Course Name : IT Tools and Business System

Unit Name : Operating System

Storyboard Document

TABLE OF CONTENT
UNIT NUMBER 3/8
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Syllabus

3.1 Objectives
3.2 Microsoft Windows
3.2.1A Introduction to Microsoft Windows
3.2.1B Basic Windows elements
3.2.1C File management through Windows
3.3 Using essential accessories
3.3.1 System tools
3.3.2 Entertainment
3.3.3 Games
3.3.4 Calculator
3.3.5 Imaging – Fax
3.3.6 Notepad
3.3.7 Paint
3.3.8 WordPad
3.4 Command Prompt
3.4.1 Command Prompt
3.5 Files
3.5.1 Files
3.6 Directories and its Structure
3.6.1 Directories and its Structure
3.7 Drives
3.7.1 Drives
3.8 Application Management
3.8.1A Installing and Uninstalling an application
3.9.1B Managing the running applications
3.9 Linux
3.9.1 An overview of Linux
3.10 Basic Linux elements

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3.10.1 System and Software Features
3.11 File Structure
3.11.1 File Structure
3.12 File handling in Linux
3.12.1 Hardware and Software requirements
3.13 Installing LINUX OS
3.13.1A Preliminary steps before installation and Disk Space Requirement
3.13.1B Boot methods
3.13.1C Red Hat Linux installation
3.14 Summary
3.15 Model Questions
Assessment 1

Assessment 2

Reference

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Chapter : 3.1 Objectives

Objectives
At the end of the course the user will be able to
Understand about Windows Operating system.
Know the different essential accessories.

Understand about to managing applications.

Know about LINUX operating system.

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Chapter: 3.2 Microsoft Windows

Topic: 3.2.1A Introduction to Microsoft Windows

Introduction to Microsoft Windows

Windows is developed by Microsoft Corporation.
Microsoft Windows is a series of graphical interface Operating Systems.
Microsoft Windows provides the environment necessary to start up and to
operate a personal computer.
It controls the overall activity of the computer.
Windows also provides virtual memory management, supports multitasking
platform and support many peripheral devices.
More than 90 % of all the personal computers were dominated by Windows
Operating System.
An overview of different versions of Windows
Versions of Microsoft Windows
Windows 1.0 - 2.0
Windows 3.0 - 3.1

Windows 95

Windows 98

Windows-2000

Windows –XP

Windows Vista

Windows 7

Windows 8

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FIG 3.1: Versions of Windows

The first version of Microsoft Windows (Microsoft Windows 1.0) came out in
November 1985.

FIG 3.2: Microsoft Windows 1.0

Rather than typing MS-DOS commands, you just move a mouse to point and
user can click their way through screens in Windows1.0.

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On December 9, 1987 Microsoft releases Windows 2.0 with desktop icons and
expanded memory.

FIG 3.3: Microsoft Windows 2.0

With improved graphics support, you can now overlap Windows, control the
screen layout, and use keyboard shortcuts to speed up your work.
Microsoft released Windows 3.0 in May, 1990. Offering better icons,
performance and advanced graphics with 16 colors designed for Intel 386
processors.
This version is the first release that provides the standard "look and feel" of
Microsoft Windows.

FIG 3.4: Microsoft Windows 3.0

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In the year 1992 Microsoft releases Windows 3.1 and this is the most widely
used Operating System yet.

FIG 3.5: Microsoft Windows 3.1

Windows 3.1 contained necessary fixes and improved font functionality.
Microsoft continued to develop a new release, Windows NT, hoping it could
be released as a continuation of Windows 3.0 and 3.1.
Unfortunately, issues with driver support and software meant that it was time
for a new version altogether.
Microsoft introduced Windows 95 in August 1995 to supersede Windows 3.X
and significant enhancement were made for managing multimedia elements.

FIG 3.6: Microsoft Windows 95

Window 95 is updated from 16-bit to 32-bit.
Microsoft released the next version of Windows on June 25, 1998: Windows 98.

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FIG 3.7: Microsoft Windows 98

Windows 98 included improved hardware and hardware drivers, Internet Explorer,
and eventually, Internet connection sharing.
A second edition of Windows 98 came out on February 17, 2000; it was named
Windows 98 SE (for "Second Edition").
On September 14, 2000, Microsoft released Windows Me (for
Millennium Edition), also called Windows Millennium.

FIG 3.8: Microsoft Windows 2000

Windows 2000 made everyone's lives easier by increasing the number of plug
and play devices compatible with the operating system.
Windows XP was released in 2001.

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Windows XP is the new version of Windows. The letter XP stands for extra
performance, Microsoft Windows XP brims with new features, improved
programs and tools.
Windows XP comes in two versions, Home and Professional.

FIG 3.9: Microsoft Windows XP

Windows Vista is released in 2006 with the strongest security system.
Windows Vista security features protect against the latest generation of threats,
such as worms, viruses and spyware. If an attacker manages to compromise a
computer, Windows Vista limits the damage.

FIG 3.10: Microsoft Windows Vista

Windows 7 is released in 2009 to fulfill requirements of Windows vista.

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Windows 7 include multi-touch support, Internet Explorer 8, improved

performance and start-up time, Aero Snap, Aero Shake, support for virtual hard
disks, a new and improved Windows Media Center, and improved security.

FIG 3.11: Microsoft Windows 7

Windows 8 has been released in 2012.
Windows 8 is a reimaged Operating System from the chipset to the user
experience, and it introduces a totally new interface that works smoothly for both
touch screens and input devices like mouse and keyboard.
It functions as both a tablet for entertainment and a full-featured PC for getting
things done.
Windows 8 also includes enhancements of the familiar Windows desktop, with a
new taskbar and streamlined file management.
Windows 8 features a Start screen with tiles that connect to people, files, apps,
and websites.
Apps are easily accessed from the Windows Store built right into the Start
screen.

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FIG 3.12: Microsoft Windows 8

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Chapter: 3.2 Microsoft Windows

Topic: 3.2.1B Basic Windows elements

Basic Windows elements

Window
A window is simply a rectangular unit that acts independently from other windows.
In a graphical user interface (GUI), the boundaries of the window can be easily
expanded or contracted.
Windows come in two basic types: the application window, and the dialog box.
Application window

FIG 3.13: Application Window

Application windows are the main part of almost all programs.

Common elements of application windows include the control menu, menu bar,
and border.

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Dialog box

FIG 3.14: Dialog box

Dialogs perform a specific task or give details for the application.
Most dialog boxes lack several of the control buttons and a border, and will have
other buttons inside the window to complete a request such as ―OK‖ and
―CANCEL‖.
Taskbar
In GUI interfaces, the taskbar is a desktop toolbar application that lets the user to
locate and perform tasks such as switching between open Windows and starting
new applications.
A bar at the bottom of the desktop is the Taskbar and it was first introduced with
Microsoft Windows 95 and found in all versions of Windows after that.

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FIG 3.15: Taskbar

The notification area, at the far right of the taskbar, includes a clock and a group
of icons.
When clicked on a window title in the taskbar, that window will become active
and show up in front of other Windows which are opened already.
Icons

An icon is a small graphic representation of a program.

Icons allow the user to access the program with ease.
Icons are used with Graphical User Interface (GUI).
Operating Systems such as Microsoft Windows and the Apple Mac OS to help
quickly identify a type of file or program associated with the icon.

FIG 3.16: Icons

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Start menu

The Start menu is a feature of the Windows Operating System that provides
quick access to programs, folders and system settings.
By default, the Start menu is located in the lower-left corner of the Windows
desktop.

FIG 3.17: Start menu

Border

A border is ―a part that forms the outer edge of something.‖

The border not only defines where the window is on the desktop, but it can also
be used to change the size of most windows.
This type of border can be used to represent the outer edge of a document or to
separate several sections within a document from each other.

