Fluids/Solids Handling

OPTIMIZE
PIPELINE DESIGN
FOR
NON-NEWTONIAN
FLUIDS
Alejandro Anaya Durand,
Cinthya Alejandra Aguilar Guerrero
and
Edgar Amaro Ronces,
National Autonomous
University of Mexico

E
ngineers often encounter non-Newtonian fluids as suspensions,
Here is a graphical viscous fluids or polymer solutions, among others. Little informa-
tion exists on how to optimize the design variables when handling
method for these fluids. This article offers a graphical procedure, given a set
flowrate, for determining the most economical diameter of a
determining pipeline Dopt, as well as its optimum temperature topt; included is a method
pipe diameter, for calculating the pressure drop ∆P.
This procedure is based on the effect a given design variable has on
fluid temperature costs. Therefore, an optimum value can be established for this variable at
and pressure which the total costs will be at a minimum.
For Newtonian fluids, the shear stress τw is directly proportional to the
drop for laminar shear rate. The proportionality constant is simply the Newtonian viscosi-
ty. For non-Newtonian fluids, the shear stress is proportional to the shear
and turbulent flow. rate raised to a power n´ called the flow behavior index, and its value de-
pends upon whether a fluid is pseudoplastic, Bingham plastic (for both
n´ < 1) or dilatant (n´ >1). K´ is no longer the viscosity, and now is called
the fluid consistency index. For non-Newtonian behavior, we can relate
the Fanning friction factor f to the Reynolds number NRe by (1):

62 www.cepmagazine.org March 2002 CEP

 Nomenclature
a = annual fixed costs as a fraction of installed costs
f = an/NRebn (1) an = function of n´ (turbulent regime)
A, B = empirical constants in Eq. 12
where an and bn are dimensionless numbers that are func- b = annual maintenance costs as a fraction of total installed costs
tions of n´. By knowing n´, K´, an and bn, a non-Newtoni- bn = function of n´ (turbulent regime)
an can be characterized. Ce = cost of electrical energy, $/kWh
Cp = specific heat, Btu/lbm⋅°F
Cs = heating (steam) cost, $/million Btu
Optimization scheme CT = total annual cost/ft of pipe or total annual cost over whole pipe
The costs of a process can be classified in two types: length, $
capital and operating costs, f1(x) and f2(x), respectively, D = pipe dia., ft
both a function of a design variable x. The total costs CT Dopt = optimum pipe dia., ft
are the sum of both: E = efficiency of pump and motor
FDi = correction factors to Dopt, dimensionless (i = 1–6; see Figures
CT = f1(x) + f2(x) (2) 2–4, 6–8)
Fr = ratio of total costs for fittings and erection to total purchase
cost of pipe
To obtain the minimum value of x, the first derivative of FTi = correction factors to topt, dimensionless (i = 1–7; see Figures
Eq. 1 is set = 0; and to ensure that the optimized variable 10–15, 17)
is a minimum, the second derivative must be positive. gc = gravitational constant, 32.174 lbm-ft/lbf⋅s2
h = hours of operation/year
K´ = consistency index, lbf-sn´/ft2
dC T d f1(x) d f2(x)
= + =0 (3) L = pipe length, ft
dx dx dx n´ = flow behavior index, dimensionless
NRe = Reynolds number, dimensionless
The fluid properties are set for each application, and
p´ = constant for each pipe material = slope of logarithmic plot of
we will show that x is a function of the flowrate Q, i.e., purchase cost of pipe/ft vs. 12D
x = f(Q). ∆P = pressure drop, psi
Q is set by the particular process application. We will ∆P100 = pressure drop per 100 ft, psi/ft
show that this will allow us to solve for Dopt and topt. Q = volumetric flowrate, ft3/s
The graphical method is based on the relationship x = Qc = volumetric flowrate at the end of laminar flow region, ft3/s
f(Q). Plots are made with several values vs. Q using refer- Sg = specific gravity, dimensionless
ence values for rheological parameters; this allows for topt = optimum pumping temperature, °F
T = fluid temperature, °F
specifying the rest of the variables. Correction factors are
V = average linear flow velocity, ft/s
then applied to account for fluids with properties that dif- Xp = cost of pipe/ft when 12D = 1 in., $/ft
fer from the reference values used; these factors are also
found from a series of plots. Greek letters
γ = gcK´8(n´ – 1)
Optimum pipe diameter µ = viscosity, lbm/ft⋅s
The capital costs are assumed to be only those of the µe = effective viscosity, lbm/ft⋅s
piping, and the operating costs are assumed to be the ener- ρ = density, lbm/ft3
τw = shear stress, lbf/in.2
gy of pumping and, if needed, of heating the fluid. Obvi-
ously, larger-diameter pipes require higher investments, but

