ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 1

Manufacturing Processes
Lecture 8

THEORY OF METAL MACHINING

Dr. Jun Ma
1. Overview of Machining Technology
2. Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
3. Force Relationships and the Merchant
Equation
4. Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
5. Cutting Temperature

Hello everyone, and welcome to Lecture Summary 8 for Manufacturing Processes.

(This lecture works through material covered in Chap 21 of the textbook.)

In this lecture, we will introduce the theory of metal machining, and address the
following topics:
Overview of Machining Technology.
Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining.
Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation.
Power and Energy Relationships in Machining.
Cutting Temperature.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 2

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 2

Figure

The Shaping operations include material removal processes. The common feature
of these processes is that they remove material from a starting workpiece so that the
remaining part has the desired geometry. Material removal processes include
machining processes, abrasive processes and nontraditional machining processes.
*In machining processes, materials are removed by a sharp cutting tool (for example,
through turning, milling and drilling).
*In abrasive processes, materials are removed by hard, abrasive particles (for
example, through grinding).
* Nontraditional processes use various energy forms other than sharp cutting tools to
remove materials, such as high velocity streams of abrasives or fluids.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 3

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 3

Why Machining is Important

• Variety of work materials can be machined

– Most frequently used to cut metals
• Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible, such as:
– Screw threads
– Accurate round holes
– Very straight edges and surfaces
• Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

Machining is important because it has three main strengths. It can be applied to a

wide variety of work materials, including metals, plastics, thermosets, composites
and even ceramics. In fact, it is the most frequently used method to cut materials.
It can be used to create any special geometries, such as screw threads. Finally, it
can produce good dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 4

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 4

Disadvantages with Machining

• Wasteful of material
– Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
• Time consuming
– A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming

However, machining has two weaknesses. First, it is inherently wasteful of

materials, because it removes materials from a starting workpiece. Second, a
machining operation generally takes more time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes such as casting or moulding.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 5

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 5

Machining in Manufacturing Sequence

• Generally performed after other manufacturing

processes, such as casting, forging, and bar drawing.
These processes produce primary shapes.
– Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, finish,
and special geometric details that other processes
cannot create

The weaknesses of machining can be overcome to some extent if the machining is

performed after other manufacturing processes, such as casting or bulk deformation.
These processes create the primary shapes of the starting workpiece, and these
primary shapes are subsequently machined to produce the final geometry,
dimensions, and finish.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 6

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 6

Machining Operations

• Most important machining operations:

– Turning
– Drilling
– Milling
• Other machining operations:
– Shaping and planing
– Broaching
– Sawing

There are three most commonly used machining operations. They are turning,
drilling and milling. However, other machining operations include shaping and
planing, broaching, and sawing.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 7

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 7

Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape

Three most common machining processes: (a) turning,

In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a
rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape. There are two types of relative
motion. The first is speed motion provided by the rotating workpiece, and the
second is feed motion, achieved by moving the cutting tool slowly in a direction
parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
This figure shows you a typical turning operation.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 8

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 8

Drilling
Drilling is usually performed with a rotating cylindrical
tool that has two cutting edges on its working end.
The tool is called a drill or drill bit. The rotating drill
feeds into the stationary workpiece to form a hole
whose diameter is equal to the drill diameter.
Drilling is customarily performed on a drill press.

(b) drilling,

Drilling is a machining process which is usually performed with a rotating cylindrical

tool that has two cutting edges on its working end. The tool is called a drill or drill
bit. The rotating drill feeds into the stationary workpiece to form a hole whose
diameter is equal to the drill diameter. Drilling is customarily performed on a drill
press. This figure shows you a drilling process.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 9

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 9

Milling

Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved

slowly relative to the material to generate a
plane or straight surface.
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling

(c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.

In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved slowly across the
material to generate a plane or straight surface. There are two forms of milling,
peripheral milling and face milling.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 10

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 10

Cutting Tool Classification

1. Single-Point Tools
– One dominant cutting edge
– Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
– Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
– More than one cutting edge
– Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
– Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge tools

There are two basic classifications of cutting tools, single-point and multiple-cutting-
edge. A single-point tool has one cutting edge and is used for operations such as
turning. A multiple-cutting-edge tool has more than one cutting edge and usually
achieves its motion relative to the workpiece by rotating. These tools are used for
drilling and milling operations.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 11

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 11

Cutting Conditions in Turning

• Three dimensions of a machining process:

– Cutting speed v – primary motion
– Feed f – secondary motion
– Depth of cut d – penetration of tool below original work
surface