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Title Bar

The title bar is located along the top of a window or a dialog box that displays the
name of the window or software program being used.
In many graphical user interfaces, including the Macintosh and Microsoft
Windows interfaces, user move (drag) a window by grabbing the title bar.
Control buttons are the little buttons which are on the right side of title bar

FIG 3.18: Title bar

These commands can be done with the mouse using other window elements;
their primary usefulness is in when user have to do any of these functions with
the keyboard.
Minimize Button

FIG 3.19: Minimize Button

By pressing, it will remove the window and replace it with a program icon
somewhere on the desktop.
Maximize / Restore Button

FIG 3.20: Maximize Button

By pressing, it will make the window as large as it can possibly go – usually as
large as the screen.

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FIG 3.21: Restore Button

The button will then change to the Restore Button, which when pressed change
the window back to its previous size.
Close Button

FIG 3.22: Close Button

Pressing this button is just one way of closing the window. Other ways of closing
the window include double-clicking the control menu or clicking on the File menu
and then Exit if it's an application window, and clicking on the ―OK‖ button if it's
a dialog box.
Take caution on dialog boxes: When this button is active, it usually has the same
effect as pressing the ―CANCEL‖ button, so be sure that, don't need to save
any changes user made in the dialog box.
Help Button

FIG 3.23: Help Button

If user press it, a question mark will be attached to the mouse pointer.
Then when user click on something else in that window, user will see a little box
describing the purpose of what they clicked on and/or how to use it.
Resize Handle

FIG 3.24: Resize Handler

The resize handle is actually an extension to the border, found in the lower right
corner of the window. It is especially useful when user want to change the size of
the window but for some reason the border is too thin.

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Menu Bar

FIG 3.25: Menu bar in Notepad

A menu bar is present in every application window directly below the title bar.
Each word on the menu bar is a separate menu. If user click on the word, the
corresponding menu will appear.
Some programs have cascading menus, which means that an item inside the
menu will bring user to another related menu.

FIG 3.26: Cascading Menu bar

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Chapter: 3.2 Microsoft Windows

Topic: 3.2.1C File management through Windows

File management through Windows

File management in windows can be done through Windows explorer or My
Computer.
Using Windows Explorer
To open Windows Explorer,
Click on Start
Point to All Programs

Point to Accessories, and then click on Windows Explorer (Animation:

Recording)

The left pane of the Explorer window shows a hierarchical list of files, folders,
and storage drives (both fixed and removable) on computer. It also lists any
network drives that have been mapped to as a drive letters on computer.
(Animation: Recording)
A drive or folder that contains other folders has an arrow to the left of the icon.
Click the arrow to expand it and see the folders inside.
Windows Explorer can be used to copy, move, rename, and search for files and
folders.

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Opening drives and folders

FIG 3.27: Opening drives and folders

There are two basic formats for the interface used to open drives and folders in
the computer.(text animation)
The single-pane view used for most folders and in My Computer.

Two drives nearly all computers have a hard drive (drive C:). If user have
more than one drive, then they are named E:, F: and so on. If user have a CD
drive or a DVD drive, it also is named with a letter.
Opening a drive or folder is easy. Just double click the icon representing the
drive user want to open. Files and folders contained in the drive are now shown
in the opened window. Now for opening a folder, double click its icon.

Copying or Moving a file or folder using My Document

Click on Start, and then click on My Documents.
Click the file or folder to be copied. More than one file or folder can be copied at a
time.
To select more than one consecutive files or folders, click the first file or folder,
press and hold down SHIFT key, and then click the last files or folders.
Right click on the selected files or folders, then click Copy to copy the selected

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files and folders.
Choose the desired location to paste the files of folders, then clicking the right
mouse button, select Paste to paste the files or folders to the target drive.

View file details

Click on Start, and then click on My Documents.
Double-click the folder that contains the files to be viewed.
On the View menu, click Details.
It will display all the details about the files such as Name, Type, size etc.

Copying and moving files using Explorer

FIG 3.29: Copying and moving files

Click Start, point to All Programs then Accessories, and then click Windows
Explorer.
Make sure the destination for the file or folder user want to move is visible.
Drag the file or folder from the right pane and drop it on to the destination folder
in the left pane to move the file or folder there.

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If user drag an item while pressing the right mouse button, they can move, copy,
or create a shortcut to the file in its new location.
To copy the item instead of moving it, press and hold CTRL while dragging.
If user drag an item to another disk, it is copied, but not moved then press and
hold down SHIFT while dragging.
Dragging a program to a new location creates a shortcut to that program. To
move a program, right-click and then drag the program to the new location.
Create a new folder
Folders help the user to organize their files.
User can create a folder either by using My Computer window or through
Windows Explorer. User can create a Folder in any existing disk drive or folder or
on the windows desktop.
The steps for creating a folder are
Click on Start, and then click on My Documents.
Under File menu click New and select Folder.

A new folder is displayed with the default name, New Folder.

Type a name for the new folder, and then press ENTER.

A new folder can also be created directly on the desktop by right-clicking a blank
area on the desktop, pointing to New, and then clicking Folder.
Rename a file or folder
The steps for renaming a folder are
Click on Start, and then click on My Documents.
Click on the file or folder user want to rename.

Under File menu click on Rename.

Type the new name, and then press ENTER key.

Alternately file or folder can also be renamed by right-clicking it and then clicking
on Rename.
Delete a file or folder

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FIG 3.30: Delete a file or folder

Steps for delete a folder

Click on Start, and then click on My Documents.
Click on the file or folder user want to delete.

Under File menu click on Delete.

Files or folders can also be deleted by right-clicking the file or folder and then
clicking Delete.
Deleted files or folders are stored in the Recycle Bin, till they are permanently
removed from the Recycle Bin.
To retrieve a deleted file, double-click the Recycle Bin icon on the desktop. Right-
click on the file to be retrieved, and then click Restore.
To permanently delete a file, press and hold down SHIFT key and drag it to the
Recycle Bin.
Files or folders deleted from a removable storage media such as network drive
are permanently deleted and are not sent to the Recycle Bin.

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Chapter: 3.3 Using Essential Accessories

Topic: 3.3.1 System Tools

System Tools
System Tools allows user to perform some basic maintenance from time to time
to keep Operating System run smoothly.
But, it is impossible to expect the users run these tools on an periodic basis or
make the administrators run it for user on all the computers.
Some of the System tools are as follows
Disk cleanup
Disk defragmenter

Disk Cleanup

The Disk Cleanup tool helps user to free up space on the hard disk by searching
the disk for files that user can safely delete.
User can choose to delete some or all of the files.
Use Disk Cleanup to perform any of the following tasks to free up space on the
hard disk.

Remove temporary Internet files.

Remove downloaded program files. For example, ActiveX controls and Java
applets that are downloaded from the Internet.
Empty the Recycle Bin.
Remove Windows temporary files.

Remove optional Windows components that user are not using.

Remove installed programs that user no longer use.

User can start Disk Cleanup, by doing one of the following

Click Start, and then click Run. In the Open box, type cleanmgr, and then
click OK.

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FIG 3.31: Disk Cleanup Dialog Box

Click Start, point to All Programs, point to Accessories, point to System

Tools, and then click Disk Cleanup.

Open My Computer, right-click the disk in which user want to free up

space, click Properties, click the General tab, and then click Disk Cleanup.

FIG 3.32: Drive (C:) Disk Cleanup

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Disk Defragmenter
Disk defragmentation is the process of consolidating fragmented data on a
volume (such as a hard disk or a storage device) so it will work more efficiently.
It is a tool that rearranges the data on the volume and reunites fragmented data
so that computer can run more efficiently.
To start Disk Defragmenter, use one of the methods.

Click Start, click All Programs, point to Accessories, select System Tools,
and then click Disk Defragmenter.

FIG 3.32: Disk Defragmenter

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Open My Computer, right-click the local disk volume that user want to
defragment, and then click Properties, on the Tools tab, click Defragment
Now and then click Defragment.

FIG 3.34: Drive (C:) Disk Defragmentation

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Chapter: 3.3 Using Essential Accessories

Topic: 3.3.2 Entertainment

Entertainment
Entertainment program is an add-on peripheral, where user can install
entertainment software such as Windows Media Player, Volume Control.
Windows Media Player

To open Media Player, click on the Start button -> All Programs ->
Accessories -> Entertainment -> Windows Media Player.
User can play audio and video files by using Windows Media Player.