1
p′ + 1 + 3n′
4.184 × 10 – 10 1 + 3n ′ C ehK ′ Q
n′
D opt = (4)
p′ 4.05 × 10 5π
p ′ a + b Fr + 1 X p 12 E

1
p′ + 5 + b n(3n′ – 4)
bn
2 1.0463 × 10 – 10 5 – 4b n + 3b nn′ g cK ′8 n′ – 1
a nC eQh 2 – b n(2 – n′)
Q
D opt = (5)
p′ 3.24 × 10 6π
g c p ′ a + b Fr + 1 X p 12 ρ bn – 1 E

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Fluids/Solids Handling

10.0
10.0

Optimum Dia., in.

Optimum Dia., in.

1.0 Pseudoplastic 1.0 Pseudoplastic

Dilatant Dilatant
Bingham Plastic Bingham Plastic
Newtonian Newtonian

0.1 0.1
1 10 100 1,000 1 10 100 1,000
Volumetric Flowrate, gpm Volumetric Flowrate, gpm

■ Figure 1. Laminar flow — optimum pipe diameter. ■ Figure 2. Turbulent flow — optimum diameter.

1.7 2.0
Correction Factor for Specific

Correction Factor for K', FD2

1.5
1.5
Gravity, FD1

1.3
1.0
1.1

0.5
0.9

0.7 0.0
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1
Specific Gravity K', lbf-sn'/ft2

■ Figure 3. Laminar flow — FD1, correction factor for specific gravity Sg. ■ Figure 4. Laminar flow — FD2, correction factor for consistency index K´.

require less power to pump, so optimizing

will determine the pipe diameter that is the
Table. Reference values used to construct the figures. minimum of the fixed and variable costs.
Thus, f1 represents the cost per feet of
Variable Reference Value Variable Reference Value pipeline for a given diameter, and f2 the ener-
ρ 62.37 lb/ft3 b 0.05 gy needed for a section of pipeline. CT takes
Ce 0.076 ¢/kWh Fr 1.1 two forms depending on the flow regime;
Xp $6/ft E 0.7 therefore there are separate equations for the
p' 1.35 h 7,920 h/yr
a 0.15 optimum diameter, Eq. 4 for laminar flow
and Eq. 5 for turbulent flow (2) (see the box
Variable Pseudoplastic Dilatant Bingham Newtonian on the previous page).
Plotting Dopt vs. Q, and keeping the rest
n' 0.85 1.5 0.67 1
K‘ 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 of the variables at the reference values gen-
an 0.077 0.081 0.07 0.078 erates Figure 1 for laminar flow and Figure
bn 0.258 0.228 0.27 0.25 2 for turbulent flow. Each curve represents
the most typical non-Newtonian time-inde-
Note: an and bn are necessary in turbulent flow.
pendent fluids with typical rheological
properties (K´, n´, an and bn). The reference

64 www.cepmagazine.org March 2002 CEP

 Correction Factor for (a + b), FD3

1.3

Correction Factor for K', FD5

1.2 1.1

1.1

1.0
0.9

0.9

0.8 0.7
0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45
10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1
(a + b) K', lbf-sn'/ft2

■ Figure 5. Laminar flow — FD3, correction factor for (a + b). ■ Figure 7. Turbulent flow — FD5, correction factor for consistency
index K´.