We have looked at two types of relative motions in a turning operation, speed motion
and feed motion. This slide shows you the three dimensions which must be
considered in a machining process. They are the cutting motion, the feed motion
and the depth of the cut.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 12

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 12

Cutting Conditions for Turning

 For certain operations, material removal

rate can be computed as

where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of

cut

For most single-point tool operations, the material removal rate can be calculated
using this equation. The Material Removal Rate is equal to the cutting speed
multiplied by the feed multiplied by the depth of the cut.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 13

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 13

Roughing vs. Finishing

In production, several roughing cuts are usually
taken on the part, followed by one or two
finishing cuts
• Roughing cuts - remove large amounts of
material from starting workpiece
– Creates shape close to desired geometry,
but leaves some material for finish cutting
– High feeds and depths, low speeds
• Finishing cuts - complete part geometry
– Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
– Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds

Machining operations are usually divided into two categories, depending on their
purpose and the cutting conditions. Roughing cuts remove large amounts of
material from the starting workpiece as rapidly as possible, in order to produce a
shape close to the desired form, but they leave some material on the piece for a
subsequent finishing operation. Roughing cuts are characterised by low speeds,
high feed and large depth. Finishing cuts are used to complete the part and achieve
the final dimensions, tolerances, and surface finish. They are characterised by low
feeds and depth, and high cutting speeds.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 14

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 14

Machine Tools

A power-driven machine that performs a machining

operation, including grinding
• Functions of machine tool :
– Holds workpiece
– Positions tool relative to work
– Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that
have been set

The traditional machine tools used to perform turning,

drilling, and milling are lathes, drill presses and
milling machines, respectively.

Machine tools are just the machines that accomplish the material removal
processes. The machine tool for turning is called a lathe, and the machine tool for
drilling is called a drill press. The machine tool for milling is called a milling machine.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 15

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 15

Orthogonal Cutting Model

Simplified 2-D model of machining that describes
the mechanics of machining fairly accurately

Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process; (b) side view

The geometry of most workpieces in machining is complex. To describe the

mechanics of the process, a simple two-dimensional orthogonal cutting model has
been introduced. This model has only two dimensions which play an active role in
the analysis. The cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of the cutting speed,
and the two elements of tool geometry are rake and shear plane angle. In this
figure, as the tool is forced into the material, a chip is formed by shear deformation
along a plane called the shear plane. In this case, the shear angle is an angle
between the shear plane and the horizontal plane. The rake angle is an angle
between the tool front plane and the vertical plane.
Chips are produced in machining operations. The T-o represents the original chip
thickness, and the T-c represents the thickness of a cut chip.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 16

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 16

Chip Thickness Ratio

to
r =
tc

where r = chip thickness ratio; to =

thickness of the chip prior to chip
formation; and tc = chip thickness after
separation
• Chip thickness after cut always greater than
before, so chip ratio always less than 1.0

To calculate the chip thickness ratio, divide the chip thickness before chip formation
by the chip thickness after separation. The thickness after the cutting is always
greater than the thickness before, so the chip ratio is always less than 1.0.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 17

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 17

Determining Shear Plane Angle

• Based on the geometric parameters of the
orthogonal model, the shear plane angle φ can
be determined as:
r cos α
tan φ =
1 − r sinα
where r = chip ratio, and α = rake angle

In a chip formation process, the shear plane angle is the angle between the
horizontal plane and the shear plane. It is calculated by this equation: Tan angle is
equal to chip ratio cosine rake angle divided by 1 minus chip ratio sine rake angle.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 18

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 18

Shear Strain

Shear strain in machining can be computed

from the following equation:

where γ = shear strain, φ = shear plane

angle, and α = rake angle of cutting tool

We have looked at strain in previous lectures. Strain is relative to the deformation of

a material. Shear strain is relative to the deformation of material in shearing. The
shear strain in machining is calculated by tan shear plane angle minus rake angle,
plus cos shear plane angle.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 19

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 19

Exercise 1

A cutting tool has a rake angle α = 10o. The chip

thickness before the cut to=0.50 mm and the chip
thickness after the cut tc =1.125 mm.

Calculate the shear plane angle ø and the shear strain γ

using the orthogonal model.