User can choose different skins for the player from the available list or
download more skins from Microsoft Windows site.

FIG 3.35: Windows Media Player

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Volume Control

To open Media Player, click on the Start button -> All Programs ->
Accessories -> Entertainment -> Volume Control.
Enables to adjust master volume and balance of the audio speakers.

User can set different volumes for different file formats wave and midi and
also for music played from CD Rom.

By default an icon of 'Volume Control' is also placed in 'System Tray' for easy
access.

Right click on the icon in Notification Area opens full volume control window
and a left click opens a small volume controller from which user can control
the master volume of audio speakers.

The volume can also be controlled by the software of the sound card installed.

FIG 3.36: Volume Control

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Chapter: 3.3 Using Essential Accessories

Topic: 3.3.3 Games

Games
Games that come with Windows, and any new games user choose to install,
appear in the Games folder.
Windows 7 comes with a variety of games to play. There are board games, card
games, multiplayer Internet games, and even games for kids.
Open the Games folder by clicking the Start button . In the search box, type
games, and then, in the list of results, click Games Explorer.
If user don't see a particular title, it could be for one of these reasons:

It is an older game, new games automatically show up in the Games folder

when user install them. To add the game manually, see Install a game in the
Games folder.

Windows Games are turned off. By default, the games that come with
Windows are turned off, in some editions. To turn them back on:

Click the Start button , click Control Panel, click Programs, and then
under Programs and Features, click Turn Windows features on or off.
Select the Games check box, and then click OK.

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User will find all games in the Games folder. To start playing, just open the folder
and double-click a game icon.

FIG 3.36: Games Window

Internet games such as Internet Backgammon, Internet Checkers, Internet
Spades.
Board games such as Chess Titans, Minesweeper, Mahjong Titans.
Card games such as FreeCell, Hearts, Solitaire, Spider Solitaire.
Children's games such as Purble Place, Comfy Cakes, Purble Shop, Purble Pairs.

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Chapter: 3.3 Using Essential Accessories

Topic: 3.3.4 Calculator

Calculator
Calculator is a software program included in all versions of Windows.
Window provides a simple calculator for doing arithmetic calculations.
To open a Calculator, click on the Start button, select All Programs, choose
Accessories and then click Calculator.
Calculator provides four modes of calculation. They are,
Standard Mode
Scientific Mode

Programmer Mode

Statistics Mode

FIG 3.37: Calculator

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Standard Mode

By default, Calculator runs in standard mode, which resembles a four-function

calculator.
Standard Mode features are,

MC - Clears number in memory.

MR - Recalls number in memory.

MS - Stores number displayed in memory.

M+ - Adds number displayed to number in memory.

← - deletes the last digit of the number displayed.

CE - Clears the last number input.

C - Clears the last calculation.

± - Changes the sign of the number.

Note: Only the commonly misunderstood buttons are pointed out.

FIG 3.38: Standard Mode

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Scientific Mode

More advanced functions are available in scientific mode.

To view the scientific calculator, select the view menu and click on Scientific.

In Scientific mode, Calculator is precise to 32 significant digits and honors

operator precedence.

It offers functions such as basic to-the-power-of calculations as well as more

powerful functions like sine, cosine, and pi functions.
User can use them in normal or inverse mode.

FIG 3.39: Scientific Mode

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Programmer Mode

In Programmer mode, Calculator is precise up to 64 bits, depending on the

word size.

The calculator honors operator precedence in Programmer mode and works

in integer only mode. Decimals are discarded.

This mode lets user work in a variety of basic operations such as binary, octal,
hexadecimal, and decimal.

It can do calculations from one base to another, such as converting octal to

binary.

FIG 3.40: Programmer Mode

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Statistics Mode

The Statistics mode is not quite as elaborate as the other two, but it‘s still
something the old calculator did not have.

User get functions like the sum of numbers and the sum of numbers to a
power to make statistical calculations.

The C key in statistics mode deletes the current value expressed instead of
clearing it.

The CAD button clears all the values from the dataset, since statistics are
usually built on a large number of figures.

FIG 3.41: Statistics Mode

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Chapter: 3.3 Using Essential Accessories

Topic: 3.3.5 Imaging - Fax

Imaging - Fax
Windows Fax and Scan can practically turn the computer into a fax machine—a
potentially big money and time saver.
Before user start faxing, computer needs to be properly equipped.
If user planning to send and receive faxes at home, they first need to outfit their
PC with a fax modem.
A fax modem is a relatively inexpensive piece of add-on hardware that allows the
computer to communicate with a fax machine over a standard phone line.
The devices are sold at major computer stores and come in two varieties: internal
and external.
Internal fax modems plug directly into the computer motherboard, similar to the
way a video or sound card is plugged in.
External fax modems are small devices that connect to the serial or USB ports.
If user at work, another option is to see if the employer has a fax server—a
dedicated computer equipped with multiple fax modems.
Sending a fax using a fax server doesn't require user to add any special
hardware to the computer.
User have to just set up a connection with the fax server and go.

Setting up Windows to fax

Once user have picked up a fax modem or found a fax server, you'll need to do a
little setting up.

To set up a fax modem

Before starting, make sure that fax modem has properly installed, and that it's
plugged into a standard analog phone line.

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On the Start button , click All Programs, and then click Windows Fax
and Scan.

At the bottom of the left pane, click Fax, and then click New Fax on the
toolbar to launch the Fax Setup wizard.

FIG 3.42: Windows Fax and Scan

Click Connect to a fax modem and follow the instructions.

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FIG 3.43: Fax Modem

To set up a fax server

Before starting, make sure the computer is connected to the network and user
should know the network address of the fax server (for example,
\\mycompanyfaxserver).

Click the Start button , click All Programs, and then click Windows Fax
and Scan.
To use Fax view, click Fax at the bottom of the left pane.

Click the Tools menu, and then click Fax Accounts.

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FIG 3.44: Opening Fax Account

Click Add, it will navigate to Fax Setup wizard.

FIG 3.45: Add Account Dialog Box

In that click Connect to a fax server on my network and follow the

instructions.

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FIG 3.46: Fax Server

Note: To connect to a fax server, user might need permission from the system
administrator.

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Chapter: 3.3 Using Essential Accessories

Topic: 3.3.6 Notepad

Notepad
Notepad creates and edits text and performs basic functions of a text editor
without much formatting options.
The Notepad editor is about as old as Windows itself, yet it still has its uses even
today.
Here are some ideas on how to use this venerable old program.
To open a notepad, on the Start button, click All Programs, point to
Accessories and then choose Notepad.
Once Notepad is running, user will see its simplistic menu appear at the top of
the Notepad program window.

FIG 3.47: Notepad

One interesting feature about Notepad is its ability to word wrap to the width of
the window.

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User can indicate whether they want word wrapping turned on or off from the
Format menu.
Notepad offers only the most basic text manipulation functions, such as finding
text.
Only newer versions of Windows include an updated version of Notepad with a
search and replace function. However it has much less functionality in
comparison to full-scale editors.

How to create a text file using notepad

Once Notepad has been open, type the text file, and then save the file with any
name making sure that the file name ends with .txt.
Notepad will not allow user to add pictures, since it is a plaintext editor and does
not support pictures.

FIG 3.48: Notepad with text

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Chapter: 3.3 Using Essential Accessories

Topic: 3.3.7 Paint

Paint
A paint program is a software graphics program that allows the user to draw or
paint bitmapped images on a computer.
User can use paint to create drawings on a blank drawing area or in existing
pictures.
Many of the tools used in Paint are found in the ribbon, which is near the top of
the Paint window.
 Open Paint by clicking the Start button -> All Programs -> Accessories -
Paint.

FIG 3.49: Paint Window

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In paint user can do the following.
Drawing lines
Drawing different shapes

Adding Text

Selecting and editing objects

Working with color

Viewing the picture

Saving and using the picture

Drawing lines
User can use several different tools to draw line in Paint.

The tool user use and the options they select determine how the line appears
in the drawing.
There are two tools used in drawing lines. They are Pencil tool and Brushes.

FIG 3.50: Paint Tools

Drawing different shapes

Paint allow user to add different shapes in a picture.

