Virtual Labs, Real Data

Basic Theory of Torsion

Torsion refers to the twisting of a shaft loaded by torque,

or twisting couples.

In this example, the

magnitude of the
moment, or torque, T,
due to the couple is

T = Pd

Alternate representations of torque

Use the right hand rule to understand the above.

Torque is a moment with its vector direction along
the axis of the shaft. The torque applied in these
figures is in the same direction as in slide 1.

2
 Deformation due to torsion

• ρ is the radial distance to any point.

• φ is the angle of twist in radians
• γ is the shear strain.
• The horizontal line ab moves to ab’
bb′
• The shear strain is γ =
ab
• From geometry γ dx = ρ dφ
dφ
• So the strain γ =ρ
dx
• If shaft has uniform section, length L,
dφ
Note: Relations here are based solely φ=L
on geometry and so they are valid for dx
circular shaft of any material, linear or • Hence twist and strain are related as
non-linear, elastic or non-elastic. ρφ
γ=
L 3

Stresses in torsion

•We use Hooke’s law for a linear elastic material

τ = Gγ
•From slide 3, the shear strain is
ρφ
γ=
L
•Thus the stress is
ρφ
τ =G
L
•The torque, T, is found by integrating the
stress*distance over the cross section, S, of the shaft

T = ∫
S
τρ d A

4
 Relation of torque and twist

• Using stress from previous relations, we get

φ φ φ
T = ∫G
L∫
ρ 2 dA = G ρ dA = G J
2

S
L S
L

where J is the polar moment of inertia

• Using the above we find the relation between the twist and the
torque
TL
φ=
GJ
• And the we can write the shear stress as

ρφ ρ TL Tρ
τ =G =G =
L L JG J
5

Polar Moment of Inertia

Definition: The Polar *Solid circular cross section:

Moment of Inertia is defined as the integral
π r4
J= {r = radius}
J = ∫ ρ dA
2
2
S
*Hollow Circular Cross Section:
If ‘O’ is the centroid of the area,
π (ro4 − ri4 )
then ρ is the distance from the point ‘O’ J=
to the element of area dA. 2
ro = outer radius 
where,  
ri = inner radius 

6
 Torsional stiffness

Think of the shaft as a torsional spring with

T = kφ

k is the stiffness of the torsional spring.

GJ
Since T= φ
L

GJ
Torsional stiffness : k =
L

Stress distribution in a shaft.

In a circular shaft shear stress varies linearly

from center:
Tρ
τ=
J

Solid Shaft Hollow Shaft

Note: The shear stress is maximum for the outermost element

where the radii is maximum. 8
Behavior of brittle and ductile materials under torsion

The state of pure shear is equivalent to a state of pure compressive

and tensile stresses for an element rotated through 450.

If material is weak in tension, it will fail along a plane 450 to the longitudinal axis
of the shaft. If weak in shear it will fail along a plane 900 to the axis of the shaft
9

Failure of a brittle material under torsional loading

Failure occurs in tension along a helix inclined at an angle of

450 to the longitudinal axis of the femur.
10
 Failure of a ductile material under torsional load

Failure occurs in shear along a plane perpendicular to

the longitudinal axis.

11

Elastic-plastic torsion

• Hooke’s law does not • Outer surface yields first.

apply when shear stress • As torque increases,
exceeds shear yield region of yielding
strength, τy . expands to cover entire
• Torque at start of yield cross section.
is given by
J
Tyield = τ y
ro
where ro is outer radius
of shaft.

