1

OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS

CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Introduction 1.11 Strategic Planning
1.2 Historical Development 1.12 The Trend: Information and Non Manufactur-
1.3 Concept of Production ing System
1.4 Production System 1.13 Productivity
1.5 Classification of Production System 1.14 Factors Affecting Productivity
1.6 Production Management 1.15 International Dimensions of Productivity
1.7 Operations System 1.16 The Environment of Operations
1.8 Operations Management 1.17 Scope of Operations Management
1.9 Operations Management Objectives • Exercise
1.10 The Strategic Role of Operations • References

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Operation is that part of as organization, which is concerned with the transformation of a range of
inputs into the required output (services) having the requisite quality level. Management is the
process, which combines and transforms various resources used in the operations subsystem of the
organization into value added services in a controlled manner as per the policies of the organization.
The set of interrelated management activities, which are involved in manufacturing certain
products, is called as production management. If the same concept is extended to services
management, then the corresponding set of management activities is called as operations
management.
1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
For over two centuries operations and production management has been recognized as an important
factor in a country’s economic growth.
The traditional view of manufacturing management began in eighteenth century when Adam
Smith recognised the economic benefits of specialization of labour. He recommended breaking of
jobs down into subtasks and recognises workers to specialized tasks in which they would become
highly skilled and efficient. In the early twentieth century, F.W. Taylor implemented Smith’s
theories and developed scientific management. From then till 1930, many techniques were
developed prevailing the traditional view. Brief information about the contributions to
manufacturing management is shown in the Table 1.1.
Production Management becomes the acceptable term from 1930s to 1950s. As F.W.
Taylor’s works become more widely known, managers developed techniques that focused on
economic efficiency in manufacturing. Workers were studied in great detail to eliminate wasteful
efforts and achieve greater efficiency. At the same time, psychologists, socialists and other social
scientists began to study people and human behaviour in the working environment. In addition,
economists, mathematicians, and computer socialists contributed newer, more sophisticated
analytical approaches.
With the 1970s emerge two distinct changes in our views. The most obvious of these, reflected
in the new name Operations Management was a shift in the service and manufacturing sectors of
the economy. As service sector became more prominent, the change from ‘production’ to
‘operations’ emphasized the broadening of our field to service organizations. The second, more
suitable change was the beginning of an emphasis on synthesis, rather than just analysis, in
management practices.
Table 1.1 Historical summary of operations management
Date Contribution Contributor

1776 Specialization of labour in manufacturing Adam Smith

1799 Interchangeable parts, cost accounting Eli Whitney & others
1832 Division of labour by skill; assignment of jobs by Skill; basics of Charles Babbage
time study

1900 Scientific management time study and work study Developed; Frederick W.Taylor
dividing planning and doing of work

1900 Motion of study of jobs Frank B. Gilbreth

1901 Scheduling techniques for employees, machines Jobs in Henry L. Gantt
manufacturing

1915 Economic lot sizes for inventory control F.W. Harris

1927 Human relations; the Hawthorne studies Elton Mayo
1931 Statistical inference applied to product quality: quality control W.A. Shewart
charts

1935 Statistical Sampling applied to quality control: inspection sampling H.F.Dodge & H.G.Roming
plans

1940 Operations research applications in world war II P.M.Blacker & others

1946 Digital Computer John Mauchlly and J.P.Eckert
1947 Linear Programming G.B.Dantzig, Williams & others
1950 Mathematical programming, on-linear and stochastic processes A.Charnes, W.W.Cooper &
others
1951 Commercial digital computer: large-scale computations available Sperry Univac
1960 Organisational behaviour: continued study of people at work L.Cummings, L.Porter
1970 Integrating operations into overall strategy and policy Computer
applications to manufacturing, scheduling, and control, Material W.Skinner J.Orlicky & G. Wright
Requirement Planning (MRP)
Glossary 3
1980 Quality and productivity applications from Japan: robotics, W.E. Deming & J.Juran
CAD-CAM

1.3 CONCEPT OF PRODUCTION

Production function is ‘the part of an organisation, which is concerned with the transformation of
a range of inputs into the required outputs (products) having the requisite quality level’.
Production is defined as ‘the step-by-step conversion of one form of material into another
form through chemical or mechanical process to create or enhance the utility of the product to the
user’. Thus production is a value addition process. At each stage of processing, there will be value
addition.
Edwood Buffa defines production as ‘a process by which goods and services are created’.
Some examples of production are: manufacturing custom-made products like, boilers with a
specific capacity, constructing flats, some structural fabrication works for selected customers, etc.,
and manufacturing standardized products like, car, bus, motor cycle, radio, television, etc.
1.4 PRODUCTION SYSTEM
The production system is ‘that part of an organisation, which produces products of an
organisation. It is that activity whereby resources, flowing within a defined system, are combined
and transformed in a controlled manner to add value in accordance with the policies
communicated by management’. A simplified production system is shown below:

Fig.1.1 Schematic production system

The production system has the following characteristics:
1. Production is an organised activity, so every production system has an objective.
2. The system transforms the various inputs to useful outputs.
3. It does not operate in isolation from the other organisation system.
4. There exists a feedback about the activities, which is essential to control and improve
systemperformance.
 1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF PRODUCTION SYSTEM
Production systems can be classified as Job-shop, Batch, Mass and Continuous production systems.