1.3
Correction Factor for (a + b), FD6

1.5
1.2
Specific Gravity, FD4
Correction Factor for

1.3 1.1

1.1 1.0

0.9 0.9

0.8
0.7
0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45
0.25 0.55 0.85 1.15 1.45 1.75 2.05
(a + b)
Specific Gravity

■ Figure 6. Turbulent flow — FD4, correction factor for specific gravity Sg. ■ Figure 8. Turbulent flow — FD6, correction factor for (a + b).

values used to draw up those graphs are presented in the pipe such that the total annual cost of transporting the
table below. fluid is a minimum. Note: 1 yr = 7,920 h.
Correction factors, FDi, are used to account for prop- Operating data: Specific heat = 1 Btu/ lb⋅°F; density
erties that differ from those used as reference values. In = 61 lb/ft3; overall efficiency of pump and motor = 70%;
such cases, the optimum diameter can be found by ap- n´ = 0.85; and K´ = 0.07 lbf-sn´/ft2.
plying the factors in Figures 3–5 for laminar flow and Cost data: Steam heating Cs = $1/million Btu; electrical
Figures 6–8 for turbulent flow. Thus, the optimum diam- energy Ce = $0.076/kWh; purchase cost of new steel pipe
eter Dopt is found by correcting the optimum reference per foot of pipe length Xp when 12D = 1 in. is $6/ft; p´(a
diameter by multiplying by the appropriate factors: constant for each pipe material) is assumed to be 1.35 for
new carbon steel pipe and 12Dopt = 1 in. p´ is the slope of a

ΠF
n logarithmic plot of purchase cost of pipe/ft vs. 12D (2). The
D opt = D opt, ref Di (6) average annual interest rate a = 9% of installed costs and
i=1
annual maintenance charges b = 1% of installed costs (thus,
a + b = 0.09 + 0.01 = 0.1); the ratio of total cost for fittings,
Example I insulation and installation to the total purchase cost of new
A pseudoplastic fluid in a storage vessel will be trans- pipe Fr = 1.1 (this is a typical value used in many cost-esti-
ported at a flowrate of 50,000 lb/h to a production pro- mation texts); the anticipated useful life = 10 yr. Straight-
cess 500 ft away. Determine the optimum diameter of the line depreciation is assumed.

CEP March 2002 www.cepmagazine.org 65

Fluids/Solids Handling
Optimum Pumping Temperature, ˚F

220 Pseudoplastic
Dilatant

Correction Factor for B, FT3

200 Bingham Plastic
Newtonian 2.0
180
160
140
120
1.0
100
80
60
40 0.0
1 10 100 1,000 0.015 0.035 0.055 0.075 0.095

Volumetric Flowrate, gpm B,1/˚F

■ Figure 9. Optimum pumping temperature topt. ■ Figure 12. Optimum pumping temperature — FT3, correction factor for B.
Correction Factor for Cp, FT1

1.2 1.2
Correction Factor for
SpecificGravity, FT4

1.0 1.0

Pseudoplastic Pseudoplastic
0.8 0.8
Dilatant Dilatant
Bingham Plastic Bingham Plastic
Newtonian Newtonian
0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0.1 0.6 1.1 1.6
Specific Heat, Btu/˚F•lbm Specific Gravity

■ Figure 10. Optimum pumping temperature — FT1, correction factor for ■ Figure 13. Optimum pumping temperature — FT4, correction factor for
specific heat Cp. specific gravity Sg.

3.0 3.0
Correction Factor for A, FT2

Pseudoplastic
Correction Factor for

2.5
Dilatant
Pipe Dia., FT5

Bingham Plastic
2.0 Newtonian
2.0

1.5

1.0 1.0

0.5
0.0 0.0
1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
A Pipe Dia., in.

■ Figure 11. Optimum pumping temperature — FT2, correction factor for A. ■ Figure 14. Optimum pumping temperature — FT5, correction factor for
pipe diameter D.

66 www.cepmagazine.org March 2002 CEP

 10.0
1.5
Pseudoplastic Pseudoplastic
Correction Factor for Pipe

Dilatant Dilatant

∆P/100, psi/100 ft
Bingham Plastic Bingham Plastic
Newtonian Newtonian
Length, FT6

1.0
1.0

0.5 0.1
10 100 1,000 1 10 100 1,000

Pipe Length, ft Volumetric Flowrate, gpm

■ Figure 15. Optimum pumping temperature — FT6, correction factor for ■ Figure 17. Laminar flow — pressure drop for optimum pipe diameter.
pipe length L.