The ready-made shapes range from traditional shapes such as rectangles,

ellipses, triangles, and arrow and unusual shapes, such as a heart, lightning
bolt, or callouts.

If user want to make their own custom shape, they can use the Polygon tool
to do this.

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FIG 3.51: Shapes for drawing

Adding Text

In Paint, user can also add their own text or message in the picture using Text
tool.

FIG 3.52: Text Tool

Selecting and editing objects

If user want to make a change to part of a picture or an object, user need to

select the part of the picture that they want to change, and then make the edit.
Some changes user can make include the following.
Select Tool

Resizing an object

Moving or copying an object

Rotating an object

cropping the picture to show only the selected item.

Erase part of a picture

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FIG 3.53: Select Tool

Working with color
There are a number of tools to work specifically with color in Paint.

They let user to use the colors they want when they are drawing and editing
in Paint.

FIG 3.54: Colors

Viewing the picture
Pictures can be viewed in different ways using the View tab.
User can use the following views.
Magnifier
Zoom in and out

Rulers

Gridlines

Full screen

FIG 3.55: View Tab

Saving and using the picture

When editing in Paint, you should save your work frequently.

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After user save the picture, user can use it on their computer or share it
with others in e-mail.
Save a picture for the first time
Click the Paint button , and then click Save.

In the Save as type box, select the file format to save.

In the File name box, type a name, and then click Save.

FIG 3.56: Save menu

Open an existing picture


Click the Paint button, and then click Open.

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Find the picture that want to open in Paint, click it, and then click
Open.

FIG 3.57: Open menu

Set your picture as your desktop background

Click the Paint button, point to Set as desktop background, and then
click one of the desktop background settings.

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FIG 3.58: Set as desktop background menu

Send the picture by e-mail

If user have an e-mail program installed and configured on the computer,

user can attach the picture to an e-mail message, and then share it with
others through e-mail.
Save the picture.
Click the Paint button, and then click Send in e-mail.

In the e-mail message, enter the person's e-mail address, type a short
message, and then send the e-mail message that has the picture attached.

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FIG 3.59: Send in e-mail menu

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Chapter: 3.3 Using Essential Accessories

Topic: 3.3.8 WordPad

WordPad
User can create a formatted document without having to use a full-blown word
processor like Word.
Although WordPad is not as robust as some mainstream word processors, it is a
great choice for creating simple documents with a few formatting bells and
whistles.
To open the WordPad window, click on the Start button →All Programs →
Accessories → WordPad.
The WordPad window opens with a blank document.

FIG 3.60: WordPad Window

WordPad allows simple formatting such as

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Change fonts.
Character level formatting.

Margins can be changed / created.

Insert bulleted charts/graphic and sound files.

FIG 3.61: WordPad Ribbon

Rich text format (RTF) allows the exchange of text files between different
word processors in different OS.
Printing and Page Setup in WordPad

User can use the same techniques to print a document from WordPad that
they used to print a document from Notepad.

In WordPad, the only formatting that user can apply to the document (Page
Setup) is to alter the margins.
Headers and Footers are not supported.

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Chapter: 3.4 Command prompt

Topic: 3.4.1 Command prompt

Command prompt

Command Prompt is a command line interpreter application available in most

Windows operating systems.
The Command Prompt program allows the user to work in an environment that
looks more like a traditional operating system as opposed to the icon based
Windows environment.
Command Prompt is officially called Windows Command Processor but is also
sometimes called the command shell or by its file name cmd.exe.
In Command Prompt, only keyboard can be used and mouse cannot be used.
Command Prompt works at a lower level than Windows. This means that user
will have more control over the machine.
The disadvantage of command prompt is that it is not user-friendly.
The GUI based operating system made command prompt boring.

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Opening a command prompt:
There are two conventional ways to start a Command prompt.
Start->Programs-> Accessories->Command prompt
Start->Run and type "cmd" and press enter.

The Command Prompt shows up as a black terminal window. The command

prompt should look something like: C:\>

FIG 3.62: Command prompt

Directory Navigation

Navigating the command prompt, as well as changing drives and directories is

important skill to have. To do this, you must learn a few commands that you must
enter into the command prompt.
Changing directories (or changing your path) in the command prompt makes use
of the CD command. The CD command has a small amount of possible
arguments. CD accepts a drive and a path.
Some of the key commands are:

CD ( Change Directory) : The CD command is very simple to use. All

commands are relative to the directory that you are in. Therefore, using the
example output of a "dir" that is shown above, if you want to change to the
"Windows" directory, you would type

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CD Windows : If you want to change to the "system" directory (which is a

sub directory of "windows"), you would enter

CD System : However if you knew that you wanted to change to the

system directory immediately, you could type this command.

CD Windows\System : However if you were already deep in another

directory (for example c:\ documents and settings \username\ local settings)
and then wanted to move directly to windows\system then you can do that by
putting in an initial backwards slash.

CD \Windows\System : This tells the command to go to the root of the

drive, then to the directory Windows and system.
Moving Back Up : You can also move back up the tree, instead of down.
cd \ or cd\ : to just return to the root of the drive (C:\)

cd.. : to just go back one level (to use the earlier example, you were in
c:\windows\system and you wanted to be in c:\windows).

cd program files or cd "program files" : to access a totally different

directory, for example "Program Files". When typing directories to change to,
if the directory name is unique, then you can use wild cards. For example : cd
program.

dir - This command will list all of the folders and files in the directory you
are currently at.

cd folder - This command will move you to the folder that you specify.
The folder must be in the directory you are currently in. For example: If you
are currently at C:\Users\username\ and you enter cd desktop you will be
taken to C:\Users\username\Desktop\

cd path - This command will take you to a specific path on your computer.
You do not need to be in the same directory as the path. You must enter the
entire path for it to work. For example: cd C:\Windows\System32

driveletter: - This command will take you to the drive letter that you
specify. The drive you specify will need to be active, or have a disc in it if it a
CD\DVD drive. For example, if you want to switch to your D drive, you would
enter the command D:

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exit - This command will exit the Command Prompt, no matter your
current location.

Path setting:

Users can run an executable from windows command prompt either by giving the
absolute path of the file or just by giving the executable file name.
In the latter case, Windows searches for the executable in a list of folders which
is configured in environment variables. These environment variables are as
below.
System path
User path.
The values of these variables can be checked in system properties( Run
sysdm.cpl from Run or computer properties).
Initially user specific path environment variable will be empty. Users can add
paths of the directories having executables to this variable.
Administrators can modify the system path environment variable.

To set path from command line

In Vista, Windows 7 and Windows 8 we can set path from command line using
‗setx‘ command. setx path "%path%;c:\directoryPath"
For example, to add c:\dir1\dir2 to the path variable, we can run the below
command. setx path "%path%;c:\dir1\dir2"
Alternative way is to use Windows resource kit tools ‗pathman.exe‗. Using this
command we can even remove a directory from path variable.

1. System path environment variable:

Open administrator command prompt and Run the below command
To add directory to the system path environment variable.
Syntax : pathman /as directoryPath

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To remove path from system path environment variable.
Syntax : pathman /rs directoryPath

Setting user path environment variable

For user environment variables, admin privileges are not required. We can run
the below command to add and remove a directory to user path environment
variable.

To add a directory from user path, user can run the below command.
Syntax : pathman /au directoryPath

To remove a directory from user path, user can run the below command.

Syntax : pathman /ru directoryPath

Creating And Using Batch File

A script or text file which contains a series of commands to be executed by the

command interpreter is called as batch files.
Batch files are created to automate frequently performed tasks.
A batch file may have any constructs that enables conditional branching and
looping within the batch files.
Batch files are simply text files, which is created using Windows notepad
application. It should be created only using notepad, Other word processing
applications should not be used as they stores the files by adding their own
formats.
Batch file is created by typing the command to run, in a text file and saving with
the .BAT extension.

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Chapter: 3.5 Files

Topic: 3.5.1 Files

Files
Files are logical containers of data that are always present at the leaf level of a
directory tree, i.e., they are the last element of any tree.
A file cannot be a collection of other files or directories and can only contain
data or instructions.
Each file has a set of properties associated with it, such as
Size
Date created
Date accessed
Date modified
Path
File name

File name

Each file is recognized by its filename. Filename has two parts; name and
extension. File naming conventions must be followed while naming a file. A
filename can have a maximum of 8 characters.