Fig. 1.2 Classifications of production systems

1.5.1 Job-Shop Production

Job-shop production are characterised by manufacturing one or few quantity of products designed
and produced as per the specification of customers within prefixed time and cost. The
distinguishing feature of this is low volume and high variety of products.
A job-shop comprises of general-purpose machines arranged into different departments. Each
job demands unique technological requirements, demands processing on machines in a certain
sequence.
Job-shop Production is characterised by
1. High variety of products and low volume.
2. Use of general purpose machines and facilities.
3. Highly skilled operators who can take up each job as a challenge because of uniqueness.
4. Large inventory of materials, tools, parts.
5. Detailed planning is essential for sequencing the requirements of each product, capacities
foreach work centre and order priorities.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of Job-shop Production:
1. Because of general purpose machines and facilities variety of products can be produced.
2. Operators will become more skilled and competent, as each job gives them
learningopportunities.
3. Full potential of operators can be utilised.
4. Opportunity exists for Creative methods and innovative ideas.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of Job-shop Production:
1. Higher cost due to frequent set up changes.
2. Higher level of inventory at all levels and hence higher inventory cost.
Glossary 5
3. Production planning is complicated.
4. Larger space requirements.

1.5.2 Batch Production

American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) defines Batch Production as a form
of manufacturing in which the job pass through the functional departments in lots or batches and
each lot may have a different routing. It is characterised by the manufacture of limited number of
products produced at regular intervals and stocked awaiting sales. Batch Production is
characterised by 1. Shorter production runs.
2. Plant and machinery are flexible.
3. Plant and machinery set up is used for the production of item in a batch and change of set
upis required for processing the next batch.
4. Manufacturing lead-time and cost are lower as compared to job order
production.Advantages
Following are the advantages of Batch Production:
1. Better utilisation of plant and machinery.
2. Promotes functional specialisation.
3. Cost per unit is lower as compared to job order production.
4. Lower investment in plant and machinery.
5. Flexibility to accommodate and process number of products.
6. Job satisfaction exists for operators.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of Batch Production:
1. Material handling is complex because of irregular and longer flows.
2. Production planning and control is complex.
3. Work in process inventory is higher compared to continuous production.
4. Higher set up costs due to frequent changes in set up.

1.5.3 Mass Production

Manufacture of discrete parts or assemblies using a continuous process are called Mass Production.
This production system is justified by very large volume of production. The machines are arranged
in a line or product layout. Product and process standardisation exists and all outputs follow the
same path.
Mass Production is characterised by
1. Standardisation of product and process sequence.
2. Dedicated special purpose machines having higher production capacities and output rates.
3. Large volume of products.
4. Shorter cycle time of production.
5. Lower in process inventory.
6. Perfectly balanced production lines.
 7. Flow of materials, components and parts is continuous and without any back tracking.
8. Production planning and control is easy.
9. Material handling can be completely automatic.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of Mass Production:
1. Higher rate of production with reduced cycle time.
2. Higher capacity utilisation due to line balancing.
3. Less skilled operators are required.
4. Low process inventory.
5. Manufacturing cost per unit is low.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of Mass Production:
1. Breakdown of one machine will stop an entire production line.
2. Line layout needs major change with the changes in the product design.
3. High investment in production facilities.
4. The cycle time is determined by the slowest operation.

1.5.4 Continuous Production

Production facilities are arranged as per the sequence of production operations from the first
operations to the finished product. The items are made to flow through the sequence of operations
through material handling devices such as conveyors, transfer devices, etc.
Continuous Production is characterised by
1. Dedicated plant and equipment with zero flexibility.
2. Material handling is fully automated.
3. Process follows a predetermined sequence of operations.
4. Component materials cannot be readily identified with final product.
5. Planning and scheduling is a routine action.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of Continuous Production:
1. Standardisation of product and process sequence.
2. Higher rate of production with reduced cycle time.
3. Higher capacity utilisation due to line balancing.
4. Manpower is not required for material handling as it is completely automatic.
5. Person with limited skills can be used on the production line.
6. Unit cost is lower due to high volume of production.
Limitations
Following are the limitations of Continuous Production:
1. Flexibility to accommodate and process number of products does not exist.
2. Very high investment for setting flow lines.
3. Product differentiation is limited.
Glossary 7

1.6 PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

Production management is ‘a process of planning, organising, directing and controlling the
activities of the production function. It combines and transforms various resources used in the
production subsystem of the organization into value added product in a controlled manner as per
the policies of the organization’.
E.S.Buffa defines production management as follows:
‘Production management deals with decision-making related to production processes so that
the resulting goods or services are produced according to specifications, in the amount and by the
schedule demanded and out of minimum cost’.