2.25 100
Pseudoplastic
Correction Factor for n', FT7

Dilatant Pseudoplastic
1.75 Bingham Plastic Dilatant
∆P100, psi/100 ft

Newtonian Bingham Plastic

Newtonian
1.25 10

0.75

0.25 1
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 1 10 100 1,000
n' Volumetric Flowrate, gpm

■ Figure 16. Optimum pumping temperature — FT7, correction factor for ■ Figure 18. Turbulent flow — pressure drop for optimum pipe diameter.
pipe length flow behavior index n´.

Note that piping length only affects the optimum 1.008 × 1.08 × 1.152 = 4.79 in., or Dopt ≈ 5 in.; the com-
temperature, not the optimum diameter. The variable mercial diameter is 6 in.
p´ has an exponential effect on the diameter, and it is
difficult to correct the diameter and temperature for For turbulent flow
values that differ from the refence value used. This From Figure 2 for the curve for pseudoplastic fluids (n´ =
method is limited to installations using carbon steel 0.85) with a volumetric flowrate of 100 gpm, a reference di-
or other pipe materials with the same or close value ameter in turbulent flow is obtained as: Dopt, ref = 2.76 in.
of p´. With a specific gravity = 0.978; K´= 0.07 lbf-sn´/ft2 and
a + b = 0.10; we obtain from Figures 6, 7 and 8, respective-
Procedure ly: FD4 = 1.007; FD5 = 1.02; and FD6 = 1.123. Therefore: Dopt
The volumetric flowrate is 50,000 lb/h × (1 ft3/ 61 lb) = (2.76 in. × 1.007 × 1.02 × 1.123) = 3.18 in. ≈ 3 in.
× (1 gal/0.1337 ft3) × (1 h/60 min) ≈ 100 gpm. From Fig- In the optimization of the diameter, the critical Reynolds
ure 1, Dopt, ref = 3.82 in. number, NRe, crit, determines whether optimum conditions
With the known values of specific gravity = 61/62.37 occur in laminar or turbulent flow (2). If NRe, crit is above
= 0.978; K´= 0.07 lbf-sn´/ft2 and a + b = 0.10; we can ob- 2,100, the transition from laminar to turbulent flow, the opti-
tain from Figures 3, 4 and 5, respectively: FD1 = 1.008; mum diameter is for a pipe in turbulent flow. If it is below
FD2 = 1.08; FD3 = 1.152. Therefore: Dopt = 3.82 in. × 2,100, the optimum diameter occurs in laminar flow.