Extension identifies the type of the file or the application to which a

particular file belongs. It can be 3 characters long.
Size
Size determines how much space the file is occupying on the disk.
Date created
Data created corresponds to the date when file was created.
Date accessed
Data accessed corresponds to the date when file was last accessed.
Date modified
Data modified corresponds to the date when file was last modified.

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Path

Path specifies the location of file on the disk. It comprises of a series of

predecessor (parent) directories and moves up to the root.
A file has a certain defined structure which depends on its type
Text file
Source file
Object file
Executable file
Text file
Sequence of characters organized into lines.
Source file

Sequence of sub routines and functions each of which is further organized

as declarations followed by executable statements.
Object file
Sequence of bytes organized into blocks understandable by the system's linker
Executable file
Series of code sections that the loader can bring into memory and execute.

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Chapter: 3.6 Directories and its Structure

Topic: 3.6.1 Directories and its Structure

Directories and its Structure

Directories are a collection of files or other directories.
Directory at the highest level is called the root directory.
There can be only one root in a directory structure.
Directories at lower levels are called child and those who share the same
parents are called siblings.
A directory structure can be viewed as a way to organize files on the hard disk.

FIG 3.63: Directory Structure

Operations on a directory

The directory can be viewed as a symbol table that translates file names into
their directory entries.
The operations that can be performed on the directory are:
Search for a file
Find the entry for a particular file.
Create a file
Create new file and add to directory.
Delete a file

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Remove a file when no longer needed.
List a directory

List the files in a directory and the contents of the directory entry for each file
in the list.
Rename a file
Change name of a file as per user‘s request.
Position within the directory may also change.

Traverse the file system

Every directory and every file within a directory structure should be

accessible.
Magnetic tape is the commonest backup device.
Directory Structure
The directory structure is the organization of files into a hierarchy of folders.
It should be stable and scalable; it should not fundamentally change, only be
added to.
Types of directory structure
Single-level directory
Two-level directory

Tree structured directory

Acyclic graph directory

General graph directory

Single-level directory
A single-level directory with file entries for all users contained in the same
directory.
It is the simplest structure of all directories.
All files are in the same directory.
It is easy to support and understand.
Name collision problem - files must have unique names since multiple users
share same directory.

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Even in case of a single user it is difficult to remember all file names and create
files with unique names (the naming problem).
Files are limited in length.

FIG 3.64: Single-level directory

Two-level directory
The standard solution to limitations of single-level directory is to create a
separate directory for each user.
System maintains a Master File Directory (MFD).
A separate directory for each user.
Easy to support and understand.

User file directory (UFD).
User name and a file name constitute a path name.
Solves the name collision problem.
Sharing of files by different users is difficult.

FIG 3.65: Two-level directory

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Tree structured directory
The two-level directory structure can be extended to a tree of arbitrary height.
Tree is the most common directory structure.
Examples of systems supporting tree structure.
MS-DOS
UNIX

A tree has a root directory.

The root contains a set of directories.
A directory contains a set of files and other sub directories.
Each sub directory can further contain a set of files and other sub directories.
Each file has a unique path name.

FIG 3.66: Tree-structured directory

One bit in each directory entry defines the entry as a file(0) or as a sub
directory(1).

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Path name

A path name is the path from the root, through all the subdirectories, to a
specified file.
Example
In the figure root/spell/mail/prog/obj is a path.
Types of path names can be of two types.
Absolute path name.
Relative path name.

Absolute path name

An absolute path name begins at the root and follows a path down to the
specified file giving the directory names on the path.
Relative path name
A relative path name defines a path from the current directory.
With reference to figure, if the current directory is root/spell/mail, to reference the
file list.
Relative path name: prog/list.
Absolute path name: root/spell/mail/prog/list.

Acyclic graph directories

When the same files need to be accessed in more than one place in the directory
structure ( e.g. because they are being shared by more than one user / process ),
it can be useful to provide an acyclic- graph structure
UNIX provides two types of links for implementing the acyclic-graph structure.

A hard link (usually just called a link) involves multiple directory entries that
both refer to the same file. Hard links are only valid for ordinary files in the
same file system.

A symbolic link, that involves a special file, containing information about

where to find the linked file. Symbolic links may be used to link directories
and/or files in other file systems, as well as ordinary files in the current file
system.

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FIG 3.67: Acyclic graph directory

General graph directories

Allow users to create subdirectories in a two-level directory result is a tree

structured directory.
Simply adding new files and subdirectories to an existing tree-structured directory
preserves the tree-structured nature.
When user add links to a tree, the tree structure is destroyed resulting in a simple
graph.
Cycles allowed.
Cycles might result in an infinite loop while searching.
One solution is limit to the number of directories which will be accessed during a
search.

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FIG 3.68: General graph directory

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Chapter: 3.7 Drives

Topic: 3.7.1 Drives

Drives
Drives are logical partitions of the hard disk or may be extension to the hard disk.
A convention is followed while giving names to these partitions. For example, A:,
B: represents Floppy disk. C:, O:, E: represents Hard Disk, and F:, G: represents
the Compact Disk.
To switch from one drive to another, only the drive letter followed by a colon
needs to be specified. For example, at C:\> type A: and press <Enter>. This will
take you to A:
While doing any directory or file manipulation user must take note of your
location.
Location of a file or directory always starts with the drive letter (which is the root)
followed by the name of its parent in one order and finally its own name.

For example, C:\Program Files\Microsoft Office\Office\MS Word
Implies that the root is C:\, one of the folders in C:1 is Program Files, Program
Files contains Microsoft Office folder, which in turn contains office folder, which in
turn contains MS Word.

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Chapter: 3.8 Application Management

Topic: 3.8.1A Installing and Uninstalling an application

Application Management
All applications tend to share a common set of functionality that applies to
application implementation and management.
Application management is the process of managing the applications on the
Computer.
Installing an application
To install a software program can depend on the operating system being used
and the program being installed.
Because of all the different possibilities, we have created the steps below as
guidelines for installing programs in each of the major operating systems.
Steps for installing an application
To install a program from a CD or DVD
Insert the disc into your computer and follow the instructions on your screen.

If users are prompted for an administrator password or confirmation, type the

password or provide confirmation.

Many programs installed from CDs or DVDs launch an installation wizard for
the program automatically.

In these cases, the AutoPlay dialog box will appear and user can choose to
run the wizard.
For more information, see AutoPlay: frequently asked questions.

If a program doesn't begin to install, check the information that came with the
program.

This information will likely provide instructions for installing the program
manually.

If user cannot access the information, they can also browse through the disc
and open the program setup file, usually called Setup.exe or Install.exe.

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FIG 3.69: AutoPlay Dialog Box

To install a program from the Internet
In user web browser, click the link to the program.
Do one of the following

To install the program immediately, click Run and follow the instructions
on user's screen.

FIG 3.70: Open File-Security Warning dialog box

If they are prompted for an administrator password or confirmation,

type the password or provide confirmation.

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To install the program later, click Save and download the

installation file to your computer.

When user are ready to install the program, double-click the file and
follow the instructions on your screen.

FIG 3.71: Installing the file

This is a safer option because user can scan the installation file for
viruses before you proceed.

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SYSTEM Uninstalling an application
 To see a list of the programs that we can uninstall we must first open the
Programs and Features control panel.
To do this user should follow these steps
In Windows click on the Start button to open your Start Menu.
When the Start Menu opens click on the Control Panel menu option.

When the Control Panel window opens click on the Uninstall a program option
under the Programs category.

FIG 3.72: Uninstall option

If user are using the Classic View of the Control Panel, then user would
double-click on the Programs and Features icon instead.

User will now be at the Programs and Features, or Uninstall or change a

program, screen as shown below.

From this screen user can uninstall programs, view installed updates, and
turn Windows features on and off.

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FIG 3.73: Programs and Features Window

Now that user know what all the options in this screen do, let's start
learning how to uninstall a program.