1.6.1 Objectives of Production Management

The objective of the production management is ‘to produce goods and services of Right Quality
and Quantity at the Right time and Right manufacturing cost’.
1. Right Quality: The quality of product is established based upon the customers need. The
right quality is not necessarily being the best quality. It is determined by the cost of the product and
the technical characteristics as suited to the specific requirements.
2. Right Quantity: The manufacturing organisation should produce the products in right
number. If they are produced in excess of demand the capital will block up in the form of inventory
and if the quantity is produced in short of demand, leads to shortage of products.
3. Right Time: Timeliness of delivery is one of the important parameter to judge the
effectiveness of production department. So, the production department has to make the optimal
utilization of input resources to achieve its objective.
4. Right Manufacturing Cost: Manufacturing costs are established before the product is
actually manufactured. Hence, all attempts should be made to produce the products at pre-
established cost, so as to reduce the variation between actual and the standard (pre-established)
cost.
1.7 OPERATIONS SYSTEM
An operation was defined in terms of the mission it serves for the organisation, technology it
employs and the human and managerial processes it involves. Operations in an organisation can be
categorised into Manufacturing Operations and Service Operations. Manufacturing Operations is
a conversion process that includes manufacturing yields a tangible output: a product, whereas, a
conversion process that includes service yields an intangible output: a deed, a performance, an
effort.
Operations system converts inputs in order to provide outputs, which are required by a
customer. It converts physical resources into outputs, the function of which is to satisfy customer
wants.
Everett E. Adam & Ronald J. Ebert defines as ‘An operating system is the part of an
organisation that produces the organistion’s physical goods and services’.
 Ray Wild defines operations system as ‘a configuration of resources combined for the provision
of goods or services’.
In some of the organisation the product is a physical good (breakfast in hotels) while in others
it is a service (treatment in hospitals). Bus and taxi services, tailors, hospital and builders are the
examples of an operations system. The basic elements of an operation system show in Figure 1.3
with reference to departmental stores.
A departmental store's has an input like land upon which the building is located, labour as a
stock clerk, capital in the form of building, equipment and merchandise, management skills in the
form of the stores manager. Output will be serviced customer with desired merchandise. Random
fluctuations will be from external or internal sources, monitored through a feedback system.

Fig.1.3 Operations system for department stores

1.7.1 A Framework of Managing Operations

Managing Operations can be enclosed in a frame of general management function as shown in
figure 1.3. Operation managers are concerned with planning, organising, and controlling the
activities, which affect human behaviour through models.
Planning is the activity that establishes a course of action and guide future decision-making.
The operations manager defines the objectives for the operations subsystem of the organisation,
and the policies, and procedures for achieving the objectives. This stage includes clarifying the role
and focus of operations in the organization’s overall strategy. It also involves product planning,
facility designing and using the conversion process.
Organizing is the activities that establish a structure of tasks and authority. Operation managers
establish a structure of roles and the flow of information within the operations subsystem. They
determine the activities required to achieve the goals and assign authority and responsibility for
carrying them out.
Controlling is the activities that assure the actual performance in accordance with planned
performance. To ensure that the plans for the operations subsystems are accomplished, the
operations manager must exercise control by measuring actual outputs and comparing them to
planned operations management. Controlling costs, quality, and schedules are the important
functions here.
1. Behaviour: Operations managers are concerned with the activities, which affect human
behaviour through models. They want to know the behaviour of subordinates, which affects
managerial activities. Their main interest lies in the decision-making behaviour.
Glossary 9
2. Models: Models represents schematic representation of the situation, which will be used
as a tool for decision-making. Following are some of the models used.
Aggregate planning models for examining how best to use existing capacity in short term,
break-even analysis to identify break-even volumes, Linear programming and computer simulation
for capacity utilisation, Decision tree analysis for long-term capacity problem of facility expansion,
simple median model for determining best locations of facilities, etc.

1.8 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Joseph G .Monks defines Operations Management as the process whereby resources, flowing
within a defined system, are combined and transformed by a controlled manner to add value in
accordance with policies communicated by management.
The operations managers have the prime responsibility for processing inputs into outputs. They
must bring together under production plan that effectively uses the materials, capacity and
knowledge available in the production facility. Given a demand on the system work must be
scheduled and controlled to produce goods and/or services required. Control must be exercised
over such parameters such as costs, quality and inventory levels.
 The definition of the operations Management contains following keywords: Resources,
Systems, transformation and Value addition Activities.

RESOURCES
Resources are the human, material and capital inputs to the production process. Human resources
are the key assets of an organisation. As the technology advances, a large proportion of human
input is in planning and controlling activities. By using the intellectual capabilities of people,
managers can multiply the value of their employees into by many times. Material resources are the
physical facilities and materials such as plant equipment, inventories and supplies. These are the
major assets of an organisation. Capital in the form of stock, bonds, and/or taxes and contributions
is a vital asset. Capital is a store of value, which is used to regulate the flow of the other resources.

SYSTEMS
Systems are the arrangement of components designed to achieve objectives according to the plan.
The business systems are subsystem of large social systems. In turn, it contains subsystem such as
personnel, engineering, finance and operations, which will function for the good of the
organisation.
A systems approach to operations management recognises the hierarchical management
responsibilities. If subsystems goals are pursued independently, it will results in sub-optimization.
A consistent and integrative approach will lead to optimization of overall system goals.
The system approach to specific problems requires that the problem first be identified and
isolated from the maze of the less relevant data that constitute the environment. The problem
abstracted from the overall (macro) environment. Then it can be broken into manageable (micro)
parts and analysed and solutions proposed. Doing this analysis is advantageous before making any
changes. If the solution appears to solve the problem in a satisfactory way, changes can be made to
the real system in an orderly and predictable way.
The ability of any system to achieve its objective depends on its design and its control. System
design is a predetermined arrangement of components. It establishes the relationships that must
exist between inputs, transformation activities and outputs in order to achieve the system
objectives. With the most structured design, there will be less planning and decision-making in the
operations of the system. System control consists of all actions necessary to ensure that activities
conform to preconceived plans or goals. It involves following four essential elements:
1. Measurement by an accurate sensory device.
2. Feedback of information in a timely manner.
3. Comparison with standards such as time and cost standards.
4. Corrective actions by someone with the authority and ability to correct.
A closed loop control system can automatically function on the basis of data from within its
own system.