CEP March 2002 www.cepmagazine.org 67

Fluids/Solids Handling

Following the scheme described by Eqs. 2 and 3, the

2 – n′
optimum temperature in the pipeline can be obtained.
D n′V 2 – n′ρ 4Q C ρ When a heater must be installed at the pipeline inlet, it
N Re , crit = = D n′ γ
g cK′8 n′ – 1 πD 2 will be necessary to consider the fixed costs of the heater
crit
(7) in the optimization analysis. If however, an adequate
heater is already available, then there is no fixed cost,
1
i.e., f1(x) = 0. Thus, f2(x) is relevant, and consideration
QC = π
2,100γ 2 – n′ 4 – 3n′
ρ D 2 – n′ must be given to the costs of the steam and of pumping
4
(8) the fluid. We will make the latter assumption here. Two
equations are used: Eq. 10 for laminar flow and Eq. 11
Eq. 4, corresponding to laminar flow, may be substitut- for turbulent flow (2) (see the box).
ed for D in Eq. 8. Substituting (M/ρ)1+n´ for (3,600Qc)1+n´
and rearranging yields Eq. 9 (see the box). K´ and t are related by:
This equation depicts conditions just at the end of the
laminar flow regime. To solve the problem: K´ = (1/gc) × 10(A –Bt) (12)
1. Evaluate the right-hand side (RHS) of Eq. 9. This
yields 6.2. Taking common logarithms:
2. Substitute the proposed volumetric flowrate Q into
the left-hand side (LHS) of Eq. 9. The conversion is: log(K´gc) = A – Bt (13)
(100 gpm)(1 min/60 s)(1 ft3/7.48 gal) = 0.223 ft3/s.
Using this and the values for n´ and p´ yields 8.463 × 10–2. In industry, optimizing the temperature at turbulent
3. If the LHS is < the RHS, the flow will be laminar in flow is infrequent, therefore, the graphical analysis will
the pipe of optimum diameter, which is then evaluated from be limited to laminar flow. (Our own calculations for topt
Eq. 4. This is the case here, and laminar flow should be in turbulent flow indicated numerous times that such a
used. temperature did not have a significant effect vs. flowrate;
4. If the LHS is > the RHS, the flow may be regarded e.g., at 1 gpm, a typical value was 100°F, and only 105°F
as turbulent, which is evaluated from Eq. 5. for 100 gpm.) In this case, topt is plotted vs. Q, with the
5. When n´ is < 1, substitute the corresponding value rest of the variables at reference values. Thus, the opti-
of NRe, crit from Eq. 7. mum temperature of pumping will be:

Optimum pumping temperature

ΠF
n
If the temperature decreases, it will be more difficult t opt = t opt ref Σ Ti (14)
i=1
to pump the fluid and the electric costs will increase. On
the other hand, steam or another heating medium will be
needed when the temperature must be increased, along Where the FTi are correction factors, and the opti-
with the associated costs.

1
2 – n′ 4 – 3n′
n′ – 1 2 – n′ p′ + 1 + 3n′
– 1 + n′ 4 – 3n′ 2,100 g cK′8 15.064 × 10 –7 1 + 3n′ C ehK′
Q C 3,600Q C 2 – n′ p′ + 1 + 3n′ =π ρ
(9)
4 p′ a + b Fr + 1 X p12 p′E 112.5π
n′

C pC sg cρED 1 + 3n′ 4.05 × 10 5π n′

t opt = 1 A – log (10)
B 3.4625BC eL Q

C pC sg cρ b nED 5+ b n 3n′ – 4 3.24 × 10 6π 2 – b n 2 – n′

t opt = 1 A – 1 log (11)
B bn 1.7343a nb nC eL8 b n n′ – 1 B Q

68 www.cepmagazine.org March 2002 CEP

mum temperature at reference conditions topt, ref is
given in Figure 9 as a function of Q. The additional f = an/NRebn (19)
reference values that were used to draw up the graphs
are: C p = 1 Btu/lb m⋅°F; D = 1 in.; L = 100 ft; Cs = The effective viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid is:
$1/106 Btu; A = 2.5; and B = 0.05/°F. Note that if D is
not = 1 in., then it should be corrected by the factor µe = τw/[8(V/D)] = K´gc8(n´– 1)V(n´– 1)D(1 – n´) (20)
FT5 . This optimization is independent of the diameter.
Other references values (ρ, Ce and E) are the same as Writing NRe for a non-Newtonian fluid as:
in the first example.
NRe = DVρ/µe = Dn´V(2 – n´)ρ/gcK´8(n´ – 1) (21)
Example II
We will refer to the same example as before, and find And using Eqs. 17–21, Figure 17 (laminar flow) and
topt. A pseudoplastic fluid in a storage vessel is pumped Figure 18 (turbulent flow) were created, which are used
at 100 gpm to a production unit 500 ft away. The vessel to determine the pressure drop for the Dopt for a given
is equipped with adequate heating facilities in the form volumetric flowrate. CEP