Now it is the time to use the equations you have learnt to solve a practical problem.
Pause the presentation here and work out this problem.
An important task in manufacturing is to use theories to estimate and predict cutting
forces, so that you can choose appropriate facilities and tools for your manufacturing
processes. Suppose a cutting tool has a rake angle of 10o. The chip thickness
before the cut is 0.50 mm and the chip thickness after the cut is 1.125 mm.
Calculate the shear plane angle ø and the shear strain γ using the orthogonal model.
The solution is on the next slide. (Note this kind of question will appear in the
assessment activities for this unit.)
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 20

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 20

Exercise 1 Solution
• rake angle α = 10o.
• chip thickness before the cut to=0.50 mm
• chip thickness after the cut tc =1.125 mm.
to r cos α
r= tan φ =
tc 1 − r sinα

Calculations

First of all, you need to find the chip thickness ratio, by dividing the chip thickness
before chip formation by the chip thickness after separation, which gives you a chip
thickness ratio of 0.444. Now let’s look at the shear plane angle. You should have
worked this out by using the equation Tan angle is equal to chip ratio cosine rake
angle divided by 1 minus chip ratio sine rake angle. The answer for this scenario is
that Tan angle is 0.4738, which means that the shear plane angle is 25.4 degrees.
Finally, calculate the shear strain using the formula tan shear plane angle minus rake
angle, plus cosine shear plane angle. The answer is 2.386.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 21

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 21

Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining

1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip

A chip is produced by shear deformation when a single-edge cutting tool is forced

into a rotating part. Depending on the type of material being machined and the
cutting conditions of the operation, four basic types of chips can be distinguished:
discontinuous chip, continuous chip, continuous chip with a built-up edge, and
serrated chip.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 22

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 22

Discontinuous Chip
• Brittle work materials
• Low cutting speeds
• High tool-chip friction
• Large feed and depth
of cut

Discontinuous chips are produced by brittle materials, such as cast iron, at low
cutting speeds. High tool-chip friction and large feed and depth of cut can cause
this type of chip to form.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 23

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 23

Continuous Chip

• Ductile work materials

• High cutting speeds
• Small feeds and
depths
• Sharp cutting edge
• Low tool-chip friction

Continuous chips are formed by ductile materials at high speeds with relatively small
feeds and depth. They are caused by sharp cutting edges on the tools and low tool-
chip friction.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 24

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 24

Continuous chip with build-up edge

• Ductile materials
• Low-to-medium cutting
speeds
• Tool-chip friction
causes portions of chip
to adhere to rake face
• BUE forms, then
breaks off, cyclically

When ductile materials are being machined at low-to-medium cutting speeds, friction
between the tool and the chip tends to cause portions of the work material to adhere
to the rake face of the tool near the cutting edge. This can form a continuous chip
with a built up edge (BUE). The formation of a BUE is cyclical; it forms and grows,
then becomes unstable and breaks off.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 25

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 25

Serrated Chip
• Semicontinuous -
saw-tooth
appearance
• Cyclical chip forms
with alternating high
shear strain then low
shear strain
• Associated with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting
speeds (d) serrated.

Serrated chips possess a saw-tooth appearance. They are the result of alternating
high shear strain and then low shear strain. This type of chip is most closely
associated with certain difficult-to-machine metals being machined at high cutting
speeds, such as titanium alloys.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 26

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 26

Forces Acting on Chip

• Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
• Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Forces in metal cutting: (a)

forces acting on the chip in
orthogonal cutting

As shown in this figure, there are four forces in total in a typical machining process.
The friction force is the frictional force which resists the flow of the chip along the
rake face of the tool. The normal force to friction is perpendicular to the friction force.
The shear force is the force that causes shear deformation to occur in the shear
plane, and the normal force to shear is perpendicular to the shear force.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 27

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 27

Coefficient of Friction

Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:

µ = tan β

Where β is the friction angle

The friction between tool and chip is important. The coefficient of friction between
the tool and chip is tan friction angle.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 28

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 28

Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
Fs
S=
As

where As = area of the shear plane

t w
As = o
sin φ

t0: original chip thickness (cut depth); w: width (feed)

Shear stress = shear strength of work material

during cutting

In past lectures, we have looked at what stress and engineering stress are. Stress
is equal to the load divided by the original cross-sectional area. So, what is shear
stress? Shear stress is defined as a stress acting along the shear plane. Shear
stress is equal to the load divided by the area of the shear plane.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 29

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 29

Cutting Force and Thrust Force

• F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
• Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
– Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Forces acting on the chip that Forces acting on the tool that can
cannot be measured be measured

When a cutting tool is forced into a working material, two forces are needed, and
these are measurable. The cutting force is in the direction of cutting, the same
direction as the cutting speed. The thrust force is perpendicular to the cutting force
and is associated with the chip thickness before the cut.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 30