TRANSFORMATION AND VALUE ADDING ACTIVITIES

The objective of combining resources under controlled conditions is to transform them into goods
and services having a higher value than the original inputs. The transformation process applied
will be in the form of technology to the inputs. The effectiveness of the production factors in the
transformation process is known as productivity.
Glossary 11
The productivity refers to the ratio between values of output per work hour to the cost of inputs.
The firms overall ratio must be greater than 1, then we can say value is added to the product.
Operations manager should concentrate improving the transformation efficiency and to increase
the ratio.

Fig. 1.5 Schematic model for operations/production system

1.9 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES

Joseph G .Monks defines Operations Management as the process whereby resources, flowing
within a defined system, are combined and transformed by a controlled manner to add value in
accordance with policies communicated by management.
Objectives of Operations Management can be categorized into Customer Service and Resource
Utilisation.

CUSTOMER SERVICE
The first objective of operating systems is to utilize resources for the satisfaction of customer wants.
Therefore, customer service is a key objective of operations management. The operating system
must provide something to a specification, which can satisfy the customer in terms of cost and
timing. Thus, providing the ‘right thing at a right price at the right time’ can satisfy primary
objective.
These aspects of customer service – specification, cost and timing – are described for four
functions in Table 1.1. They are the principal sources of customer satisfaction and must therefore
be the principal dimension of the customer service objective for operations managers.
Generally, an organisation will aim reliably and consistently to achieve certain standards and
operations manager will be influential in attempting to achieve these standards. Hence, this
objective will influence the operations manager’s decisions to achieve the required customer
service.
Table 1.2 Aspects of customer service
Principal Principal customer wants
function
Primary considerations Other considerations
 Manufacture Goods of a given, requested Cost, i.e. purchase price or cost of obtaining
or acceptable specification goods. Timing, i.e. delivery delay from order or
request to receipt of goods.

Transport Management of a given, Cost, i.e. cost of movements. Timing, i.e.

requested or acceptable 1. Duration or time to move.

specification 2. Wait or delay from requesting to its

commencement.

Supply Goods of a given, requested or Cost, i.e. purchase price or cost of obtaining
acceptable specification goods. Timing, i.e. delivery delay from order or
request to receipt of goods.

Service Treatment of a given, requested Cost, i.e. cost of movements. Timing, i.e.

or acceptable specification 1. Duration or time required for treatment.

2. Wait or delay from requesting treatment
to its commencement.

RESOURCE UTILISATION
Another major objective of operating systems is to utilize resources for the satisfaction of customer
wants effectively. Customer service must be provided with the achievement of effective operations
through efficient use of resources. Inefficient use of resources or inadequate customer service leads
to commercial failure of an operating system.
Operations management is concerned essentially with the utilisation of resources, i.e. obtaining
maximum effect from resources or minimising their loss, under utilisation or waste. The extent of
the utilisation of the resources’ potential might be expressed in terms of the proportion of available
time used or occupied, space utilisation, levels of activity, etc. Each measure indicates the extent
to which the potential or capacity of such resources is utilised. This is referred as the objective of
resource utilisation.
Operations management is concerned with the achievement of both satisfactory customer
service and resource utilisation. An improvement in one will often give rise to deterioration in the
other. Often both cannot be maximized, and hence a satisfactory performance must be achieved on
both objectives. All the activities of operations management must be tackled with these two
objectives in mind, and because of this conflict, operations managers’ will face many of the
problems. Hence, operations managers must attempt to balance these basic objectives.
The Table 1.3 summarizes the twin objectives of operations management. The type of balance
established both between and within these basic objectives will be influenced by market
considerations, competitions, the strengths and weaknesses of the organization, etc. Hence, the
operations managers should make a contribution when these objectives are set.
Table 1.3 The twin objectives of operations management
The customer service objective The resource utilizations objective

i.e. to provide agreed/adequate levels of customer i.e. to achieve adequate levels of resource
service (and hence customer satisfaction) by providing utilizations (or productivity) e.g. to achieve
goods or services with the right specification, at the right agreed levels of utilizations of materials,
cost and at the right time. machines and labour.
Glossary 13

1.10 THE STRATEGIC ROLE OF OPERATIONS

Primary goals of the organisations are related market opportunities. Economy and efficiency of
conversion operations are the secondary goals, which will be predominant with the study and
practice of operations management.