of a steam jacket and heating coils. The vessel contents

are at 60°F before heating. Determine the optimum tem-
perature of this system, so that the total annual cost of Literature Cited
transporting the fluid is a minimum. 1. Dodge, D. W., and A. B. Metzner, “Turbulent Flow of Non-New-
Operating data: Cp = 0.85 Btu/lbm⋅°F; ρ = 61 lb/ft3; L tonian Systems,” AIChE J., 5 (2), pp. 189–204 (June, 1959). Erra-
= 500 ft; E = 0.70; K´ at 60°F = 0.063 lbf-sn´/ft2; at 70°F ta: AIChE J., 8 (1), p. 143 (Mar. 1962).
= 0.031; and at 75°F = 0.021; n´ = 0.85. 2. Skelland, D. P., “Non-Newtonian Flow and Heat Transfer,” John
Cost data: Cs = $1/million Btu; Ce = $0.076/kWh; Willey, New York, pp. 241–269 (1967).
3. Anaya Durand, A., et al., “Optimización de Sistemas de Manejo
anticipated useful life = 10 yr. de Fluídos No-Newtonianos en Tuberías,” Memories of the XL
National Convention of IMIQ [Mexican Institute of Chemical En-
Solution gineers], México City (Oct. 2000).
Using Eq. 13 and fitting a linear relationship to the 4. Metzner, A. B., “Non-Newtonian Fluid Flow: Relationships be-
data yields A = 2.2079 and B = 3.1644 × 10-2/°F. D = 6 tween Recent Pressure-Drop Correlations,” Ind. & Eng. Chem., 49
in. from the first example. From Figure 9 for a pseudo- (9), pp. 1429–1432 (Sept. 1957).
plastic fluid, topt, ref = 113°F. Figures 10–16 are used to 5. Metzner, A. B., and J. C. Reed, “Flow of Non-Newtonian Fluids:
determine FT1–FT7, respectively: FT1 = 0.968; FT2 = Correlation of the Laminar, Transition, and Turbulent Flow Re-
gions,” AIChE J., 1 (4), pp. 434–440 (Dec. 1955).
0.818; FT3 = 0.938; FT4 = 0.996; FT5 = 2.24; FT6 = 0.69; 6. Sultán, A. A., “Sizing Pipe for Non-Newtonian Flow,” Chem.
and FT7 = 0.92. Therefore: topt =113°F × 0.968 × 0.818 × Eng., 95, pp. 140–146 (Dec. 19, 1988).
0.938 × 0.996 × 2.24 × 0.69 × 0.92 = 118.8°F.

Pressure drop ALEJANDRO ANAYA DURAND (Parque España, St 15B Col. Condesa, México,
This method derives from Refs. 3–6. First, from a force D.F:, México, 06140; Phone and Fax: 5255- 5211-0385; E-mail:
balance, the relationship between shear stress τw and ∆P is: [email protected]) is a professor of chemical engineering at the
National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). He has been working
as a process advisor to Bufete Industrial, S.A. (from 1998 until now) in
τw = D∆P/4L (15) Grupo Industrial Resistol S.A. de C.V. (from 1999 until now) and in
Consultoría Empresarial Ejecutiva, S.A. de C.V, He also advises TECHINT,
The friction factor is defined as: S.A. He has 40 years of experience in process engineering, project
engineering and equipment design. He retired from the Mexican Petroleum
Institute after 30 years of holding several top-level positions. Anaya Durand
f = [τwgc/(ρV2/2)] (16) has 37 years of experience as a professor of chemical engineering. He
holds a master’s in project enginering from UNAM. He is a Fellow of AIChE
Substituting Eq. 15 into Eq. 16 and rearranging yields: and, in 1997, he won the National Award in Chemistry.

CINTHYA ALEJANDRA AGUILAR GUERRERO (Miguel Alemán 2a secc. 3-202

∆P/L = 2fρ2/gcD (17) Lomas la Trinidad, Texcoco, Estado de México, México; Phone: 5259-5954-
6722; E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]) is a ninth-
In the case of the turbulent regime, the expressions semester chemical engineering honor student at UNAM. She is an active
member of the Mexican Institute of Chemical Engineers (IMIQ).
developed by Dodge and Metzner (1) can be used:
EDGAR AMARO RONCES (Isla Sn. Diego 3 Col. Jardines de Morelos Ecatepec,
f = 16/Re (18) Estado de México, México; E-mail: [email protected]) is a ninth-
semester chemical engineering honor student at UNAM. He is an active
member of the Mexican Institute of Chemical Engineers (IMIQ).
We have already shown that:

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