The first step is look through the list of programs for the one that user
would like to uninstall and then left-click on it once so that it becomes
highlighted.

Once user highlight a program they will see two new options next to the
Organize and View button called Uninstall and Change

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FIG 3.74: Confirmation Dialog Box

If user press the Yes button, it will start the uninstall routine for the
program and begin to remove it.

An uninstall screen will typically now open and may ask user questions
about how the program should be uninstalled.

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Chapter: 3.8 Application Management

Topic: 3.8.1B Managing the Running application

Running Applications

The running applications can be managed using the task manager.

Using task bar the following process can be done on the running applications.
The task manager can be opened in following two ways;
Press Ctrl+Alt+Del -> Click start task manager.
Right click on the tack bar -> Click start task manager

FIG 3.75: Running Applications

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Ending a running application

The running application can be closed using the task manager.

It is done when the application hangs too long, The status column shows
not responding, when the application is crashed or hanged.
By that time the user can use task manager to close the application by doing the
following steps;

Open the task manager.

Click the Applications tab.

In the Task area, locate an application that is needed to be closed and

click on it.
Finally, Click the End Task button.

FIG 3.76: Ending a running application

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Starting an application

The Create New Task button comes in handy in situations which helps the
user to reopen an application.
If the user know the path to the application, he can enter it.
otherwise, the user can click the Browse button to navigate to the application
name.
To open an application follow the steps given below;
Open the task manager.
Click the Applications tab.

Click the New task button.

Create new task dialog box opens, in that enter the application name to be
opened, or else use browse option to select an application to open.
Finally, Click the ok button.

FIG 3.77: Starting a new application

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Monitor an Application's CPU and Memory Usage
The task manager can be user to know about the CPU and Memory usage of an
running application.
It is done as follows;
Open the task manager.
Click the Processes tab.

Now it displays the list of running applications along with their CPU
and Memory usage details.

FIG 3.78: CPU and memory usage

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End a Process
If the user thinks that a process is consuming more memory and its CPU
utilization is more, Then he can end the process as shown below.
Not ending a process safely can result in data loss or in rare cases,
system instability.
Steps to end a process;
Open the task manager.
Click the Processes tab.

select the process from the list, which is to be ended.

Click the End Process button, It asks for conformation.

Click end Process again to end the process.

FIG 3.79: Ending a process

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Stopping and Restarting a Service

The following steps shows as how to stop and restart a service through
Task Manager.
The user can stop and restart a service when he wants.
This is done as follows;
Open the task manager.
Click the Services tab.

Right Click on the service from the listed services which is needed to be
stopped.
Then click Stop Service option.

Depending on the security configuration, It might show an access-

denied message.

If this is the case, click the service again and click on the Services button in
the lower right corner.
Click Yes in the opened UAS window.

Then again right click the service to be stopped and click Stop
Service Option.

To restart the service, follow these same steps. The only difference is
that choosing Start Service instead of choosing Stop Services.

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FIG 3.80: Stop a service

FIG 3.81: Restart a service

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Chapter: 3.9 Linux

Topic: 3.9.1 An overview of Linux

An overview of Linux
Linux is an operating system.
It was developed beginning in 1991 by a University of Helsinki student named
Linus Torvalds (Linux stands for Linus UNIX).
Linux itself is actually just a kernel.
It implements multitasking and multiuser functionality, manages hardware,
allocates memory and enables application to run.
Linux delivers the power and flexibility of a UNIX server or desktop.
It also provides a set of utilities, Internet applications and a fully functional
desktop interface.
The Linux operating system has become a server platform for powerful internet
and many other applications.
Linux is capable of running from a Web, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), file and
printer servers, to wide-area information server (WAIS).
The structure of Linux is organized on file systems that provide interfaces and
abstraction needed to work with data and files.
Files are organized into directories with the disk hardware.
Each directory can contain any number of subdirectories each holding files.

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Chapter : 3.10 Basic Linux Elements

Topic : 3.10.1 System and Software Features

System Features
Linux supports most of the features found in other implementations of UNIX, plus
quite a few that are not found elsewhere.
Linux is a complete multitasking, multi-user operating system (just like all other
versions of UNIX). This means that many users can be logged into the same
machine at once, running multiple programs simultaneously.

Fig 3.82: Linux Logo

The Linux system is mostly compatible with a number of UNIX standards (in as
much as UNIX has standards) on the source level, including IEEE POSIX.1,
System V and BSD features.
It was developed with source portability in mind-therefore, users are most likely
to find commonly-used features in the Linux system which are shared across
multiple implementations.
A great deal of free UNIX software available on the internet and elsewhere
compiles on Linux of out of the box.
In addition all source code for the Linux system is freely distributable, including
kernel
device drivers

libraries

kernel

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The kernel is able to emulate 387-FPU instructions itself, so that systems

without a math coprocessor can run programs that require floating-point math
instructions.
Linux supports various file system types of storing data.

Various file system, such as the ext2fs file system, have seen developed
specifically for Linux.

Other file system types , such as the MINIX-1 and Xenix file systems are also
supported.

The MS-DOs file system has been implemented as well allowing the user to
access MS-DOS files on hard drive or floppy directly.
Device drivers
Linux provides a complete implementation of TCP / IP networking.

This includes device drivers for many popular Ethernet cards, SLIP (Serial
Line Internet Protocol), PLIP (Parallel Line Internet Protocol), PPP (Point-to-
Point), NFS (Network File System) and so on.

The complete range of TCP / IP clients and services is supported such as

FTP, telnet, NNTP and SMTP.
Libraries

Executables use dynamically linked shared libraries meaning that

executables share common library code in a single library file found on disk.

This allows executable files to occupy much less space, especially those that
use many library functions.
There are also statistically-linked libraries to be in place.

Linux shared libraries are dynamically linked at run-time, allowing the

programmer to replace modules of the libraries with their own routines.
Software Features
The fact that most of this software is freely distributable is even more impressive.
Many of the software applications available for Linux
Basic Commands and Utilities
Programming Language and Utilities

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The X Window System
Networking

Telecommunication and BBS software

Interfacing with MS-DOS

Basic Commands and Utilities

Virtually every utility that user would expect to find on standard

implementations.
This includes basic commands such as ls, awk, tr, sed, bc, more and so on.

Many text editors are available including vi, ex, pioc, jove as well as GNU
Emacs and variants such as Lucid Emacs and joe.
The most important utility to many users is the shell.
The shell is the program which reads and executes commands from the user.

There are many types of shells available for Linux.

The most important difference between the shell is the command language.

Programming Languages and Utilities

Linux provides a complete UNIX programming environment, including all of

the standard libraries, programming tools, compilers and debuggers that user
would expect to find on other UNIX systems.

Within the UNIX software development world, applications and systems

programming is usually done in C or C++.

FIG 3.83: Programming languages

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The standard C and C++ compiler for Linux is GNU's gcc, which is an
advanced, modern compiler supporting many options.

It is also capable of compiling C++ as well as Objective-C another objects-

oriented dialect of C.

Besides C and C++ many other compiled and interpreted programming

languages have been ported to Linux, such as Smalltalk, FORTRAN, Pascal,
LISP, Scheme and Ada.
The X Window System
The X window System is the standard graphics interface for UNIX machines.
It is a powerful environment supporting many applications.

Using X Windows, the user can have multiple terminal windows on the screen
at once, each one containing a different login session.

Many X-specific applications have been written, such as games, graphics

utilities, programming and documentation tools and so on.
Networking
Linux supports the two primary networking protocols for UNIX systems
TCP/IP

UUCP

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) is the set of

networking paradigms that allow systems all over the world to communicate
on a single network known as the internet.

With Linux, TCP/IP and a connection to the network, user can communicate
with other users and machine across the Internet via electronic mail, USENET
news, file transfers with FTP and more.
UUCP

UUCP is an older mechanism used to transfer files, electronic mail and

electronic news between machines.

Classically, UUCP machines connected to each other over the phone lines
via modem but UUCP is able to transport over a TCP/IP network as well.

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If the user do not have access to a TCP/IP network or a SLIP server, user
can configure their system to send and receive files and electronic mail using
UUCP.