A STRATEGIC PERSPECTIVE
In figure 1.1 provides the basic downward flow of strategy influence leading to managing
conversion operations and results. The general thrust of the process is guided by competitive and
market conditions in the industry, which provide the basis for determining the organization’s
strategy. Where is the industry now, and where it will be in the future? What are the existing and
potential markets? What market gaps exist, and what competencies do we have for filling them? A
careful analysis of market segments and the ability of our competitors and ourselves to meet the
needs of these segments will determine the best direction for focusing an organization’s efforts.
After assessing the potential within an industry, an overall organizational strategy must be
developed, including some basic choices of the primary basis for competing. In doing so, priorities
are established among the following four characteristics:
• Quality (product performance).
• Cost efficiency (low product price).
• Dependability (reliable, timely delivery of orders to customers).
• Flexibility (responding rapidly with new products or changes in volume).
In recent years, most organizations cannot be best on all these dimensions and, by trying to do
so, they end up doing nothing well. Furthermore, when a competency exists in one of these areas,
an attempt to switch to a different one can lead to a downfall in effectiveness (meeting the primary
objectives).
Time is emerging as a critical dimension of competition in both manufacturing and service
industries. In any industry the firm with the fastest response to customer demands has the potential
to achieve an overwhelming market advantage. In an era of time-based competition, a firm's
competitive advantage is defined by the total time required to produce a product or service. Firms
able to respond quickly have reported growth rates over three times the industry average and double
the profitability. Thus the pay-off for quick response is market dominance. These basic strategic
choices set the tone for the shape and content of the operations functions.

OPERATIONS OBJECTIVES
The overall objective of the operations subsystem is to provide conversion capabilities for meeting
the organization’s goals and strategy. The sub-goals of the operations subsystem, must specify the
following:
1. Product/service characteristics.
2. Process characteristics.
3. Product/service quality.
 4. EfficiencyEffective employee relations and cost control of labour. Cost control of
material.
 Cost control in facility utilization.

5. Customer service (schedule) Producing quantities to meet expected demand.

 Meeting the required delivery date for goods or services.

6. Adaptability for future survival.

The priorities among these operations’ sub-goals and their relative emphases should be direct
reflections of the organization’s mission. Relating these six operations sub-goals to the broader
strategic choices above, it is clear that quality, efficiency, and dependability (customer service) are
reflected in the sub-goals. Flexibility encompasses adaptability but also relates to product/service
and process characteristics: Once choices about product and process are made, boundaries for
meeting the other operations objectives are set.

OPERATIONS ALTERNATIVES AND TRADEOFFS

The operations sub-goals can be attained through the decisions that are made in the various
operations areas. Each decision involves important tradeoffs between choices about product and
process versus choices about quality, efficiency, schedule and adaptability.
Once a decision is made, it leads to many choices. Where should facilities be located? How
large should they be? What degree of automation should be used? How skilled must labour be to
operate the automated equipment? Will the product be produced on site? How do these decisions
impact quality, efficiency, schedule (customer service), and adaptability? Are we prepared for
changes in product or service, or do these decisions lock in our operations? These are examples of
the tough, crucial tradeoffs that are at the heart of understanding the choices that must be made
when planning strategically and tactically.
1.11 STRATEGIC PLANNING
Strategic planning is the process of thinking through the current mission of the organization and
the current environmental conditions facing it, then setting forth a guide for tomorrow’s decisions
and results. Strategic planning is built on fundamental concepts: that current decisions are based
on future conditions and results.

1.11.1 Strategic Planning for Production and Operations

In the production or operations function, strategic planning is the broad, overall planning that
precedes the more detailed operational planning. Executives who head the production and
operations function are actively involved in strategic planning, developing plans that are consistent
with the firm’s overall strategies as well as such functions as marketing, finance accounting and
engineering. Production and operations strategic plans are the basis for (1) operational planning of
facilities (design) and (2) operational planning for the use of these facilities.

1.11.2 Strategic Planning Approaches for Production/Operations

Henry Mintzberg suggests three contrasting modes of strategic planning: the entrepreneurial, the
adaptive, and the planning modes. In the entrepreneurial mode, one strong, bold leader takes
Glossary 15
planning action on behalf of the production/operations function. In the adaptive mode, a manager’s
plan is formulated in a series of small, disjointed steps in reaction to a disjointed environment. The
planning model uses planning essentials combined with the logical analysis of management
science.
There are many approaches to strategic planning. The key point is that operations strategies
must be consistent with the overall strategies of the firm. Operations typically utilize the overall
corporate approach to strategic planning, with special modifications and a focus upon operations
issues and opportunities. One general approach to strategic planning is a forced choice model given
by Adam and Ebert.

1.11.3 Strategic Planning—Forced Choice Model

One of many planning models that have been used in strategic planning is a forced choice model,
shown in Figure 1.6 (on page 16). In-group sessions or individually, analysts assess environmental
considerations together with the organization’s current production/operations position, thus forcing
management to develop strategic options for operations.

Fig.1.6 A forced choice model of strategic planning for operations

Source: Charles, N. Greene, Everett E. Adam, Jr., and Ronald J. Ebert, Management for Effective
Performance (Prentice Hall 1985)
1.11.4 A Strategic Planning Operations Model
Professor Chris A. Voss of the London Business School, England, has set forth a framework for
strategy and policy development in manufacturing. Concept is that manufacturing strategy tries to
link the policy decisions associated with operations to the marketplace, the environment, and the
company’s overall goals. A simplified framework for examining operations strategy is shown in
Figure 1.7.
One feature of this approach that is crucial to competitiveness is market-based view of strategic
planning. It suggests that any strategic business unit of a company operates in the context of its
corporate resources, the general and competitive industry environment, and the specific corporate
goals of the company. In any area in which the company chooses to compete is a set of specific
market-based criteria for success.
A low-cost, high productivity operation makes efficiency possible. Minimum use of scarce
resources while sustaining high outputs is the key to productivity. Effectiveness is how well a
company is able to meet specific criteria such as delivery schedules and technical capability.
Quality is the degree to which the product or services meets customer and organisation
expectations.
Quality reflects the ‘goodness’ of the product or services to the customer. Flexibility is the
adoptability, the capability to change as business conditions change.

