher could have done was use the student’s L1 as a point of
comparison with English. Using second-language teaching strategies, the teacher
could have begun the process that would have seen that student become an
excellent English student while still valuing his L1 and remaining fluent in it.

Summary (5 minutes)
The merger of human rights and language rights is called Linguistic Human
Rights (LHRs). When a person is discriminated against because of his/her
language, this is called linguistic discrimination or linguicism. There are several
international legal instruments that outline the conditions that should be met to
avoid linguistic discrimination. Each instrument is based on general human rights.
The most recent one is the Charter on Language Policy and Language Rights in
the Creole-Speaking Caribbean. There are several areas that are avenues of
linguistic discrimination. These include: commerce, education, and the judiciary.
The three main solutions that are necessary to curb linguistic discrimination are:
linguistic awareness, language planning, and political activism.

Suggested References

Banwarie, K. and Wilkinson, C. “The Charter on Language Policy and Language

Rights in the Creole Speaking Caribbean: Implications for Language
Education in Guyana”. History This Week, Stabroek News, November
3, 2011, p., 17.

Charter on Language Policy and Language Rights in the Creole-Speaking Caribbean.

Jamaica: ICCLR, 2011
Introduction to Linguistics

Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious

and Linguistic Minorities. United Nations, 1992.

Devonish, Hubert. Language and Liberation: Creole Language Politics in the Caribbean.
Expanded version. Kingston: Arawak Publications, 2007

Fromkin, R., Rodman, R., and Hyams, N. An Introduction to Language. Boston:

Thomson Wadsworth, 2007.

Ministry of Education. Education Strategic Plan 2008-2013. Georgetown, Guyana.

Skutnabb-Kangas, T. and Phillipson, R. (eds.). Linguistic Human Rights: Overcoming

Linguistic Discrimination. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1995.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights. UNESCO Barcelona, 1996.

i
ii
Linguistic Discrimination experiment/mini-research carried out by University of Guyana students in ‘ENG 117:
Introduction to Language’ (November, 2010).