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 30

Forces in Metal Cutting

• Equations can be derived to relate the forces
that cannot be measured to the forces that can
be measured:
F = Fc sinα + Ft cosα
N = Fc cosα - Ft sinα
Fs = Fc cosφ - Ft sinφ
Fn = Fc sinφ + Ft cosφ
• Based on these calculated force, shear stress
and coefficient of friction can be determined

Cutting force and thrust force are used to calculate shear force, friction force, and
normal force to friction, by these four equations.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 31

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 31

Exercise 2

A cutting tool has a rake angle α = 10o. The chip thickness

before the cut is 0.50 mm and the chip thickness after
the cut is 1.125 mm. The shear plane angle is 25.4o.
The cutting force is 1559 N and the thrust force is
1271N. The width is 3.0mm.

Determine the shear strength of the work materials (that

is, work out the shear force and shear stress).

Now pause this presentation and use what you have learnt from the last few slides to
solve this question. The solution is on the next slide.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 32

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 32

Exercise 2 Solution

• rake angle α = 10o. • shear plane angle ø = 25.4o

• chip thickness before the cut to= 0.50 mm • cutting force Fc= 1559 N
• chip thickness after the cut tc = 1.125 mm • thrust force Ft=1271N.
• shear plane angle ø = 25.4o • width w=3.0mm.
• As = area of the shear plane

to w Fs
Fs = Fc cosφ - Ft sinφ As = S=
sin φ As

Calculations

Fs 863 N
S= = = 247 MPa
As 3.497 mm 2

To do this, we need to determine the shear force Fs and the shear stress S. You
can see the three equations which you need, and the actual calculations, in this
slide.
The shear force Fs equals the cutting force cos shear plane angle minus the thrust
force sine shear plane angle, which equals 863 Newtons. To work out the shear
stress, we need to know the shear plane area, which is the chip thickness prior to
cutting multiplied by the width, all divided by sine shear plane angle. The area is
3.497 square mm. Now we find the shear stress by dividing the the shear force by
the shear plane area, which is 247 MPa.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 33

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slid

The Merchant Equation

• Of all the possible angles at which shear
deformation can occur, the work material will
select a shear plane angle φ that minimizes
energy, given by
α β
φ = 45 + −
2 2

One of the most important equations in metal cutting is the merchant equation. This
equation states that the shear plane angle is 45 plus rake angle divided by 2 minus
friction angle divided by 2.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 34

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 34

What the Merchant Equation Tells Us

α β
φ = 45 + −
2 2
• To increase shear plane angle
– Increase the rake angle
– Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of friction)

Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity

extends to 3-D machining

What does the merchant equation tell us? It tells us that to increase shear plane
angle, we need to increase the rake angle, while reducing the friction angle.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 35

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 35

Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle

• Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear
plane which means lower shear force, cutting
forces, power, and temperature

Effect of shear plane angle φ : (a) higher φ with a resulting lower shear
plane area; (b) smaller φ with a corresponding larger shear plane
area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase
shear angle according to the Merchant equation

This slide shows you the relationship between the shear plane angle and the cutting
force. A higher shear plane angle means a smaller shear plane, which means lower
shear force, cutting forces, power, and temperature.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 36

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 36

Exercise 3

A cutting tool has a rake angle of 10o. The chip thickness

before the cut is 0.50 mm and the chip thickness after the
cut is 1.125 mm. The shear plane angle is 25.4o.

Determine the friction angle β and the coefficient of

friction μ.

Now, pause the presentation and use the Merchant equation to try to work out this
problem. The solution is on the next slide.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 37

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 37

Exercise 3 Solution
• rake angle α = 10o
• chip thickness before the cut to=0.50 mm
• chip thickness after the cut tc =1.125 mm
• shear plane angle ø = 25.4o

α β µ = tan β
φ = 45 + −
2 2

Calculations

You can see the two equations which you need for this problem in this slide. The
coefficient of friction between the tool and chip is tan friction angle. The friction
angle can be derived by rearranging the Merchant equation, because you know the
shear plane angle and the rake angle. The solution is that the friction angle is 49.2
degrees and the coefficient of friction is 1.16.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 38

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 38

Power and Energy Relationships

• A machining operation requires power
• The power to perform machining can be
computed from:

where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force; and

v = cutting speed
Example: cutting speed, v=100m/min; depth of cut,
to=0.5mm; width of cut, w=3.0mm; cutting force, Fc=1557N,
Determine the cutting power
Pc=(1557N) ×(100m/min)=155,700Nm/min
=155,700J/min=2595J/s=2595W=2.6kW