1.12 THE TREND: INFORMATION AND NON MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Glossary 17
An increasingly significant trend in the Indian economy is the gradual shift of productive effort
from manufacturing (industrial) to service and information based products. With this, the demand
for communication and information based product is gradually restructuring the society.
Traditional ways of doing things are being replaced by efficient methods. Computers play a major
role in this transition along with fiber optics, microwaves, lasers and other communication
technologies.
Following characteristics can be considered for distinguishing Manufacturing Operations with
Service Operations:
1. Tangible/Intangible nature of output
2. Production and consumption3. Nature of work (job)
4. Degree of customer contact
5. Customer participation in conversion
6. Measurement of performance
7. Quality of output
8. Inventory accumulated.
Manufacturing is characterized by tangible outputs (products). Consumption of outputs at
overtime. Jobs useless labour and more equipment, little customer contact, no customer
participation in the conversion process (in production). Sophisticated methods for measuring
production activities and resource consumption as product are made.
Service is characterized by intangible outputs. In addition, it possess a potential for high
variability in quality of output. Production and consumption occurs simultaneously. Jobs use more
labour and less equipment, direct consumer contact, frequent customer participation in the
conversion process. Elementary methods for measuring conversion activities and resource
consumption are used.
1.13 PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity is defined in terms of utilization of resources, like material and labour. In simple terms,
productivity is the ratio of output to input. For example, productivity of labour can be measured as
units produced per labour hour worked. Productivity is closely inked with quality, technology and
profitability. Hence, there is a strong stress on productivity improvement in competitive business
environment.
Productivity can be improved by (a) controlling inputs, (b) improving process so that the same
input yields higher output, and (c) by improvement of technology. These aspects are discussed in
more detail in the lesson on Productivity Management.
Productivity can be measured at firm level, at industry level, at national level and at international
level.

1.13.1 Modern Dynamic Concept of Productivity

Productivity can be treated as a multidimensional phenomenon. The modern dynamic concept of
productivity looks at productivity as what may be called “productivity flywheel”. The productivity
is energized by competition. Competition leads to higher productivity, higher productivity results
in better value for customers, this results in higher share of market for the organization, which
results in still keener competition. Productivity thus forms a cycle, relating to design and products
to satisfy customer needs, leading to improved quality of life, higher competition i.e. need for
having still higher goals and higher share of market, and thereby leading to still better designs.

Fig. 1.8 Dynamic concept of productivity

1.13.2 Factor Productivity and Total Productivity

When productivity is measured separately for each input resource to the production process it is
called factor productivity or partial productivity. When productivity is measured for all the factors
of production together, it is called total factor productivity.
Generally factor productivity calculations are required at firm level and industry level, whereas
total factor productivity calculations are made for measuring productivity at national and
international level.
Productivity of materials can be measured as output units per unit material consumed. It can
also be measured in terms of value generated per unit expenditure in materials.
For measuring productivity of different groups of operatives, different ratios can be used,
which are indicative of output/input relationship. For example, the productivity of assembly line
work can be measured as output units per man-hour or alternatively, the value of good produced
per cost of labour on assembly line.

1.13.3 Productivity Analysis

For the purposes of studies of productivity for improvement purposes, following types of analysis
can be carried out:
1. Trend analysis: Studying productivity changes for the firm over a period of time.
2. Horizontal analysis: Studying productivity in comparison with other firms of same size and
engaged in similar business.
3. Vertical analysis: Studying productivity in comparison with other industries and other firms
of different sizes in the same industry.
4. Budgetary analysis: Setting up a norm for productivity for a future period as budget, based
on studies as above, and planning strategies to achieve it.
1.14 FACTORS AFFECTING PRODUCTIVITY
Economists site a variety of reasons for changes in productivity. However some of the principle
factors influencing productivity rate are:
Glossary 19
1. Capital/labour ratio: It is a measure of whether enough investment is being made in plant,
machinery, and tools to make effective use of labour hours.
2. Scarcity of some resources: Resources such as energy, water and number of metals will
create productivity problems.
3. Work-force changes: Change in work-force effect productivity to a larger extent, because of
the labour turnover.
4. Innovations and technology: This is the major cause of increasing productivity.
5. Regulatory effects: These impose substantial constraints on some firms, which lead to
change in productivity.
6. Bargaining power: Bargaining power of organized labour to command wage increases
excess of output increases has had a detrimental effect on productivity.
7. Managerial factors: Managerial factors are the ways an organization benefits from the
unique planning and managerial skills of its manager.
8. Quality of work life: It is a term that describes the organizational culture, and the extent to
which it motivates and satisfies employees.
1.15 INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF PRODUCTIVITY
Industrialized nations are developing two strategies to remain competitive in the business.
1. Moving to a new and more advanced products, and
2. Employing better and more flexible system.

NEW PRODUCTS
High Volume Products like steel, textiles, etc. with constitute an industrial base are not secure.
Nations such as Japan, France and West Germany are shifting their industrial base towards products
and processes that make better use of their research capabilities and skilled workers. Their future
lies in microelectronics, precision manufactured castings, specialty steels, custom fabrics, fiber
optics, lasers, etc.