12
 Elastic-plastic torsion example

τ T

τy Tyield Region of plastic

deformation is shaded

γ φ
Schematic shear stress-strain curve Schematic torque-twist curve
•As deformation progresses, region of
plastic deformation, τ>τy, spreads
towards center of shaft

13

Summary of topics covered

•Torsion defined

•Strain due to torsion

•Relationship between strain, twist and torque

•Polar moment of inertia

•Torsional stiffness

•Stress distribution in a shaft

•Failure of ductile and brittle materials

•Elastic-plastic torsion
14
Summary of equations

ρφ
γ=
L
Tρ TrO
τ= τ max =
J J

T = kφ

GJ
k=
L

π (ro4 − ri4 )
J=
2

15
 Slide 1
In this presentation we will define what torque and torsion are and we will derive the theory of
torsion of circular shafts. Implications of torsion theory to the failure of materials is also
discussed. Torsion refers to the twisting of a shaft loaded by torque, or twisting couples. For
example, in the generation of electricity shafts carry torque from the turbine to the generator. An
example of torsional loading is shown here. In this example we load the shaft by two equal and
opposite forces acting on a bar perpendicular to the shaft. The moment generated by these forces
is sometimes called a couple. The magnitude of the moment due to this couple is given by P
times d, where, P is the applied force and d is the distance between the lines of action of the
forces.This twisting couple is also called the ‘Torque’ or ‘Twisting Moment’.

Slide 2
Two alternate ways of depicting torque are shown here. In the left-hand figure the torque is
shown as a loop with an arrow depicting its direction. In the right-hand figure the torque is
shown as a vector moment. The direction of the moment is parallel to the shaft. The sign of the
moment, can be understood using the right hand rule. The rule is that if you rotate your right
hand in the direction of the applied torque, then your thumb points in the direction of the vector
indicated by two arrowheads in the right-hand figure.

Slide 3
We will now review the derivation and interpretation of the theory of torsion of circular shafts.
We start by looking at a small section of length dx of a circular shaft under torsion. During
twisting, one end of the shaft will rotate about the longitudinal axis with respect to the other end .
The magnitude of this rotation is measured in terms of the angle in radians by which one end
rotates relative to the other. This is called the ‘Angle of Twist’. It can be seen that the line ab,
which was initially horizontal, rotates through an angle gamma, and moves to the line ab’. Here
dφ is the angle of twist.

The shear strain, gamma is the angle between ab and ab'. It is found by the distance bb' divided
by the distance ab. Using geometry, the arc length ρdφ = γdx . Thus we can write the strain as
 dφ
γ = ρ . Let's assume that we are dealing with a shaft of uniform cross section and
dx
dφ
materials, thus the total twist, φ over a length L is simply φ = L . Combining the third and
dx
fourth equations we get the final equation, giving the relation of shear strain to twist ( φ ), radial
distance ( ρ ), and shaft length (L). Note that all the relations here, are based solely on the
geometry of the circular shaft. Hence they are valid for any type of material. This is not so in
what follows, the calculation of stresses based on linear elastic material behavior.

Slide 4
For a linear elastic material, using Hooke’s law, we can write the shear stress as τ = Gγ , where,
G is the Shear Modulus. The shear strain on a small area of material situated at a distance ρ
ρφ G ρφ
from the center, was found in slide 3 to be: γ = . Thus, using Hooke's law, as τ = .
L L
The torque, T, is calculated by integrating over the cross section the product of shear stress, τ ,
and the distance, ρ , from the center of the shaft .

Slide 5
Substituting the stress from previous expressions, we find that torque is the integral
φ
∫G L ρ
2
of dA over the cross section of the shaft. Pulling out the terms that do not vary over
S

φ
the cross section we get that T = G J , where J is the polar moment of inertia and is defined
L
as J = ∫ ρ 2 dA . We will discuss polar moment of inertia, J, on the next slide. Rearranging the
S