FIG 3.84: Networking

Telecommunication and BBS software

Many people use telecommunication software to access bulletin board

systems (BBSs) as well as commercial online services.

If user have modem they will be able to communicate with other machines
using one of the telecommunication packages available for Linux.

Telecommunications software under Linux is very similar to that found under

MS-DOS or other operating system.

Linux supports a wide range of BBS software, most of which is more powerful
that what is available for other operating system.

With a phone line, a modem, and Linux user can run their system into a BBS,
providing dial-in access to their systems to other users worldwide.

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Interfacing with MS-DOS
Various utilities exist to interface with the world of MS-DOS.

The most well-known application is the Linux MS-DOS Emulator, which

allows user to run many MS-DOS applications directly from Linux.

FIG 3.85: MS-DOS logo

Other Applications

Several relational databases are available for Linux including Postgres, Ingres
and Mbase.

These are full-featured, professional client/server database applications

similar to those found on other UNIX platforms.
/rdb, a commercial database system, is available as well.
Scientific computing applications include

FLET (a finite element analysis tool)

gnuplot (a plotting and data analysis application)

Octave (a symbolic mathematics package)

xspread (a spreadsheet calculator)

xfractinit (X-based port of the popular financial fractal generator)

xlispstat (a statics package) and more

Other applications include

Spice

Khoros

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Chapter :3.11 File Structure

Topic : 3.11.1 File Structure

File Structure
In the Linux file structure files are grouped according to purpose.
Parts of a Unix directory tree are listed below.

FIG 3.86: File Structure

All directories are grouped under the root entry "/".

Directories Description
/ Root directory that forms the base of the file system. All files and
directories are logically contained inside the root directory
regardless of their physical locations.
/bin Contains the executable programs that are part of the Linux
operating system. Many Linux commands, such as cat, cp, ls, more,
and tar, are locate in /bin
/boot Contains the Linux kernel and other files needed by LILO and
GRUB boot managers.
/dev Contains all device files. Linux treats each device as a special file.
All such files are located in /dev.
/etc Contains most system configuration files and the initialization scripts

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in /etc/rc.d subdirectory.
/home Home directory is the parent to the home directories for users.
Contains library files, including loadable driver modules needed to
/lib boot the system.
/lost+found Directory for lost files. Every disk partition has a lost+found
directory.
/media Directory for mounting files systems on removable media like DVD-
ROM drives, flash drives, and Zip drives.
/mnt A directory for temporarily mounted filesystems (ie Backup
Software).
/opt Optional software packages copy/install files here.
/proc A special directory in a virtual memory filesystem. It contains the
information about various aspects of a Linux system.
/root Home directory of the root user.
/sbin Contains administrative binary files. Commands such as mount,
shutdown, umount, reside here.
/srv Contains data for services (HTTP, FTP, etc.) offered by the system.
/sys A special directory that contains information about the devices, as
viewed by the Linux kernel.
/tmp Temporary directory which can be used as a scratch directory
(storage for temporary files). The contents of this directory are
cleared each time the system boots.
/usr Contains subdirectories for many programs such as the X or GUI
Window System.
/usr/bin Contains executable files for many Linux commands. It is not part of
the core Linux operating system.
/usr/include Contains header files for C programming languages.
/usr/lib Contains libraries for C programming languages.
/usr/local Contains local files. It has a similar directories as /usr contains.

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/usr/sbin Contains administrative commands.

/usr/share Contains files that are shared, like, default configuration files,
images, documentation, etc.
/usr/src Contains the source code for the Linux kernel.
/var Contains various system files such as log, mail directories, print
spool, etc. which tend to change in numbers and size over time.
/var/cache Storage area for cached data for applications.
/var/lib Contains information relating to the current state of applications.
Programs modify this when they run.
/var/lock Contains lock files which are checked by applications so that a
resource can be used by one application only.
/var/log Contains log files for different applications.
/var/mail Contains users' emails sent by system or server.
/var/opt Contains variable data for packages stored in opt directory.
/var/run Contains data describing the system since it was booted.
/var/spool Contains data that is waiting for some kind of processing.
/var/tmp Temporary files preserved between system reboots.

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Chapter : 3.12 File handling in Linux

Topic : 3.12.1 Hardware and Software Requirements

Hardware Requirements
Linux has very minimal requirements compared to other operating systems.
Linux is a high-performance system and can bring out the deficiencies of a
particular piece of hardware better than DOS or Windows.

Intel-Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium II

Xenon, Pentium III, Pentium III Xenon, Pentium IV,
CPUs Pentium IV Xenon, Celeron AMD - K6, K6-2, K6-3,
Athlon, Duron, Athlon XP, Athlon MP Cyrix-MII VIA-
Cyrix MIII, C3
3DFX-Banshee, Voodoo3, Voodoo5;
ATI-Radeon Mobility M6, M7;
Radeon 7000, 7500, 8500, 9000, 9700 (2D only);
Video cards Rage 128, Rage 128 Mobility M3, M4; Rage 128 Pro,
Rage 128 Pro Ultra, most MAch64-complaint cards;
Intel-1740, i810, i815, i830, i845G, i845GL Matrox-
Millienum, Millenium II, etc.,
Adaptec-200x, 21xx, 22x, 27x, 28xx, 29xx, 32xx,
34xx, 39xx, 54xx
Advansys-940(Ultra/Wide);
SCSI controllers AMI-MegaRAID Express 200(466 series)
Dell-PowerEdge RAID series;
IBM(Buslogic/Mylex)-Flashpoint, MultiMaster, DAC-
960;
ATA-133, ATA-33-most controllers
IDE controllers ATA-66 (not RAID)- HighPoint 366/368, Intel
82801AB ICHO (440BX) Promise PDC20262,

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PDC2027x, PDC20265/7 VIA 82c596B/686A.

3COM-3C905/B/C;D-Link-DFE-530/+;Rraltek-
RTL8029, RTL8139,RTL8139C+, RTL8169;
IntelNEtherExpressPro100/1000;Netgear-
Network cards FA311TX; Linksys-LNE100TX; Silicon Integrated
Systems- SiS900; Intel-DE4x5/Tulip series; GigE-
Broadcom Tigon3, Intel e1000, NatSemi NS83820,
Realtek RTL8169 VIA - Rhine
100% Hayes-compatible Internal and external serial
modems with hardware UART, NOTE: WinModems,
Modems
host-based, HCF-, HSP-, HSF-, controllerless, host-
controlled, and soft modems are NOT supported.
C_Media-CM8338/CM8738; Creative Labs-
SoundBlaster 128 PCI, SoundBalster Livel,
SoundBlaster Live! Audigy; Crystal-
CS428X/CS46XX; ESS-Maestro, Maestro2,
Sound cards
Maestro3,Solo;Ensoniq-AudioPCIES1370,
ES1371; Intel-ICH, ICH2, ICH3, ICH4; Yamaha-
YMF724, 74x, 754; VIA-VIA82c686, VIA8233,
VIA8235

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Software Requirements
These requirements are common to all platforms

A working network card and internet connection is recommended during

installation.

At least 1 GB memory, but 4 GB per processor core or more is recommended.

1-5 GB of disk space, depending on your licensed products and installation

options.
Operating System Requirements
Linux
Debian 5.0, 6.0 and 7.0
OpenSUSE 11.3
32-bit Operating Systems
RedHat Enterprise Linux 5 and 6
Ubuntu 10.04 and 12.04 LTS
Debian 5.0, 6.0 and 7.0
OpenSUSE 11.3
64-bit Operating Systems
RedHat Enterprise Linux 5 and 6
Ubuntu 10.04 and 12.04 LTS

RedHat Enterprise Linux 5 is only supported for server, batch, and cluster
operation.
OS Specific System Requirements
GNU C Library version 2.3.4 or later
32-bit Linux Linux kernel 2.6.18 or later
Intel Pentium IV or AMD Athlon XP processor or later
GNU C Library version 2.3.4 or later
64-bit Linux Linux kernel 2.6.18 or later
Intel Pentium IV or AMD Athlon XP processor or later.