TREND TOWARDS MORE FLEXIBLE SYSTEMS

The production runs of these higher valued specialty items and custom designed products are often
much shorter than for traditional mass produced goods. But the non-productive time (downtime)
required to set up equipment for producing different options, new models and new products are
very costly. So production facilities must be designed with the utmost flexibility to accommodate
change overs in rapid fashion. This is where computers, robotics come into play.
German executives understand the need for a strong technological focus and the dangers of
hierarchical bureaucracies and paper profits. Studies reveal that over 50 per cent of Germany’s
large manufacturing firms are managed by Ph.D.’s with technical backgrounds.
In recent years, the managerial techniques and productivity methods in Japanese firms have
attracted worldwide attention. The following are some of the characteristics of the Japanese firm
as compared with the American firms.
1. Corporate objectives: Employees and customers are given priority over shareholders.
Honesty in business is important.
 2. Time horizon: Long-term viability is more important than short-term profits.
3. Production systems: Automated systems with extensive use of microprocessors and
robotics. Quality is paramount, and things happen on schedule.
4. Employment relations: Long-term employment of loyal workers. Unions cooperate to
benefit total firm. Politeness and harmony are emphasized.
5. Materials: Resources are limited. Space is used efficiently and inventories are kept to a bare
minimum.
6. Financing: More use is made of debt capital and less of equity capital.
7. Training: Employees are thoroughly trained and rotated to learn a variety of skills.
8. Worker participation: Employees are thoroughly trained and rotated to learn a variety of
productivity improvements via suggestions, quality circles and consultation with
supervisors.
1.16 THE ENVIRONMENT OF OPERATIONS
One of the most encompassing influences on productivity is the environment in which organization
operates. The social impact of an organization is a reflection of the values held by top management.
It evolves from the religious and cultural norms of society, from childhood training, education, and
reflection on the purpose of life and the value of one’s self and of others. The preferred values of
the society reflect purpose, integrity and a respect for the life and humanity of others.
Every facet of our economic and social environment regulated and controlled by law designed
to protect general public. The figure illustrates some of the laws impact on the productivity of the
firms.
1.17 SCOPE OF OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
Operations Management concern with the conversion of inputs into outputs, using physical
resources, so as to provide the desired utilities to the customer while meeting the other
organizational objectives of effectiveness, efficiency and adoptability. It distinguishes itself from
other functions such as personnel, marketing, finance, etc. by its primary concern for ‘conversion
by using physical resources’. Following are the activities, which are listed under Production and
Operations Management functions:
1. Location of facilities.
2. Plant layouts and Material Handling.
3. Product Design.
4. Process Design.
5. Production and Planning Control.
6. Quality Control.
7. Materials Management.
8. Maintenance Management.
Glossary 21

Fig. 1.9 Environment of operations

Fig. 1.10 Scope of production and operations management

LOCATION OF FACILITIES
Location of facilities for operations is a long-term capacity decision, which involves a long-term
commitment about the geographically static factors that affect a business organisation. It is an
important strategic level decision-making for an organisation. It deals with the questions such as
‘where our main operations should be based?’
The selection of location is a key-decision as large investment is made in building plant and
machinery. An improper location of plant may lead to waste of all the investments made in plant
and machinery equipments. Hence, location of plant should be based on the company’s expansion
plan and policy, diversification plan for the products, changing sources of raw materials and many
other factors. The purpose of the location study is to find the optimal location that will results in
the greatest advantage to the organization.

PLANT LAYOUT AND MATERIAL HANDLING

Plant layout refers to the physical arrangement of facilities. It is the configuration of departments,
work centres and equipment in the conversion process. The overall objective of the plant layout is
to design a physical arrangement that meets the required output quality and quantity most
economically.
According to James More ‘Plant layout is a plan of an optimum arrangement of facilities
including personnel, operating equipment, storage space, material handling equipments and all
other supporting services along with the design of best structure to contain all these facilities’.
‘Material Handling’ refers to the ‘moving of materials from the store room to the machine and
from one machine to the next during the process of manufacture’. It is also defined as the ‘art and
science of moving, packing and storing of products in any form’. It is a specialized activity for a
modern manufacturing concern, with 50 to 75% of the cost of production. This cost can be reduced
by proper section, operation and maintenance of material handling devices. Material handling
devices increases the output, improves quality, speeds up the deliveries and decreases the cost of
production. Hence, material handling is a prime consideration in the designing new plant and
several existing plants.

PRODUCT DESIGN
Product design deals with conversion of ideas into reality. Every business organisation have to
design, develop and introduce new products as a survival and growth strategy. Developing the new
products and launching them in the market is the biggest challenge faced by the organizations. The
entire process of need identification to physical manufactures of product involves three functions—
Design and Marketing, Product, Development, and manufacturing. Product Development translates
the needs of customers given by marketing into technical specifications and designing the various
features into the product to these specifications. Manufacturing has the responsibility of selecting
the processes by which the product can be manufactured. Product design and development provides
link between marketing, customer needs and expectations and the activities required to
manufacture the product.

PROCESS DESIGN
Glossary 23
Process design is a macroscopic decision-making of an overall process route for converting the raw
material into finished goods. These decisions encompass the selection of a process, choice of
technology, process flow analysis and layout of the facilities. Hence, the important decisions in
process design are to analyse the workflow for converting raw material into finished product and
to select the workstation for each included in the workflow.

PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL

Production planning and control can be defined as the process of planning the production in
advance, setting the exact route of each item, fixing the starting and finishing dates for each item,
to give production orders to shops and to follow-up the progress of products according to orders.
The principle of production planning and control lies in the statement ‘First Plan Your Work
and then Work on Your Plan’. Main functions of production planning and control include Planning,
Routing, Scheduling, Dispatching and Follow-up.
Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it and who is to do it.
Planning bridges the gap from where we are, to where we want to go. It makes it possible for things
to occur which would not otherwise happen.
Routing may be defined as the selection of path, which each part of the product will follow,
which being transformed from raw material to finished products. Routing determines the most
advantageous path to be followed for department to department and machine to machine till raw
material gets its final shape.
Scheduling determines the programme for the operations. Scheduling may be defined as 'the
fixation of time and date for each operation' as well as it determines the sequence of operations to
be followed.
Dispatching is concerned with the starting the processes. It gives necessary authority so as to
start a particular work, which has been already been planned under ‘Routing’ and ‘Scheduling’.
Therefore, dispatching is ‘Release of orders and instruction for the starting of production for any
item in acceptance with the Route sheet and Schedule Charts’.
The function of Follow-up is to report daily the progress of work in each shop in a prescribed
proforma and to investigate the causes of deviations from the planned performance.

QUALITY CONTROL (QC)

Quality Control may be defined as ‘a system that is used to maintain a desired level of quality in a
product or service’. It is a systematic control of various factors that affect the quality of the product.
Quality Control aims at prevention of defects at the source, relies on effective feedback system and
corrective action procedure.
Quality Control can also be defined as ‘that Industrial Management technique by means of
which product of uniform acceptable quality is manufactured’. It is the entire collection of
activities, which ensures that the operation will produce the optimum quality products at minimum
cost.

The main objectives of Quality Control are:

 1. To improve the companies income by making the production more acceptable to the
customers
i.e. by providing longlife, greater usefulness, maintainability, etc.
2. To reduce companies cost through reduction of losses due to defects.
3. To achieve interchangeability of manufacture in large-scale production.
4. To produce optimal quality at reduced price.
5. To ensure satisfaction of customers with productions or services or high quality level, to
buildcustomer good will, confidence and reputation of manufacturer.
6. To make inspection prompt to ensure quality control.
7. To check the variation during manufacturing.

MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
Materials Management is that aspect of management function, which is primarily concerned with
the acquisition, control, and use of materials needed and flow of goods and services connected with
the production process having some predetermined objectives in view.
The main objectives of Material Management are:
1. To minimise material cost.
2. To purchase, receive, transport and store materials efficiently and to reduce the related cost.
3. To cut down costs through simplification, standardisation, value analysis, import
substitution,etc.
4. To trace new sources of supply and to develop cordial relations with them in order to
ensurecontinuous supply at reasonable rates.
5. To reduce investment tied in the inventories for use in other productive purposes and
todevelop high inventory turnover ratios.
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
In modern industry, equipment and machinery are a very important part of the total productive
effort. Therefore their idleness or downtime becomes are very expensive. Hence, it is very
important that the plant machinery should be properly maintained.
The main objectives of Maintenance Management are:
1. To achieve minimum breakdown and to keep the plant in good working condition at
thelowest possible cost.
2. To keep the machines and other facilities in such a condition that permits them to be used
attheir optimal capacity without interruption.
3. To ensure the availability of the machines, buildings and services required by other
sectionsof the factory for the performance of their functions at optimal return on investment.

EXERCISE
1. Define Operations management. Explain the key concepts of Operations management with a schematic
diagram.
2. Distinguish between manufacturing and service operation with example.
3.What is strategic planning? Explain the role of models in strategic planning.
4. Define the term operations management. Briefly explain the strategic role of operations.
Glossary 25
5. Write a note on system view of operations.
6. Explain, how the considerations of environtnenta1 assessment and organisational position provide a
modeling framework for the strategic planning of operations.
7. Briefly explain how service producers differ from goods producers in important aspects of their
operations.
8. State the important objectives of production management.
9. Define the term productive system.
10. Give two examples for the productive systems concerned to service and manufacturing respectively.
11. “Operations strategy”—A key element in corporate strategy. Briefly explain.
12. Explain what do you understand by product-focused systems and process-focused systems.
13. Differentiate between Production Management and Operations Management.
14. Explain the historical evaluation of production function up to 21st century.
15. What are the various decisions and their applications made by operations manager in a POM system?
16. Briefly explain the importance of operations management in the corporate management.
17. Explain the concept of productivity.
REFERENCES
1. Everett, E. Adam, Jr.Ronald J.Ebert, Production and Operations Management, Prentice-Hall of
India Private Limited, 5th Edition, 1994.
2. R. Pannerselvam, Production and Operations Management, Prentice-Hall of India Private
Limited, 9th print, 2004.
3. Joseph, G. Monks, Theory and Problems of Operations Management, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Limited, 2nd Edition, 2004.
4. Joseph, G. Monks, Operations Management, McGraw-Hill International Edition, 3rd Edition.
5. S. Anil Kumar, N. Suresh, Production and Operations Management, New Age International (P)
Limited Publishers, 2nd Edition, 2008.