A machining operation requires power, and you will need to work out the amount of
power you require for specific operations. The equation for this is cutting power
equals cutting force multiplied by cutting speed. For example, if we have an
operation with a cutting speed of 100 meters per minute, and a cutting force of 1557
Newtons, then the power needed is 155, 700 Newton meters per minute, which
equals 2.6 kilo Watts.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 39

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 39

Power and Energy Relationships

• Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or
HPg is given by

Pc
Pg =
E

where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

 Typical E for machine tools ∼ 90%

Example continued: Pc=2.6Kw,

Determine the gross power
Pg =2.6/0.9=2.9kW

The gross power needed to operate the machine tool is calculated by dividing cutting
power by the mechanical efficiency of the machine tool, which is typically 90%. So,
to continue the last example, if we divide the cutting power by 90%, we get a gross
power of 2.9 kilo Watts.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 40

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 40

Unit Power in Machining

• Useful to convert power into power per unit volume rate
of metal cut
• Called unit power, Pu

• also known as the specific energy U

P Fv F
U = Pu = c = c = c
RMR vto w to w
where RMR = material removal rate
N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in-lb/in3)

Example continued: Pc=155.700Nm/min

Determine specific energy

The unit power is the amount of power required to remove per unit volume of cut
metal. It is calculated by dividing the cutting power by the material removal rate. To
continue the previous example, if the cutting power is 155.7 Nm per minute, and the
material removal rate is 100 meters per minute, then the Unit power is 1.038 Nm per
cubic mm.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 41

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 41

Cutting Temperature

• Approximately 98% of the energy in machining

is converted into heat
• This can cause temperatures to be very high at
the tool-chip
• The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained
as elastic energy in the chip

Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is converted into heat. This can
cause very high temperatures at the tool‑chip. The remaining energy (about 2%) is
retained as elastic energy in the chip.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 42

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 42

Cutting Temperatures are Important

High cutting temperatures

1. Reduce tool life
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to
the machine operator
3. Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions
due to thermal expansion of work material

High cutting temperatures are not good at all, for a number of reasons. They reduce
tool life, they produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the machine
operator, and they can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions, due to the
thermal expansion of work material.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 43

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 43

Cutting Temperature
• Analytical method derived by an engineer
called Nathan Cook from dimensional
analysis using experimental data for various
work materials
0.333
0.4U  vt o 
T =  
ρC  K 
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip
interface; U = specific energy; v = cutting
speed; to = chip thickness before cut; ρC =
volumetric specific heat of work material; K =
thermal diffusivity of work material

It is important to control the cutting temperature. Nathan Cook developed an

equation for predicting cutting temperature.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 44

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 44

Exercise 4
Ambient temperature 20oC
Cutting speed, v=1667mm/s
Cutting depth, to=0.5mm
Specific energy, U=1.038Nm/mm3
Specific heat for material, ρC=3.0(10-3)J/mm3-C
Thermal Diffusivity, K=50mm2 /s

Find the temperature for the tool chip interface

Now, you can use the Nathan’s equation to predict the cutting temperature in this
example. You have been given the ambient temperature, the cutting speed and
depth, the specific energy, the specific heat for the material and the thermal
diffusivity. Find the temperature rise for the tool chip interface. The solution is on
the next slide.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 45

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 45

Exercise 4 Solution
Ambient temperature 20oC
Cutting speed, v=1667mm/s 0.333
0.4U  vt o 
Cutting depth, to=0.5mm T =  
Specific energy, U=1.038Nm/mm3 ρC  K 
Specific heat for material, ρC=3.0(10-3)J/mm3-C
Thermal Diffusivity, K=50mm2 /s

Calculations

0.4 ×1.038 Nm / mm 3 1667 mm / s (0.5mm) 

0.333

T=
3.0(10 −3 ) J / mm 3 • C  50mm 2 / s 


Resulting cutting temperature =20+353=373oC

Nathan Cook’s equation is given here. You should have used this equation to work
out that the cutting temperature rise is 353 degrees Celsius. Given the ambient
temperature of 20 degrees, this means that the resultant cutting temperature is 373
degrees Celsius.
ENR212 Lecture 8 Slides and Notes

Slide 46

ENR212- Lecture 8- Slide No. 46

Thank you

Thank you for your attention.