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Graphics System Requirements

COMSOL Multiphysics is a finite element analysis, solver and Simulation

software
COMSOL recommends hardware rendering for performance reasons.
Hardware rendering requires drivers that support OpenGL version 1.4.

Hardware rendering requires at least 24-bit color graphics.

Alternatively, software rendering can be used.

For performance reasons, we recommend that the graphics card has at least
512MB memory.

Card Model Operating System Driver Version

FirePro V4800 Ubuntu 10.04 LTS 8.723.1-10048a-

09850C-ATI
Linux

Quadro FX 1800 Debian 6.0 195.36.31

Parallel System Requirements

Linux

Shared-memory Parallelism 32-bit and 64-bit Linux Distributions

RedHat Enterprise Linux 5 and 6,

Distributed-memory Parallelism
Debian 6, and Ubuntu 12.04.

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Chapter : 3.13 Installing Linux OS

Topic : 3.13.1A Preliminary step before installation and Disk Space requirement

Preliminary step before installation

After user have obtained a distribution of Linux, they are ready to prepare their
system for installation.
This takes a certain degree of planning, especially if user are already running
other operating systems.
Installation Overview
While each release of Linux is different, in general the method used to install the
software is as follows

Repartition your hard drive(s)

Create Linux partitions

Boot the Linux installation media

Create file systems and swap space

Install the software on the new file systems

Repartition user's hard drive(s)

 If user have other operating systems already installed, they will need to
repartition the drives in order to allocate space for Linux.
Boot the Linux installation media

Each distribution of Linux has some kind of installation media-usually a "boot

floppy"-which is used to install the software.

Booting this media will either present the user with some kind of installation
program, which will step user through the Linux installation, or allow them to
install the software by hand.
Create Linux partitions

After repartitioning to allocate space for Linux, user create Linux partitions on
that empty space.
This is accomplished with the Linux fdisk program.

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Create file systems and swap space

At this point, user will create one or more file systems, used to store files, on
the newly-created partitions.

In addition, if user plan to use swap space, they will create the swap space on
one of their Linux partitions.
Install the software on the new file systems
Finally, user will install the Linux software on their newly-created file systems.

Installation Disk Space Requirement

These recommendations are based on an installation that only installs one

language (such as English).
If user plan to install multiple languages to use on their system, they should
increase the disk space requirements.

Personal Desktop
Workstation

Server

Custom

Personal Desktop

A personal desktop installation, including a graphical desktop environment,

requires at least 1.7GB of free space.

Choosing both the GNOME and KDE desktop environments requires at least
1.8 GB of free disk space.
Workstation

A workstation installation, including a graphical desktop environment and

software development tools, requires at least 2.1 GB of free space.

Choosing both the GNOM and KDE desktop environments requires at least
2.2 GB of free disk space.

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Server

A server installation requires 850MB for a minimal installation without X(the

graphical environment), at least 1.5 GB of free space if all package groups

other than X are installed, and at least 5.0 GB to install all packages including
the GNOME and KDE desktop environments.
Custom

A Custom installation requires 475 MB for a minimal installation and at least

5.0 GB of free space if every package is selected.

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Chapter : 3.13 Installing Linux OS

Topic : 3.13.1B Boot methods

Boot methods

There are several methods that can be used to install Red Hat Linux.
Boot CD-ROM
Boot Diskette

Driver Diskette

Installing from a CD-ROM requires that user have purchased a Red Hat Linux
product, or user have a Red Hat Linux CD-ROM, and they have a CD-ROM drive.
Most new computers will allow booting from the CD-ROM.
If your system will support booting from the CD-ROM, it is an easy way to begin a
local CD-ROM installation.
User BIOS may need to be changed to allow booting from your CD-ROM drive.
Boot CD-ROM

If user can boot using the CD-ROM drive, they can create their own CD-ROM
to boot the installation program.

This may be useful, for example, if user are performing an installation over a
network or from a hard drive.

If user choose to create a boot CD-ROM, it will not be necessary to create a

driver diskette.

If user cannot boot from the CD-ROM drive, the following alternative boot
method is available.
Boot Diskette
If user need a boot diskette, they must create it.
A boot diskette will be needed if user cannot boot from the CD-ROM.

It can be used to boot from a network, block, or PCMCIA device (user will
also need the corresponding driver diskette for their booting scenario).

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The boot diskette image file, bootdisk.img, is located in the images directory
on their Red Hat Linux CD-ROM.

If user choose to create a boot diskette, they must also create the appropriate
driver diskette if they are installing over a network or from a hard drive.
Driver Diskette

If user are performing anything other than an IDE CD-ROM or hard disk
installation and are using a boot diskette, they will need at least one driver
diskette that user must make in advance.

User will be prompted by the installation program to insert the driver diskette
at the correct time.

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Chapter : 3.13 Installing Linux OS

Topic : 3.13.1C Red Hat Linux installation

Red Hat Linux installation

Red Hat Enterprise Linux is one of the best and stable Linux Operating systems.

Fig 3.87: Red Hat Linux Installation window

Red Hat Linux Installation steps

Step 1
Select Install or upgrade existing system options.

Fig 3.88: Installing or upgrading an existing system

Step 2

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Select Language.

Fig 3.89: Selecting a language

Step 3
Select keyboard type.

Fig 3.90: Selecting keyboard type

Step 4

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Choose skip media test, click ok if user want to check media.

Fig 3.91: Media section

Step 5
Select storage device.

Fig 3.92: Selecting storage device

Step 6

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Type computer name or hostname.

Fig 3.93: Typing host name

Step 7
Select time zone location.

Fig 3.94: Selecting time zone location

Step 8
Enter password for root user.

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Fig 3.95: Entering password

Step 9
Select type of installation and review partitioning layout carefully also may
choose Encrypt system.

Fig 3.96: Selecting installation type

Step 10
Review partitioning layout, modify if needed.

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User have chosen default setup with Ext4 and LVM.

Fig 3.97: Reviewing Partitioning layout

Step 11
Manually configuration of LVM and RAID storage.

Fig 3.98: Manual Configuration

Step 12
Creating partition and formatting filesystems.

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Fig 3.99: Formatting filesystems

Step 13
Configuring boot loader options, also can give boot loader password for security
reason.

Fig 3.100: Configuring boot loader

Step 14
Select applications to install and select customize now.

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Fig 3.101: Installing and customizing

Step 15
Customize package selections.

Fig 3.102: Customizing package selection

Step 16
Installation progress.

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Fig 3.103: Installation processing

Step 17
Installation is completed successfully.

Fig 3.104: Installation completing

Step 18
User reboot their computer and login with root credentials.

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Fig 3.105: Rebooting the computer

Step 19
Login Screen.

Fig 3.106: Linux Login screen

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Chapter : 3.14 Summary

Topic : Summary

In this class, we have learnt about

Windows Operating system.
Different essential accessories.

Managing applications.

LINUX operating system.

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Chapter : 3.15 Model Questions

Topic : Model Questions

What are the versions of Microsoft Windows?

What are essential accessories used in Windows operating system?
Explain about Command promt.
Explain how the application management done in windows?
Explain detail about LINUX.

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Assessment 1
In which generation, operating system was introduced?.
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Common elements of application windows include the control menu, ___________
and border.
Taskbar
Dialog box
Menu bar
Icons
The Start menu is a feature of the Windows Operating System that provides quick
access to programs, folders and system settings.
Start menu
Control menu
Taskbar
Title bar
How many modes of calculation in a computer calculator
One
Two
Three
Four
The running applications can be managed using the ______________.
Task manager
Taskbar
Start menu
Control menu
Answers:
1.b
2.c
3.a
4.d
5.a

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Assessment 2

The Linux system is most compatible with a number of UNIX standards.

True
False
Command Prompt is a command line interpreter application available in most
Windows operating systems.
True
False
In Command Prompt, both keyboard and mouse can be used.
True
False

Answers:

1.a

2.a

3.b

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Books Referred
IT tools and Applications by Alexis Leon and Mathews Leon
IT tools and Business System by ISRD group
Operating Systems by Sibsankar Haldar and Alex A.Aravind
Guide to operating systems by Michael Palmer and Michael Walters

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