TL ρφ
terms, we can write the angle of twist, φ , as φ = .We can also find the stress from τ = G ,
GJ L
Tρ
and then substituting for φ to get τ = .
J
 Slide 6
The moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the plane of an area is called the Polar
Moment of Inertia. If dA is the area of a small element at a distance ρ from the center of the
cross section, then the Polar Moment of Inertia, J, is defined as the integral over the cross section
of the product of distance squared and the small area dA .For a solid circular shaft, the polar
moment of inertia is given by J = ∫ ρ 2 dA . Similarly we can write the expression for a hollow
S

shaft.
Slide 7
To understand what torsional stiffness is, we can think of the shaft as a torsional spring with
torque equal to a spring constant, k, times rotation φ . From previous relations, we already know
GJ φ
that T = . Comparing these two relations, we find that the torsional stiffness, k, is
L
GJ
k= .The stiffness increases with increasing shear modulus, increases with the fourth power
L
of the shaft diameter since J is proportional to r to the fourth power, and decreases as the shaft
gets longer.
Slide 8
Now let’s use the theory to examine in further detail the shear stress distribution in a shaft under
torsional loading. We already know that the shear stresses are directly proportional to the
distance from the center. It means that, for any circular shaft, the shear stress would be maximum
for an element which is farthest from the center. The figure on the left shows the shear stress
distribution in a solid shaft. The shear stress is zero at the center while it is the maximum at the
surface. The figure on the right shows the distribution of shear stress for a hollow shaft. The
shear stress is minimum for on the inside surface and maximum on the outer surface. As the
thickness of the wall of the shaft decreases relative to the shaft diameter, the difference between
the stress on the inside and outside of the shaft decreases and you obtain a more uniform stress
field.
 Slide 9
We might ask the question "Do all the materials fail in a similar manner when subjected to
torsional Loading?" As you will see the answer is no. To understand this you will remember that
whenever a structure is subjected to torsion, the elements are in a state of pure shear. By
considering the transformation of stresses, this state of pure shear, is equivalent to a state of pure
compression and pure tension on planes rotated forty five degrees to the axis of the shaft. One
implication of this stress state is that if the material is weak in tension, it will fail along a plane
forty five degrees to the longitudinal axis of the shaft. However, if the material is ductile,
meaning that it can deform in shear before breaking, it may fail along a plane ninety to the axis
of the shaft.
Slide 10
In this picture we see a turkey tibiotarsus bone fractured under torsional loading. It can be seen
that failure occurs along a helix inclined at an angle of 450 to the longitudinal axis. This type of
failure is typical of brittle materials since they tend to fail along planes perpendicular to the
direction of maximum tension.
Slide 11
This picture shows a ductile metal shaft fracture in torsion. It has failed by shearing off along a
plane perpendicular to the axis of the shaft. This type of failure is typical to ductile materials
since they can deform in shear more readily than they can fracture in tension.

Slide 12
We now look at the behavior of a shaft made of a ductile material under torsional loading.
Hooke’s law applies only when the shear stress is below the yield stress, τ y . The value of the

τyJ
torque at the start of yield is given by Tyield = , where τ y is the shear yield strength of the
r0

material and r0 is the outer radius of the shaft. Note also that the outer surface yields first and
then the plastic deformation progresses to the center of the shaft as the torque increases.
 Slide 13
Shown on the left is a typical stress versus strain curve for a ductile material. The slope of the
line in the linear elastic region is the shear modulus for the material. The schematic on the right
is a plot of torque versus rotation. This curve is similar to the stress-strain curve. The plot shows
the evolution of plastic deformation for the shaft as the torque increases. Just at the end of the
linear portion of the plot, the outer portion of the shaft begins to yield. As torque increases, the
plastic zone expands to the inner core.
Slide 14
We have reviewed a number of topics in the theory of torsion of circular shafts. Torsion refers to
loading of a shaft by a moment parallel to the shaft. This moment is called a torque. The strain
in torsion is found by geometric considerations. Knowing strain we found stress using Hooke's
law. Integrating the stress over the cross sectional area of the shaft, we derived the relation
between shear strain, twist and torque. This relation involves the polar moment of inertia.
Thinking of the shaft as a torsional spring we found the spring constant in terms of the geometry
and shear modulus of the shaft. Stresses in solid and hollow shafts are discussed, and brittle and
ductile failure explored.
Slide 15
The basic equations of torsion of circular shafts are given here for reference. You may want to
refer to them as you work on your analyses and reports. Of course, you can also find these
results in your mechanics of materials textbook.